Klingon grammar (original) (raw)

Grammar of the constructed Klingon language

On this page, Klingon text in the Latin alphabet is displayed in typewriter font, and with the modifier letter apostrophe ( ʼ ) rather than the ASCII apostrophe ( ' ), which is a punctuation mark.

The grammar of the Klingon language was created by Marc Okrand for the Star Trek franchise. He first described it in his book The Klingon Dictionary. It is a nominative–accusative, primarily suffixing agglutinative language, and has an object–verb–subject word order. The Klingon language has a number of unusual grammatical features, as it was designed to sound and seem alien, but it has an extremely regular morphology.

Klingon follows an object–verb–subject word order.[1] Adverbs usually go at the beginning of the sentence[2] and prepositional phrases go before the object.[3]

**Doʼ DujDaq ghoqwIʼ Sam laʼ**

Doʼ Duj - Daq ghoqwIʼ Sam laʼ

fortunately ship + LOC spy find commander

Fortunately, the commander found the spy aboard the ship

Sentences can be treated as objects, and the word **ʼeʼ** is placed after the sentence. **ʼeʼ** is treated as the object of the next sentence.[4] The adverbs, indirect objects and locatives of the latter sentence go after the subject, but before the **ʼeʼ**[5]

**bIpIv ʼeʼ vItuʼ**

bI - pIv ʼeʼ vI - tuʼ

you-Ø‍ + {be healthy} that I-it + observe

I see that you're healthy (lit. I observe that you are healthy)

Klingon has three noun classes. The first one is living beings with an innate capacity to use language. The second one is body parts (not the body itself) and the third is all other nouns.[6] Klingon has no articles, so the word **raS** table can mean a table or the table. The difference between the two is inferred from context.

There are five types of noun suffixes. A word cannot have two suffixes of the same type.[7] The suffixes are ordered based on type number; a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix.[8] In the following example, all five suffix types are used in the correct order.

**vengHommeyqoqchajDaq**

veng - Hom - mey - qoq - chaj - Daq

city + DIM + PL + DUB + their + LOC

in their so-called villages

Type 1 (size, affection)

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This type has three suffixes:

• The augmentative suffix**-ʼaʼ**,

ghom → ghomʼaʼ

group {} crowd

• The diminutive suffix **-Hom**,[7]

yuQ → yuQHom

planet {} planetoid

• and the endearment suffix -oy.

vav → vavoy

father {} daddy

• If the noun to which the endearment suffix is added ends with a vowel, a glottal stop is inserted between them:[9]

ghu → ghuʼoy

baby {} {dear baby}

This type of suffix forms plurals. There are three suffixes, one for each noun class.

• The suffix **-puʼ** is for beings capable of using language.[6]

qetwIʼ → qetwIʼpuʼ

runner {} runners

• The suffix **-Duʼ** is for body parts,

ghop → ghopDuʼ

hand {} hands

• The suffix **-mey** is used for all other nouns.

quS → quSmey

chair {} chairs

• When **-mey** is used for nouns that would normally take **-puʼ** or **-Duʼ**, it carries the connotation of being all over the place.

ghotmey

people all over the place

ghot → ghotmey

person {} {people all over the place}

A noun does not require a plural suffix if a pronoun, pronominal prefix, or context serves to indicate that it is plural,[10] or if it is being used in conjunction with a number.[11]

**Duypuʼ chaH** or **Duy chaH**

They are emissaries.

**raSmey DIghor** or **raS DIghor**

We broke the tables.

This type of suffix indicates the speaker's opinion of the applicability of the noun. There are three suffixes:

• The suffix **-qoq** indicates that the speaker thinks what they are referencing is not actually represented by the noun.

QaH → QaHqoq

{the help} {} {the so-called help}

• The dubitative suffix **-Hey** indicates the speaker is not entirely sure if the object they are referencing is represented by the noun.[12]

choH → choHHey

change {} {apparent change}

• The suffix **-naʼ** indicates that the speaker is entirely sure that the object is represented accurately by the noun.[13]

jup → jupnaʼ

friend {} {true friend}

Type 4 (possession, determiners)

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This type of suffix indicates possession or specifies which object is referred to. It contains twelve suffixes.

