1992 Summer Olympics (original) (raw)
Multi-sport event in Barcelona, Spain
Games of the XXV Olympiad
 Emblem of the 1992 Summer Olympics |
|
|---|---|
| Location | Barcelona, Spain |
| Motto | Friends for Life(Spanish: Amigos para siempre, Catalan: Amics per sempre) |
| Nations | 169 |
| Athletes | 9,386 (6,663 men, 2,723 women) |
| Events | 257 in 25 sports (34 disciplines) |
| Opening | 25 July 1992 |
| Closing | 9 August 1992 |
| Opened by | Juan Carlos IKing of Spain[1] |
| Closed by | Juan Antonio SamaranchPresident of the International Olympic Committee |
| Cauldron | Antonio Rebollo[1] |
| Stadium | Estadi Olímpic de Montjuïc |
| Summer← Seoul 1988Atlanta 1996 → Winter← Albertville 1992Lillehammer 1994 → 1992 Summer Paralympics |
The 1992 Summer Olympics (Spanish: Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1992, Catalan: Jocs Olímpics d'estiu de 1992), officially the Games of the XXV Olympiad (Spanish: Juegos de la XXV Olimpiada, Catalan: Jocs de la XXV Olimpíada) and officially branded as Barcelona '92, were an international multi-sport event held from 25 July to 9 August 1992 in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Beginning in 1994, the International Olympic Committee decided to hold the Summer and Winter Olympics in alternating even-numbered years. The 1992 Summer and Winter Olympics were the last games to be staged in the same year.[2] These games were the second and last two consecutive Olympic games to be held in Western Europe after the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, held five months earlier.
The 1992 Games received universal acclaim, with the organisation, volunteers, sportsmanship, and Spanish public being lauded in the international media. Some media describe the Barcelona games as one of the best Olympics ever.[3][4] The Games showed a renewed image of democratic Spain and projected Barcelona and the whole Spain to the world. Thanks to the Games, the city of Barcelona was completely transformed; it is thanks to the Olympics that the Barcelona of today is built.[5] All the venues are still active and the legacy of the 1992 Games was taken as an example for future Olympic events, such as London 2012.[6]
The 1992 Summer Games were the first since the end of the Cold War, and the first unaffected by boycotts since the 1972 Summer Games.[7] 1992 was also the first year South Africa was re-invited to the Olympic Games by the International Olympic Committee, after a 32-year ban from participating in international sport due to apartheid.[8] The Unified Team (made up by the former Soviet republics without the Baltic states) topped the medal table, winning 45 gold and 112 overall medals.
Host city selection
[edit]
Barcelona is the second-largest city in Spain and the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, and the hometown of then-IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch and the famous European club, FC Barcelona. The city was also a host for the 1982 FIFA World Cup. On 17 October 1986, Barcelona was selected to host the 1992 Summer Olympics over Amsterdam, Netherlands; Belgrade, Yugoslavia; Birmingham, United Kingdom; Brisbane, Australia; and Paris, France, during the 91st IOC Session in Lausanne, Switzerland.[9] New Delhi, India, had announced a bid for the games, but withdrew in March 1986.[10] With 85 out of 89 members of the IOC voting by secret ballot, Barcelona won a majority of 47 votes. Samaranch abstained from voting. In the same IOC meeting, Albertville, France, won the right to host the 1992 Winter Games. Paris and Brisbane would eventually be selected to host the 2024 and 2032 Summer Olympics respectively.[11]
Barcelona had previously bid for the 1936 Summer Olympics that were ultimately held in Berlin.
1992 Summer Olympics bidding results[12]
| City | Country | Round | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | ||
| Barcelona |  Spain |
29 | 37 | 47 |
| Paris |  France |
19 | 20 | 23 |
| Belgrade |  Yugoslavia |
13 | 11 | 5 |
| Brisbane |  Australia |
11 | 9 | 10 |
| Birmingham |  Great Britain |
8 | 8 | — |
| Amsterdam |  Netherlands |
5 | — | — |
The Olympic cauldron lit during the Games in Montjuïc
David Robinson shoots a free throw to help secure the gold medal for the United States "Dream Team".