There are ten possession suffixes, indicating who is the possessor of the object, which may be a person. For first- and second-person possessors, there are different forms depending on whether the "object" is a being capable of using language.

There are also two determiner suffixes:[14]

• **-vam** this indicates an object that is nearby or that is being discussed
• **-vetlh** that indicates an object that is not nearby or that had previously been discussed

Examples:

• Non-language-user possessives:

nav → navwIj

paper {} {my paper}

• Language-user possessives:

qeSwIʼpuʼlIʼ

your advisors

qeSwIʼpuʼ → qeSwIʼpuʼlIʼ

advisors {} {your advisors}

• Determiners:

Soj → Sojvam

food {} {this food}

Type 5 (syntactic role)

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This type of suffix serves a syntactic role in the sentence. It contains five suffixes.

• The locative suffix **-Daq** indicates the action of the sentence is taking place in, at or on the noun.[15] With certain verbs, it indicates motion towards the noun.

juHmaj → juHmajDaq

{our home} {} {in our home}

• The ablative suffix **-voʼ** indicates that the action is taking place away from the noun. Again, with certain verbs, it indicates motion away from the noun.

qojvoʼ

away from the cliff

qoj → qojvoʼ

cliff {} {away from the cliff}

• The causal suffix **-moʼ** indicates that the action is occurring because of the noun.

ghuʼmoʼ

because of the situation

ghuʼ → ghuʼmoʼ

situation {} {because of the situation}

• The dative/benefactive suffix **-vaD** indicates the indirect object, and/or the noun for which the action has been done.[15]

jeʼwIʼvaD

to/for the buyer

jeʼwIʼ → jeʼwIʼvaD

buyer {} {to/for the buyer}

• The topicalizing suffix **-ʼeʼ** indicates the topic of the sentence or emphasises the noun in the phrase, and also marks the head noun of a relative clause.[16]

Klingon verbs mark for aspect but not for tense, which is indicated where necessary by context and by time adverbs. Prefixes mark subject and object. There are ten types of suffix, and as with nouns, a verb can have no more than one suffix of any type. (The tenth type, called rovers, are an exception.) Again as with nouns, the types of suffix must appear in a strict order, indicated by their type number: a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. A rover suffix can go between any of them.[17]

Unlike English, there is no infinitive.[18] The presentation of the verb stem as an infinitive in this article's example sentences is just to show the individual morphemes.

Klingon verb prefixes mark both the subject and the object.

Verb prefixes[18]

| | Object | | | | | | | | | | ------------------- | ------------------- | ------------------ | ------------------ | ---------------- | ---------------- | ---------------- | --- | --- | | No object | 1st personsingular | 2nd personsingular | 3rd personsingular | 1st personplural | 2nd personplural | 3rd personplural | | | | Subject | 1st person singular | jI- | — | qa- | vI- | — | Sa- | vI- | | 2nd person singular | bI- | cho- | — | Da- | ju- | — | Da- | | | 3rd person singular | Ø- | mu- | Du- | Ø- | nu- | lI- | Ø- | | | 1st person plural | ma- | — | pI- | wI- | — | re- | DI- | | | 2nd person plural | Su- | tu- | — | bo- | che- | — | bo- | | | 3rd person plural | Ø- | mu- | nI- | lu- | nu- | lI- | Ø- | | | unspecified* | Ø- | vI- | Da- | Ø- | wI- | bo- | lu- | |

* Expressed with the type-5 verb suffix -luʼ

Imperative-mood prefixes[18]

| | Object | | | | | | | | ----------------- | ------------------- | ------------------ | ---------------- | ---------------- | ---- | --- | | No object | 1st personsingular | 3rd personsingular | 1st personplural | 3rd personplural | | | | Subject | 2nd person singular | yI- | HI- | yI- | gho- | tI- | | 2nd person plural | pe- | | | | | |

Prefixes must be present even if the nouns or pronouns they reference are declared explicitly.[19] In certain cases with a third person object, a first or second person indirect object can be omitted by using the first and second person object prefixes instead. This is known as the prefix trick.[20]

Examples:

• No object:

Qong → jIQong

sleep {} {I sleep}

• Subject and object:

nob → DunuQ

give {} {It annoys you}

• Imperative:

laD → yIlaD

read {} {Read it}

Type 1 (reflexive/reciprocal)

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This type of suffix forms reflexive verbs. There are two suffixes.

• The reflexive suffix **-ʼegh** indicates that the individual subject(s) does/do the action to her/him/itself/themselves.[21]

jIlegh → jIleghʼegh

{I see} {} {I see myself}

maʼangʼegh

We reveal ourselves (individually)

maʼang → maʼangʼegh

{We reveal} {} {We reveal ourselves (individually)}

• The reciprocal suffix **-chuq** indicates that the individual subjects do the action to each other.[22] Intransitive verbs cannot take this suffix.

Suleghchuq

You(pl) see each other

Sulegh → Suleghchuq

{You(pl) see} {} {You(pl) see each other}

Type 2 (volition/necessity)

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This type of suffix deals with the subject's volition. There are five suffixes.

• The suffix **-nIS** indicates that the subject is required to or has the necessity to complete the action.

chojaʼnIS

You need to tell me

chojaʼ → chojaʼnIS

{You tell me} {} {You need to tell me}

• The suffix **-qang** indicates that the subject is willing to perform the action.

lungevqang

They are willing to sell it

lungev → lungevqang

{They sell it} {} {They are willing to sell it}

• The suffix **-rup** indicates the subject is prepared to complete the action.

ghuʼ poj

He/She analyzes the situation

ghuʼ pojrup

He/She is ready to analyze the situation

{ghuʼ poj} → {ghuʼ pojrup}

{He/She analyzes the situation} {} {He/She is ready to analyze the situation}

• The suffix **-beH** indicates that the subject has been set up to complete the action. **-beH** is used with devices, whereas **-rup** is used with beings.[22]

ghoghlIj qon

It records your voice

ghoghlIj qonbeH

It is ready to record your voice

{ghoghlIj qon} → {ghoghlIj qonbeH}

{It records your voice} {} {It is ready to record your voice}

• The suffix **-vIp** indicates that the subject is afraid to do the action.[23]

bImejvIp

You are afraid to leave

bImej → bImejvIp

{You leave} {} {You are afraid to leave}

This type of suffix describes the action of the verb. There are two suffixes.

• The suffix **-choH** indicates a change of state to that indicated by the verb:

yItchoH

He/she/it starts walking

yIt → yItchoH

{He/she/it walks} {} {He/she/it starts walking}

Doq → DoqchoH

{It is red} {} {It becomes red}

• The suffix **-qaʼ** indicates the action had been stopped, but is now resuming, or that the action is being performed again.[23]

yIQongqaʼ

Go back to sleep!

yIQong → yIQongqaʼ

Sleep! {} {Go back to sleep!}

There is only one suffix in this category, the causative suffix **-moH**. This suffix indicates that the subject is causing something to happen. If the verb to which it is added is transitive, the object becomes the indirect object. Many Klingon words are derived this way. For example, the verb clean (**SayʼmoH**) is derived from the verb be clean (**Sayʼ**).[24]

Intransitive verb:

**poS lojmIt.**

poS lojmIt

{be open} door

The door is open.

Causative form:

**lojmIt poSmoH qup.**

lojmIt poS - moH qup

door {be open} + CAUS elder

The elder opened the door. (lit. The elder caused the door to be open.)

Transitive verb:

**paq Danej.**

paq Da - nej

book you-it + {look for}

You look/are looking for the book. (lit. You look for the book.)