- At the innovative opening ceremony, Greek mezzo-soprano Agnes Baltsa sang "Romiossini" as the Olympic flag was paraded around the stadium. Alfredo Kraus later sang the Olympic Hymn in Catalan, Spanish and French, as the flag was hoisted.
- The Olympic cauldron was ignited using a flaming arrow, lit from the flame of the Olympic torch. It was shot by Paralympic archer Antonio Rebollo, who aimed the arrow over the top of the cauldron to ignite the gas emanating from it. The arrow landed outside the stadium.[13] This unusual method for lighting the cauldron had been carefully designed to avoid any chance of the arrow landing in the stadium if Rebollo missed his target.[14][15]
- South Africa rejoined the Summer Olympics having been banned for its apartheid policy after the 1960 Summer Olympics. The women's 10,000 metres event was hotly contested. White South African runner Elana Meyer and black Ethiopian runner Derartu Tulu (winner) ran hand-in-hand in a victory lap.[16]
- Germany sent a unified team having reunified in 1990, the last such team was at the 1964 Summer Olympics.
- As the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, the formerly Soviet-occupied states of Estonia and Latvia sent their own teams for the first time since 1936, while Lithuania sent its own team for the first time since 1928. The other former Soviet republics decided to compete together and formed the Unified Team, which consisted of present-day Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. The Unified Team finished first in the medal standings, edging the United States.
- The separation of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia led to the Olympic debuts of Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Due to United Nations sanctions, athletes from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (consisting of present-day Serbia and Montenegro) were not allowed to participate with their own team. However, some individual athletes competed under the Olympic flag as Independent Olympic Participants. Serbia would return to the Olympics at the 2008 Summer Olympics and as well as Montenegro on what would be its Olympic debut as separate states.
- In basketball, the admittance of NBA players led to the formation of the "Dream Team" of the United States, featuring Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird and other NBA stars. Prior to 1992, only European and South American professionals were allowed to compete, while the Americans used college players. The Dream Team won the gold medal and was inducted as a unit into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2010.[17]
- Fermín Cacho won the 1,500 m in his home country, earning Spain's first-ever Olympic gold medal in a running event.[18]
- Chinese diver Fu Mingxia, age 13, became one of the youngest Olympic gold medalists of all time.
- In men's artistic gymnastics, Vitaly Scherbo from Belarus, (representing the Unified Team), won six gold medals, including four in a single day. Scherbo tied Eric Heiden's record for individual gold medals at a single Olympics, winning five medals in an individual event (Michael Phelps would later equal this record in 2008).
- In women's artistic gymnastics, Tatiana Gutsu took gold in the All-Around competition edging the USA's Shannon Miller.
- Russian swimmers (competing for the Unified Team) dominated the men's freestyle events, with Alexander Popov and Yevgeny Sadovyi each winning two events. Sadovyi also won in the relays.
- Evelyn Ashford won her fourth Olympic gold medal in the 4×100-metre relay, making her one of only four female athletes to have achieved this in history.
- The young Krisztina Egerszegi of Hungary won three individual swimming gold medals.
- In women's 200 m breaststroke, Kyoko Iwasaki of Japan won a gold medal at the age of 14 years and six days, making her the youngest-ever gold medalist in swimming competitions at the Olympics.
- Algerian athlete Hassiba Boulmerka, who was frequently criticized by Muslim groups in Algeria who thought she showed too much of her body when racing, received death threats[19] and was forced to move to Europe to train, won the 1,500 metres, also holding the African women's record in this distance.
- After being demonstrated in six previous Summer Olympic Games, baseball officially became an Olympic sport. Badminton and women's judo also became part of the Olympic program, while slalom canoeing returned to the Games after a 20-year absence.
- Roller hockey, Basque pelota, and taekwondo were all demonstrated at the 1992 Summer Olympics.
- Several of the USA men's volleyball gold medal team from the 1988 Olympics returned to vie for another medal. In the preliminary round, they lost a controversial match to Japan, sparking them to shave their heads in protest. This notably included player Steve Timmons, sacrificing his trademark red flattop for the protest. The U.S. team ultimately progressed to the playoffs and won bronze.