Causative form:

**paq qanejmoH**

paq qa - nej - moH

book I-you + {look for} + CAUS

I made you look for the book. (lit. I caused you to look for the book.)

Type 5 (undefined subject; capability)

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There are two unrelated suffixes in this group. The suffix **-luʼ** indicates an undefined subject.[24] The verb prefixes that are normally used for first or second person subject with third person singular object are used to indicate first or second person object. The suffix **-laH** indicates that the subject is capable of performing the action of the verb.[24]

Examples:

• **-luʼ** without prefix:

**much bejluʼ**

much bej - luʼ

presentation watch + {INDF SBJ}

the presentation is watched, someone watches the presentation [Note 1]

**much bej**

He/she watches the presentation

• **-luʼ** with prefix:

**vItlhaʼluʼ**

vI - tlhaʼ - luʼ

I-it + chase + {INDF SBJ}

I am chased, someone chases me

**vItlhaʼ**

I chase it

• **-laH**:

**vIbomlaH**

vI - bom - laH

I-it + sing + {able to}

I can sing it

Type 6 (perfection; uncertainty)

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This type indicates the speaker's opinion of the action of the verb. There are four suffixes.

• The suffix **-chuʼ** indicates that the speaker considers the action is done in the best possible manner.

pIQoychuʼ

we hear you clearly

pIQoy → pIQoychuʼ

{we hear you} {} {we hear you clearly}

• The suffix **-bej** indicates that the speaker is completely sure the action is occurring.

SuQeH

you (plural) are angry

SuQeHbej

you are definitely angry

SuQeH → SuQeHbej

{you (plural) are angry} {} {you are definitely angry}

• The dubitative suffix **-lawʼ** indicates that the speaker thinks the action is occurring, but is not sure.[25]

luyajlawʼ

they seem to understand it

luyaj → luyajlawʼ

{they understand it} {} {they seem to understand it}

• The suffix **-baʼ** indicates that the speaker thinks that it is obvious that the action is occurring.[26]

luparbaʼ

they obviously dislike it

lupar → luparbaʼ

{they dislike it} {} {they obviously dislike it}

This type indicates the verb's aspect. There are four Type 7 suffixes.

Note that aspect is different from tense and independent of it. A "completed" event (perfective aspect, **-puʼ** or **-taʼ**) can just as easily be set before, during, or after the time of description (past, present, or future tense), or unspecified for tense. For simplicity, this section says "is completed", not "was, is, or will be completed." (Do not confuse perfective aspect with "perfectly done".)

• The perfective suffix **-puʼ** indicates that, in the time context of the sentence, the action is completed.

qaS → qaSpuʼ

{It occurs} {} {It has occurred}

vIghorpuʼ

I have broken it

vIghor → vIghorpuʼ

{I break it} {} {I have broken it}

• The suffix **-taʼ** also indicates that the action is completed, and further specifies that it was done on purpose.[27]

Qu' QIj

She explains the mission

Qu' QIjtaʼ

She has explained the mission

{Qu' QIj} → {Qu' QIjtaʼ}

{She explains the mission} {} {She has explained the mission}

vIghortaʼ

I have broken it (on purpose)

vIghor → vIghortaʼ

{I break it} {} {I have broken it (on purpose)}

• The suffix **-taH** indicates that the verb is occurring continuously.

jItlhuHtaH

I keep breathing

jItlhuH → jItlhuHtaH

{I breathe} {} {I keep breathing}

• The suffix **-lIʼ** indicates that the verb is occurring continuously, but that it has a definite ending point.[28]

megh vIvut

I prepare lunch

megh vIvutlIʼ

I am preparing lunch

{megh vIvut} → {megh vIvutlIʼ}

{I prepare lunch} {} {I am preparing lunch}

The perfective aspect can also be indicated by the use of the verb form **rIntaH** after the main verb. This carries the connotation of irreversibility.[28]

**ghorluʼ rIntaH** It has been broken (and it cannot be mended)

There is only one suffix in this group, the honorific suffix **-neS**. It is used when addressing any type of superior, be it social, political, or military, and only when being very polite or having high regard for that person. It is never required.[29]

**-neS**:

qaqIHneS

I am honoured to meet you

qaqIH → qaqIHneS

{I meet you} {} {I am honoured to meet you}

Eleven suffixes specify syntactic roles in the sentence.

Two suffixes form specific types of noun from a verb.

• The suffix **-wIʼ** is used to form words for persons and things that do something, much as English nouns of the form X-er can mean either "person who does X" (listener, baker) or "thing that does X" (screwdriver, sprinkler).[17]

ʼIj → ʼIjwIʼ

listen {} listener

wochwIʼ

tall person or tall thing

woch → wochwIʼ

{be tall} {} {tall person or tall thing}

• The suffix **-ghach** is used as a nominalizer for verbs ending in suffixes, which otherwise are unable to be nominalized. This suffix is usually used with other suffixes and is rarely found alone with the verb stem.[30][31]

QallaHghach

the ability to swim

QallaH → QallaHghach

{be able to swim} {} {the ability to swim}

pIvchoHghach

becoming healthy

pIvchoH → pIvchoHghach

{become healthy} {} {becoming healthy}

These two suffixes inflect the verb in specific grammatical moods.

• The interrogative suffix **-ʼaʼ** is used to form yes–no questions.[17]

DIboQnIS

We need to assist them

DIboQnISʼaʼ

Do we need to assist them?

DIboQnIS → DIboQnISʼaʼ

{We need to assist them} {} {Do we need to assist them?}

• The optative suffix **-jaj** is used to indicate a wish or desire of the speaker.[26]

bIQap → bIQapjaj

{You succeed} {} {May you succeed}

The following seven suffixes are used to form subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause may go after or before the clause it modifies.[32]

Time

• The suffix **-paʼ** indicates that the event described in the main clause occurs chronologically before the event of this clause.

**jItlheDpaʼ, HIboQ** Before I depart, assist me

(**jItlheD** I depart, **HIboQ** assist me)

• The suffix **-vIS** indicates that the main clause is occurring at the same time as this clause. It is always used in conjunction with the type-7 suffix continuous suffix **-taH**.

**lumtaHvIS, pagh taʼ** He accomplishes nothing while he procrastinates

(**lum** procrastinate, **taʼ** accomplish, **pagh** nothing)

• The suffix **-DIʼ** indicates that the event of the main clause occurs immediately after the event of this clause is completed.

**jImej chocholDIʼ** As soon as you approach me, I leave

(**jImej** I leave, **chochol** you approach me)

Cause and effect

• The suffix **-chugh** is used to form conditionals.[29]

**DaSamlaHchugh, DaSuqlaH** If you can find it, you can take it

(**DaSamlaH** you can find it, **DaSuqlaH** you can acquire (take) it)

• The suffix **-moʼ** indicates the main clause is occurring because of this clause.[26]

**bIʼIlmoʼ, qavoq** Because you are sincere, I trust you

(**bIʼIl** you are sincere, **qavoq** I trust you)

(Relative and purpose clauses)

• The suffix **-bogh** is used in relative clauses. Their usage is covered in the relative clauses section.
• The suffix **-meH** is used in purpose clauses.[17] Their usage is covered in the purpose clauses section.

This type of suffix is known as a **lengwIʼ** in Klingon, which is translated as rover (**leng** wander + **wIʼ**). There are four rovers. These suffixes have no defined position, and can go after the verb stem or after any suffix – even another rover – except after a type-9 suffix or where the result would be meaningless. They modify whatever directly precedes them.