- Mike Stulce of the United States won the men's shot put, beating the heavily favored Werner Günthör of Switzerland.
- On the 20th anniversary of the Munich massacre and the 500th anniversary of the Alhambra Decree, Yael Arad became the first Israeli to win an Olympic medal, winning a silver medal in judo. The next day, Oren Smadja became Israel's first male medalist, winning a bronze in the same sport.
- Derek Redmond of Great Britain tore a hamstring during a 400-meter semi-final heat. As he struggled to finish the race, his father entered the track without credentials and helped him complete the race, to a standing ovation from the crowd.
- Gail Devers came into the 100 meters hurdles as the favorite. Though her Olympic history shows her winning the 100 meters dash twice, the first time earlier in this Olympics, she primarily made her career as a hurdler. And true to form, Devers had a commanding lead in this race until the final hurdle. Devers came up short and hit the hurdle, foot first, hard, knocking her off balance. She stumbled toward the finish line, falling on the last step, but still finished fifth, .001 out of fourth place. Paraskevi Patoulidou of Greece won the gold medal to even her own disbelief, dropping to her knees on the track when she realized she had won.
- Jennifer Capriati won the singles tennis competition at the age of 16. She had previously earned a spot in the semifinals of two grand slams at the age of 14.
- Two gold medals were awarded in solo synchronized swimming after a judge inadvertently entered the score of "8.7" instead of the intended "9.7" in the computerized scoring system for one of Sylvie Fréchette's figures. This error ultimately placed Fréchette second, leaving Kristen Babb-Sprague for the gold medal. Following an appeal, FINA awarded Fréchette a gold medal, replacing her silver medal and leaving the two swimmers both with gold.[20]
- Indonesia won its first-ever gold medal after winning a silver at 1988 Olympics. Susi Susanti won the gold in badminton women's singles after defeating Bang Soo-hyun in the final round. Alan Budikusuma won the badminton men's singles competition, earning a second gold medal for Indonesia. Several years later, both players married and they received the nickname golden couple or Olympic couple.
Anella Olímpica from above
- Montjuïc Area:
- Cross-country course – modern pentathlon (running)
- Estadi Olímpic de Montjuïc – opening/closing ceremonies, athletics
- Palau Sant Jordi – gymnastics (artistics), volleyball (final), and handball (final)
- Piscines Bernat Picornell – modern pentathlon (swimming), swimming, synchronized swimming, and water polo (final)
- Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc – diving and water polo
- Institut National d'Educació Física de Catalunya – wrestling
- Mataró – athletics (marathon start)
- Palau dels Esports de Barcelona – gymnastics (rhythmic) and volleyball
- Palau de la Metal·lúrgia – fencing, modern pentathlon (fencing)
- Pavelló de l'Espanya Industrial – weightlifting
- Walking course – athletics (walks)
- Diagonal Area:
- Camp Nou – football (final)
- Palau Blaugrana – judo, roller hockey (demonstration final), and taekwondo (demonstration)
- Estadi de Sarrià – football
- Real Club de Polo de Barcelona – equestrian (dressage, jumping, eventing final), modern pentathlon (riding)
- Vall d'Hebron Area:
- Archery Field – archery
- Pavelló de la Vall d'Hebron – Basque pelota (demonstration) and volleyball
- Tennis de la Vall d'Hebron – tennis
- Velodrome – cycling (track)
- Parc de Mar Area
- Estació del Nord Sports Hall – table tennis
- Olympic Harbour – sailing
- Pavelló de la Mar Bella – badminton
- Subsites
- A-17 highway – cycling (road team time trial)
- Banyoles Lake – rowing
- Camp Municipal de Beisbol de Viladecans – baseball
- Canal Olímpic de Catalunya – canoeing (sprint)
- Circuit de Catalunya – cycling (road team time trial start/ finish)
- Club Hípic El Montanyà – equestrian (dressage, eventing endurance)
- Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta – football
- Estadi Olímpic de Terrassa – field hockey
- Estadio Luís Casanova – football
- La Romareda – football
- L'Hospitalet de Llobregat Baseball Stadium – baseball (final)
- Mollet del Vallès Shooting Range – modern pentathlon (shooting), shooting
- Palau D'Esports de Granollers – handball
- Parc Olímpic del Segre – canoeing (slalom)
- Pavelló Club Joventut Badalona – boxing
- Pavelló de l'Ateneu de Sant Sadurní – roller hockey (demonstration)
- Pavelló del Club Patí Vic – roller hockey (demonstration)
- Pavelló d'Esports de Reus – roller hockey (demonstration)
- Pavelló Olímpic de Badalona – basketball
- Sant Sadurní Cycling Circuit – cycling (individual road race)
- Some events, including diving, took place in view of construction of the Sagrada Família
The 1992 Summer Olympic programme featured 257 events in the following 25 sports:
| 1992 Summer Olympics Sports Programme |
|---|
Aquatics Diving (4)  Swimming (31)  Synchronized swimming (2)  Water polo (1)  Archery (4)  Athletics (43)  Badminton (4)  Baseball (1)  Basketball (2)  Boxing (12)  Canoeing Sprint (12) Slalom (4)  Cycling Road (3) Track (7)  Equestrian Dressage (2) Eventing (2) Show jumping (2)  Fencing (8)  Field hockey (2)  Football (1)  Gymnastics Artistic (14) Rhythmic (1)  Handball (2)  Judo (14)  Modern pentathlon (2)  Rowing (14)  Sailing (10)  Shooting (13)  Table tennis (4)  Tennis (4)  Volleyball (2)  Weightlifting (10)  Wrestling Freestyle (10) Greco-Roman (10) |
Demonstration sports
[edit]
Participating National Olympic Committees
[edit]
Participants at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Participating for the first time.
Having previously participated.
Not participating.
Yellow circle is host city (Barcelona)
Number of athletes
A total of 169 nations sent athletes to compete in the 1992 Summer Games.
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, twelve of the fifteen new states chose to form a Unified Team, while the Baltic States of Estonia and Latvia sent their own teams for the first time since 1936, and Lithuania sent its own team for the first time since 1928. Bosnia-Herzegovina competed for the first time as an independent nation after its separation from Socialist Yugoslavia, and Namibia and the unified team of Yemen (previously North and South Yemen) also made their Olympic debuts. Croatia and Slovenia made their first Summer Olympic appearance at these games, having participated at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville.
The 1992 Summer Olympics notably marked Germany competing as a unified team for the first time since 1964 and the first time since 1936 as a single nation following German reunification. South Africa returned to the Games for the first time in 32 years.
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was banned due to UN sanctions, but individual Yugoslav athletes were allowed to take part as Independent Olympic Participants. Four then-existing National Olympic Committees did not send any athletes to compete: Afghanistan, Brunei, Liberia and Somalia.
Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee
[edit]
All times are in Central European Summer Time (UTC+2)
The following table reflects the top ten nations in terms of total medals won at the 1992 Games (the host nation is highlighted).
International signal
[edit]
In order to guarantee that the international signal was produced objectively and impartially, for the first time in Olympic history, a host broadcaster was expressly created for each of the 1992 Olympic Games instead of delegating responsibility to a national host broadcaster. The Albertville Organizing Committee created the Organisme de radio télévision olympique '92 (ORTO'92) for the Winter Olympics and the Barcelona Organizing Committee created the Ràdio Televisió Olímpica '92 (RTO'92) for the Summer Olympics.[23]
RTO'92 managed the staff and the production and technical resources hired to Radiotelevisión Española (RTVE), the Corporació Catalana de Ràdio i Televisió (CCRTV) and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). With a workforce of 3,083 people, a permanent radio and television installation at the Olympic Stadium and Palau Sant Jordi, and over 50 mobile units for other venues, RTO'92 provided live coverage of all Summer Olympic sports for the first time ever –except for a few preliminary events–, some 2,800 hours of live television footage, to its international rights-holders. The International Broadcast Centre (IBC) was located at the exhibition halls of Fira de Barcelona in Montjuïc.[23]
NHK and Panasonic developed the 1/2" DX digital system used to record the Games digitally for the first time. Also new were the underwater camera dolly on a track at the bottom of the swimming pool, the underwater microcameras at the bottom of the water polo pool, the periscope camera capable of transmit shots from below and above the water, the overhead camera dolly on a track along the canopy of the Olympic Stadium for the 35 metres (115 ft) high zenithal shot of the athletics track, the stabilized optic gyro-zoom cameras, the super slow motion PAL camera and the microcamera on the high jump bar.[23]
Personalized coverage
[edit]
To cover the Games, major international broadcasting unions such as the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU), the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), the International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT), the Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana (OTI), the Arab States Broadcasting Union (ASBU), the Caribbean Broadcasting Union (CBU) and the Union of African National Television and Radio Organizations (URTNA), secured the rights for their member broadcasters in their countries. In other countries, broadcast networks secured the rights directly or pooled to secure the rights. The Games were covered by the following television and radio broadcasters:[24]