• The rover suffix **-beʼ** negates what precedes it but in the imperative mood -Qoʼ is used.[33]

wInaDbeʼ

We do not praise it

wInaD → wInaDbeʼ

{We praise it} {} {We do not praise it}

boʼollaH

You are able to verify it

boʼollaHbeʼ

You are not able to verify it

boʼollaH → boʼollaHbeʼ

{You are able to verify it} {} {You are not able to verify it}

• The rover suffix **-Qoʼ** negates what precedes it in the imperative mood. In the indicative mood it indicates refusal by the subject. It can only be used between verb suffixes of Type 8 and Type 9.[34]

yIQIp → yIQIpQoʼ

{Be stupid} {} {don't be stupid}

vIlonQoʼ

I refuse to abandon it

vIlon → vIlonQoʼ

{I abandon it} {} {I refuse to abandon it}

• The rover suffix **-quʼ** emphasises what precedes it.[35]

narghqang

He is willing to escape

narghqangquʼ

He is really willing to escape

narghqang → narghqangquʼ

{He is willing to escape} {} {He is really willing to escape}

• The rover suffix **-Haʼ** reverses what precedes it; that is, it indicates that the opposite of what precedes it is being done, or that the action is being undone.[34] If used on a verb that cannot be undone and has no meaningful opposite, it means to perform the action wrongly, not in the proper way, somewhat like the English prefix mis- in misspeak, mistype, misspell, etc. Unlike the other rovers, it can be placed only just after the stem; its classification in the rover category is attributed to the insistence of fictional Klingon grammarians.[36]

yIchuʼ → yIchuʼHaʼ

{Activate it} {} {De-activate it}

boloʼHaʼ

you (pl.) misuse it

boloʼ → boloʼHaʼ

{you (plural) use it} {} {you (pl.) misuse it}

bIQuch → bIQuchHaʼ

{You are happy} {} {You are unhappy}

The position of the rover suffixes affects the meaning of the word. Contrast

**luSoplaH** They are able to eat it

**luSoplaHbeʼ** They are not able to eat it

**luSopbeʼlaH** They are able to not eat it

(In context, possibly equivalent to They can refuse to eat it)

**luSopbeʼlaHbeʼ** They are not able to not eat it

(In context, possibly equivalent to They cannot refuse to eat it)

Pronouns and copula

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Klingon has no verb that corresponds to the verb to be; the concept is expressed using a different grammatical construction. Pronouns can be used as verbs that act as the pronoun plus the verb to be. The pronoun can take verb suffixes, which then modify the pronoun like any other verb. A third-person subject that is not a pronoun must go after the pronoun-verb and carry the type-5 noun suffix **-ʼeʼ**[37]

Examples:

• **qonwI' tlhIH** You are composers
• **ghojwIʼ ghaH HaDwIʼʼeʼ** A studier is a learner

Klingon does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives, in which case they follow the noun they modify. Contrast (**wep** coat, and **yIQ** be wet)

**wep yIQ**

the wet coat

with

**yIQ wep.**

The coat is wet.

In this construction, the only verbal suffixes allowed are rover suffixes such as **-quʼ** and **-Haʼ**.[39]Type-5 noun suffixes that would normally be attached to the noun are instead attached to the adjectival verb:[40]

**paʼDaq**

in the room

**paʼ tInDaq**

in the big room (**tIn** big)

Adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence,[2] but time adverbs go before other adverbs.[41]

**wa'leS ghaytan nujatlh.**

wa'leS ghaytan nu - jatlh

tomorrow likely they-us + speak

They will probably speak to us tomorrow.