The 1992 Winter and Summer Olympics were the first in which a comprehensive coverage in high-definition television (HDTV) was attempted. The European HDTV broadcast of the Summer Olympics was managed by the joint venture "Barcelona 1250" created by RTO'92, RTVE, Retevisión and PESA, with the financial support of the European Economic Community and a workforce of over 300 production and technical staff. A total of 225 hours and 45 minutes was broadcast in analog HD-MAC standard in 1,250 lines and 16:9 aspect ratio, with commentary in five languages –Spanish, English, French, German and Italian– in addition to the non-commentary sound track, of eighteen different sports at seventeen venues, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Events from five venues were covered live –80% of the total broadcast time– and other events were recorded for a delayed broadcast. On-screen text and graphics were shown in HDTV for the first time ever. Nearly 700 viewing sites installed throughout Europe, including the fifty HDTV receivers installed in various pavilions at the Seville Universal Exposition, were able to receive the broadcast.[25]
For Japan, NHK also covered the 1992 Summer Olympics in HDTV in their own analog Hi-Vision system.[26]
The Basque nationalist group ETA attempted to disrupt the Barcelona Games with terrorist attacks. It was already feared beforehand that ETA would use the Olympics to gain publicity for their cause in front of a worldwide audience.[27] As the time of the Games approached,[28] ETA committed attacks in Barcelona and the Catalonia region as a whole, including the deadly 1991 Vic bombing.[29][30] On 10 July 1992, the group offered a two-month truce covering the Olympics in exchange for negotiations, which the Spanish government rejected.[31] However, the Games went ahead successfully without an attack.[32]
Frank Gehry's Fish sculpture in front of the Hotel Arts (left) and the Torre Mapfre (right) in the Olympic Village neighbourhood
The celebration of the 1992 Olympic Games had an enormous impact on the urban culture and outward projection of Barcelona. The Games provided billions of dollars for infrastructure investments, which are considered to have improved the quality of life in the city, and its attraction for investment and tourism.[33] Barcelona became one of the most visited cities in Europe after Paris, London, and Rome.[34][35]
Barcelona's nomination for the 1992 Summer Olympics sparked the implementation of an ambitious plan for urban transformation that had already been developed previously.[36] Barcelona was opened to the sea with the construction of the Olympic Village and Olympic Port in Poblenou. New centers were created, and modern sports facilities were built in the Olympic zones of Montjuïc, Diagonal, and Vall d'Hebron; hotels were also refurbished and new ones built. The construction of ring roads around the city helped to reduce traffic density, and El Prat airport was modernized and expanded with the opening of two new terminals.[37]
Cost and cost overrun
[edit]
The Oxford Olympics Study[38] estimates the direct costs of the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics to be US$9.7 billion (expressed in 2015 U.S. dollars) with a cost overrun of 266%. This includes only sports-related costs, that is: (i) operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, direct transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services; and (ii) direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, media and press center, and similar structures required to host the Games. Costs excluded from the study are indirect capital and infrastructure costs, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games.[38][39]
The costs for Barcelona 1992 may be compared with those of London 2012, which cost US$15 billion with a cost overrun of 76%, and those of Rio 2016 which cost US$4.6 billion with a cost overrun of 51%. The average cost for the Summer Olympics since 1960 is US$5.2 billion, with an average cost overrun of 176%.[38][39]
There were two main musical themes for the 1992 Games. The first one was "Barcelona", a classical crossover song composed five years earlier by Freddie Mercury and Mike Moran; Mercury was an admirer of lyric soprano Montserrat Caballé, both recorded the official theme as a duet. Due to Mercury's death eight months earlier, the duo was unable to perform the song together during the opening ceremony. A recording of the song instead played over a travelogue of the city at the start of the opening ceremony, seconds before the official countdown.[40][41]"Amigos Para Siempre" (Friends for Life) was the other musical theme and it was official theme song of the 1992 Summer Olympics. It was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Don Black, and sung by Sarah Brightman and José Carreras during the closing ceremonies.
Ryuichi Sakamoto composed and conducted some musical pieces at the opening ceremony musical score.[42] The Opening Olympic fanfare was composed by Angelo Badalamenti and with orchestrations by Joseph Turrin.
Cobi
The official mascot was Cobi, a Catalan sheepdog in cubist style designed by Javier Mariscal.[43] He was widely featured in merchandising products and starred his own animated television series, The Cobi Troupe.[44]
Corporate image and identity
[edit]
A renewal in Barcelona's image and corporate identity could be seen in the publication of posters, commemorative coins, stamps minted by the FNMT in Madrid, and the Barcelona 1992 Olympic Official Commemorative Medals, designed and struck in Barcelona.[45]
- 1992 Summer Paralympics
- 1992 Winter Paralympics
- 1992 Winter Olympics
- List of IOC country codes
- Olympics Triplecast
- Use of performance-enhancing drugs at the 1992 Olympic Games
- Barcelona Gold – compilation album released for the 1992 Games
- Urban planning of Barcelona
- ^ a b "Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 9 October 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 August 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
- ^ "Albertville 1992". www.olympic.org. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
- ^ Kuper, Simon (29 September 2007). "Beijing strikes gold in the propaganda Olympics". Financial Times. p. 10. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022.
- ^ "The Coca Cola Olympics". The Irish Times. 5 August 1996. p. 15.
- ^ "6 Ways the 1992 Olympics Transformed Barcelona". www.barcelona-metropolitan.com. Retrieved 21 August 2024.
{{[cite web](/wiki/Template:Cite%5Fweb "Template:Cite web")}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "30 years since the Olympic Games changed Barcelona for good". Open University of Catalonia. Retrieved 21 August 2024.
{{[cite web](/wiki/Template:Cite%5Fweb "Template:Cite web")}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics | Olympic Videos, Photos, News". Olympic.org. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Wren, Christopher S. (7 November 1991). "OLYMPICS; an Era Ends, Another Begins: South Africa to Go to Olympics". The New York Times.
- ^ "IOC Vote History". Aldaver.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ "Philip Barker: An Olympic passage to India 40 years ago". 6 October 2023.
- ^ Miller, Judith (18 October 1986). "Barcelona gets 1992 Summer Olympics" (Archives). The New York Times.
- ^ "Past Olympic Host City Election Results". Archived from the original on 30 June 2011.
- ^ "Ciudad Olímpica: La parábola del suspiro" [Olympic City: The parable of the sigh]. La Vanguardia (in Spanish). 27 July 1992. p. 36.
- ^ "Ceremonial hall of shame". BBC News. 15 September 2000. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- ^ Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad, Barcelona 1992, v.4. LA84 Foundation. 1992. p. 72. ISBN 84-7868-097-7. The arrow described an arc and lit the gas issuing from the cauldron; the flame soared up to a height of three metres.
- ^ "Barcelona 1992: Did you know?". IOC. 2002. Archived from the original on 4 April 2002.
- ^ "Hall of Famers: 1992 United States Olympic Team". Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
- ^ "Fermin Cacho Ruiz". Olympic.org. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
- ^ Arnold, Chloe (11 February 2012). "Hassiba Boulmerka: Defying death threats to win gold". BBC News. Algiers.
- ^ Farber, Michael (30 July 1996). "On the Bright Side". CNN/SI. Archived from the original on 16 September 2000.
- ^ a b 1992 Olympics Official Report. Part IV. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2012. List of participants by NOC's and sport.