Adverbs can take the rover suffix **-Haʼ** to denote the opposite adverbial.[42]

**Doʼ**

fortunately

**DoʼHaʼ**

unfortunately

Klingon has seven conjunctions, and they are different for nouns and for sentences. The noun conjunctions are **je** for a logical conjunction (and), **joq** for a logical disjunction (and/or) and **ghap** for an exclusive disjunction (either/or). Noun conjunctions go after the nouns they connect. Sentence conjunctions are the reverses of the noun conjunctions; **ʼej** for and, **qoj** for and/or, and **pagh** for either/or. **ʼach** (or **ʼa**) (but) is used to contrast sentences.[11]

In a relative clause, the verb has the type-9 verb suffix **-bogh** added to it.[43] The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses, but the head noun may optionally get the type-5 suffix **-ʼeʼ** added.[44]

**chuS Saj ngevbogh ghotʼeʼ.**

chuS Saj ngev - bogh ghot - -ʼeʼ

{to be noisy} pet sell + REL person + FOC

The person who sells the pet is noisy

**chuS Sajʼeʼ ngevbogh ghot.**

chuS Saj + -ʼeʼ ngev - bogh ghot

{be noisy} pet + FOC sell {} REL person

The pet which the person sells is noisy

Since there is already a type-5 noun suffix marking the head noun, nothing other than the subject or the object can be marked as head noun. Two sentences are formed instead to form the same idea. Relative clauses can have nouns with type 5 suffixes as modifiers, but it can be ambiguous as they can be misinterpreted as being part of the main sentence.[44]

A purpose clause expresses the reason or goal of the action of the main clause. If it is modifying a noun it states the purpose of the noun. A purpose clause always goes before the clause or noun it modifies.[43] This is the cause of some grammatical ambiguity in Klingon, as a **-meH** modifying a noun at the beginning of a sentence can be misinterpreted as modifying the entire sentence. This can be resolved in writing with punctuation.[44]

• **-meH** with sentence:

**jumermeH, bISoʼʼegh**

ju - mer - meH, bI - Soʼ - ʼegh

you-us + surprise + purpose you + hide + self

You hid yourself in order to surprise us.

• **-meH** with nouns:

**QaQ vIDubmeH qechlIj**

QaQ vI - Dub - meH qech - lIj

{be good} I-it + improve + purpose idea + your

Your idea on how I should improve it is good/Your idea for improving it is good. (lit. Your idea [for I improve it] is good)

In this section, noun phrases are indicated by the abbreviation NP, and adjectives by A.

Klingon comparatives mainly rely on adjectives like **lawʼ** (to be many), **puS** (to be few), **rap** (to be the same), and **rur** (to resemble, to be like) to contrast the nouns. However, many (but not all) of the comparatives have unusual word orders that don't parse as regular Klingon sentences.

• The main Klingon comparative structure is NP1 A **lawʼ** NP2 A **puS**.
  The general meaning of this construction is "NP1 is more A than NP2".

**qachvam chuʼ lawʼ juHlIj chu' puS.**

qachvam chuʼ lawʼ juHlIj chu' puS

{this building} {be new} {} {your home} {} {}

This building is newer than your home. (lit. this-building new many – home-your new few)

• The structure NP1 A **lawʼ Hoch** A **puS** is used to form superlatives, i.e.
  "NP1 has the most of quality A (= has more of quality A than anything/one else has)".
  (**Hoch** = all, everyone, everything)

**qIDvetlh tlhaQ law' Hoch tlhaQ puS.**

qIDvetlh tlhaQ law' Hoch tlhaQ puS.

{that joke} {be funny} {} {} {be funny} {}

That joke is the funniest. (lit. joke-that funny many – everything funny few)

• The inverse structure, **Hoch** A **lawʼ** NP1 A **puS** is used to indicate
  "NP1 has the least of quality A".[43]

**Hoch quv lawʼ verengnan quv puS.**

Hoch quv lawʼ verengnan quv puS.

{} {be honorable} {} {Ferengi} {} {}

Ferengi are the least honorable. (lit. everyone honorable many – Ferengi honorable few)

• The structure A NP1; NP2 **rur** is used to form similes:
  "NP1 is A; he/she/it resembles NP2".

**ʼIQ rav rur.**

ʼIQ rav rur

{be sad} floor {to resemble}

He is as sad as a floor. (lit. he is sad; he is like a floor)[45]

A yes–no question in Klingon can be formed by adding the suffix **-ʼaʼ** to the regular form. The word for yes is **HISlaH** or **HIjaʼ** and the word for no is **ghobeʼ**.[37] Interrogative pronouns go where the answer would normally go, and don't reorder the sentence. Interrogative adverbs go at the beginning of the sentence.[46]

Klingon uses a base-10 system to count numbers. To form a multiple of 10, 100, 1 000, 1 000 000, the word for the multiple of ten is suffixed to the digit. For example, **chorghmaH** eighty is a combination of the word **chorgh** eight and the number forming suffix **-maH** ten.

Larger powers go before smaller powers: **chorghmaH Soch** is eight-ten seven. The number suffix **-DIch** is used to form ordinal numbers, and the number suffix **-logh** indicates how many times an action has been repeated: **loSDIch** fourth, **waʼmaH chaʼlogh** twelve times.[47]

1. ^ **-luʼ** is not the same thing as the passive voice. **-luʼ** makes the subject indefinite, and keeps the object where it would be if it had a subject. Unlike the passive voice, it does not make the subject the patient of the verb, except when using the verb prefixes

• Okrand, Marc (1992). The Klingon Dictionary, 2nd Edition. Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0671745592.
• Okrand, Marc. paq'batlh. uitgeverij. 2011.

1. ^ Okrand 1992, p.59
2. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.56. Note exception **neH** only, merely from p.56 and **jayʼ** (swear word) from p.177.
3. ^ Okrand 1992, p.180
4. ^ Okrand 1992, p.66. Note exception **neH** want
5. ^ Okrand 2011
6. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.22
7. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.21
8. ^ Okrand 1992, p.29
9. ^ Okrand 1992, p.174
10. ^ Okrand 1992, p.23
11. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.55
12. ^ Okrand 1992, p.24
13. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.25
14. ^ Okrand 1992, p.26
15. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.27
16. ^ Okrand 1992, p.28
17. ^ a b c d Okrand 1992, p.44
18. ^ a b c Okrand 1992, p.33
19. ^ Okrand 1992, p.52
20. ^ Okrand, Marc; Schermerhorn, Neal (29 June 1997). "Re: Some quick questions..." Retrieved 5 July 2013.
21. ^ Okrand 1992, p.35
22. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.36
23. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.37
24. ^ a b c Okrand 1992, p.38
25. ^ Okrand 1992, p.40
26. ^ a b c Okrand 1992, p.175
27. ^ Okrand 1992, p.41
28. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.42
29. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.43
30. ^ Okrand, Marc; Schoen, Lawrence M. (September 1994). "Interview: Okrand on **-ghach**". HolQeD. 3 (3). Flourtown, Pennsylvania: Klingon Language Institute: 10–13.
31. ^ Okrand 1992, p.176
32. ^ Okrand 1992, p.62
33. ^ Okrand 1992, p.46
34. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.47
35. ^ Okrand 1992, p.48
36. ^ Okrand 1992, p.49
37. ^ a b Okrand 1992, p.68
38. ^ Okrand 1992, p.51
39. ^ Okrand 1992, p.49, says only **-quʼ**, but later canon examples expand the set, for example **ngaDHaʼ** in Okrand 1997, p.150
40. ^ Okrand 1992, p.50
41. ^ Okrand 1992, p.179
42. ^ Okrand, Marc (December 1995). "More from Maltz". HolQeD. 4 (4). Flourtown, Pennsylvania: Klingon Language Institute: 11.
43. ^ a b c Okrand 1992, p.64
44. ^ a b c Okrand, Marc; Schoen, Lawrence M. (June 1995). "Interview: Okrand on **-bogh** and more". HolQeD. 4 (2). Flourtown, Pennsylvania: Klingon Language Institute: 5–6.
45. ^ Native Klingon Simile from Okrand, Marc (September 1997). Klingon for the Galactic Traveller. Pocket Books. p. 134. ISBN 978-0671009953.
46. ^ Okrand 1992, p.69
47. ^ Okrand 1992, p.53-55