- ^ a b c Barcelona 1992 Opening Ceremony - Full Length on YouTube
- ^ a b c Official Report of the Games of the XXV Olympiad, Barcelona 1992. Vol. 3. International Olympic Committee. 1992. pp. 64–69. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
- ^ Miquel de Moragas, Nancy Kay Rivenburgh, ed. (1995). Television in the Olympics : international research project (illustrated ed.). James F. Larson. pp. 257–260. ISBN 978-0861965380. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
- ^ Romero, M.; Gavilán, E. (Winter 1992). "HDTV coverage of the Barcelona Olympic Games" (PDF). EBU Technical Review. European Broadcasting Union: 16–24. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
- ^ Yukio, Omori (1993). "Current State of Japanese HDTV" (PDF). Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry (6): 36–38. Retrieved 14 November 2022.
- ^ Fussey, Pete; Coaffee, Jon; Hobbs, Dick (April 2011). Securing and Sustaining the Olympic City: Reconfiguring London for 2012 and Beyond. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 9780754679455.
- ^ "CTV News - CTV News Channel". www.ctvnews.ca. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
- ^ "Spain Tackles Terrorist Threat By Basques to Olympics, Expo". Christian Science Monitor. 1 April 1992. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
- ^ Finkelstein, Beth; Koch, Noel (11 August 1991). "The Threat to the Games in Spain". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018.
- ^ "Eta rebuffed". The Independent. 13 July 1992. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
- ^ Thompson, Wayne C (31 August 2017). Western Europe 2017-2018. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781475835090.
- ^ Brunet, Ferran (2005). "The economic impact of the Barcelona Olympic Games, 1986–2004" (PDF). Autonomous University of Barcelona. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2009.
- ^ Payne, Bob (6 August 2008). "The Olympics Effect". MSNBC. Archived from the original on 2 September 2008.
- ^ Bremner, Caroline (11 October 2007). "Top 150 City Destinations: London Leads the Way". Euromonitor International. Archived from the original on 1 September 2009.
- ^ Brunet, Ferran (1995). "An economic analysis of the Barcelona '92 Olympic Games: resources, financing, and impact" (PDF). Autonomous University of Barcelona. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2017.
- ^ Beard, Matthew (22 March 2011). "Lessons of Barcelona: 1992 Games provided model for London... and few warnings". London Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 5 April 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
- ^ a b c Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016). The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 18–20. SSRN 2804554.
- ^ a b Joe Myers (29 July 2016). "The cost of hosting every Olympics since 1964" (Based on working paper from The University of Oxford and Said Business School). World Economic Forum.
- ^ "Barcelona 92: 11 momentos inolvidables de aquellos Juegos Olímpicos (VÍDEOS, FOTOS)". The Huffington Post (in Spanish). 25 July 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
- ^ "Barcelona 92: inicio de la ceremonia". YouTube. Archived from the original on 21 December 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ Illness, Critical (3 September 2010). "Doreen D'Agostino Media " Ryuichi Sakamoto and Decca". Doreendagostinomedia.com. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ "Barcelona 1992 - Summer Games Mascots". Olympic.org. IOC. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
- ^ Guiral, Antoni (3 April 1991). ""The Cobi Troupe" will be released in Spain next October". El País (in Spanish). Retrieved 7 May 2023.
- ^ "Catálogo de Monedas: Moneda | Various Pesetas (Mint set 1992)" (in Spanish). Connect | FNMT. 2020.
| External videos |
|---|
 Official Film - Barcelona 1992 Olympic Games on YouTube |
- "Barcelona 1992". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee.
- Barcelona Olympic Foundation
- Olympic Review 1992 - Official results Archived 7 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- Barcelona Olympic Stadium
- Postage stamps of the Republic of Moldova, celebrating the Barcelona Summer Olympics in 1992
- Postage stamps of the Republic of Moldova, celebrating medal winners at the Barcelona Summer Olympics in 1992
| Summer Olympics | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded bySeoul | XXV OlympiadBarcelona 1992 | Succeeded byAtlanta |
41°21′51″N 2°09′08″E / 41.36417°N 2.15222°E / 41.36417; 2.15222