Scandinavian-only words (original) (raw)

S�rnordiske Ord � Scandinavian-only Words

Updated: 16.09.2023 (v.1.1)

Abbreviations used: arch. = archaic; BM = Norwegian Bokm�l; dial. = dialectal; hist. = historical; MDu = Middle Dutch; ME = Middle English; MHG = Middle High German; MLG = Middle Low German; NN = Norwegian Nynorsk; ODan. = Old Danish; OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; ONorw. = Old Norwegian; OS = Old Saxon; OSwed. = Old Swedish.

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This article aims to cover some of the _better known_or more interesting words in the Scandinavian languages which fulfill the following criteria:

i) Words which have no known or certain analogues or cognates in other Germanic languages, i.e. Scandinavian-only words (taking loansfrom Scandinavian into account!)

ii) Words which have cognate material in Germanic but which are Scandinavian neologisms

iii) Words in Scandinavian which once had direct equivalents or cognates in other Germanic languages in earlier historical times but which are now obsolete in all but Scandinavian languages

iv) Words which have surviving cognates in other Germanic languagesbut which have taken on uniquely Scandinavian forms or meanings

Based on my use of the etymological dictionaries, I have concluded the following:

To i) belong: aka, at, aumr, aurri�i, bardagi, beiskr, br�koter, d�ligr, drengr, ekki, elska, eyma, foss, g�ta, genta, g�lf, grein, gr��, gr�ss, h�nn (and h�n), hefnd, hera�, hitta, hjalli, hr�ddur, hylle (?),h�gri, kasta,keyra, kj�t, k�ti, logn, lundr, lyndi, lyng, l�ti, l�g, mj�kr, mykr, n��ingr, oddi, orne, orrosta, ostr, p�ka, rannsaka, r�n, refr, sef (?), s�ld, skei�, skeyta, spakr, s�ng, tj�rn, v�ndr, �ungr, �yngd, �yngsl.

To ii) belong: aldrigi,almenningr, angra,barsel, beizl, bl�na, bohagh, b�ndi, byg�, b�r, daggry, dagver�r, dofinn, dr�ttning (and also to iii), dylja, eigi, einsligr, ekkja, engi, f�t�kr, f�lagi, fj�s (<f�-h�s), f�stri (?), gedda,gleyma (and also to iii), gluggr, g��a, henda, hos, hr��sla, h�str�, � mot, kensl, kerling, kn�rr, kr�ka, kvistr, leir, l�fa, lykill/n�gel, l�sa, l�gma�r, mettr, n�b�i, n�ttver�r, n�fning, ok, skei� (�spoon�), sta�na, stafkarl, ste�i, steik, systkin, tvilling, umbo�sma�r, v�r, vitna, walmogha, �erne (?), �ordyn.

To iii) belong: �ss, bakki, barn (see note below), blyg�,br��hlaup, b�a, draugr, d�rka, eldr, elfr, f�, fr�/frj�, fylki, galinn, gamall, geyja, gipta, gl�ggr, gr�n, haf, helv�ti, hervirki,j�tunn, kaupang, kona, kumbl, kveld, l�gr, lo�inn,l�knir, myrkr, m�li, n�kkurr, skegg, sk�, taka, �reyttr, �r�ll, ��fa, �v�tta, �yrnir.

To iv) belong: bj�rn,byrja, dr�p, drepa, fjall, forellrar, fr�, f�r, grautr, gr�ta, haugr, hestr, hl��a, hv�la, h�ll, kaka, kelda, kj�klingr, knekkja, krefja, maki, m�ki, minni, m�rr, sannr, sem, skr�ma, smj�r, s�l, spyrja, st�rr, styggr, tr�a, tupp, �s�ll, vargr, vatn, v�zka, ��, �j�rr, �rn.

ger(v)a, g�r(v)a is difficult to assign; I could make a case for ii), iii) and iv) above.

I cannot determine the category for andbo�.

*Note: Norse forms in the dialects of Shetland and Orkney (of which there are many) have been excluded since these are so little known as to be of trifling use except in special studies of those dialects. Many are listed by de Vries and some are mentioned in passing by Thorsen.

*Note: ON, Proto-Norseand Common Scandinavian forms are approximated as far as my basic font allows; not all words appear as in the etymological dictionaries.

The following three paragraphs follow Haugen (1984):

The major part of the vocabulary of Old Scandinavian belongs, not surprisingly, to the common Germanic word-stock. Some words have taken on peculiarly Scandinavian forms, e.g. those nouns formed with the addition of suffix -n in PN e.g. bernu, arnu > ON bj�rn,�rn (a side-form of ON ari "eagle" which answers to those in West Germanic which formed nouns from the same Germanic roots (beran, aran) without -n (therefore _ber_-, _ar_-)): German B�r, Dutch beer, English bear, Frisian bear; German Aar, Dutch arend, English erne (OE earn "eagle" and Frisian earn being West Germanic exceptions which took the same path as the Proto-Norse forms); ON vatn (cf. German Wasser, Dutch water, English water, Frisian wetter). Another specifically Nordic productive element was *-in, which formed nouns appearing in ON as -i, e.g. adjective _gla�r_> noun gle�i, as well as the suffixing of *-nan to create inchoative verbs from adjectives, e.g. ON bl�na"turn blue", myrkna"darken", sortna"blacken" (from bl�r"blue", myrkr "dark, mirky", svartr "black" respectively). The most common Germanic prefixes fell away in Common Scandinavian and one effect of this was to make some words ambiguous. These were often clarified by the use of adverbial particles, e.g.ON l�ka "open, close" is qualified in l�ka opp "open up" (cf. OE bel�can "close", onl�can"open").

In addition to the c. 2,000 simplex words inherited from common Indo-European, it is estimated that c. 1,200 words (mostly nouns) exist in Scandinavian which have no known exact equivalents in West Germanic languages or Gothic (Peter Skautrup, Det danske sprogs historie, 4 vols. K�benhavn, 1944-70, vol I, p.166). They probably arose during the Viking Age or early Middle Ages. Many can be counted as variants, derivatives or new usages of common Germanic words and a number may be explained by inadequate records from other Old Germanic dialects, but nevertheless we have to reckon with hundreds of words which are Nordic neologisms or else loanwords from sources unparalleled in other Germanic languages. Others probably existed in Common Germanic or had cognates in the oldest stages of West and East Germanic but were in these languages preferred formal variants or synonyms and hence they were outmoded. (Haugen notes that Common Scandinavian chose the -s suffix in Germanic leuhsa"light" (>CSc lj�s > ON lj�s) while West Germanic preferred -t (leuta becoming English light, German Licht etc.)). This is just one example of how such seeming differences or else major variant forms could have arisen in preliterate times.

The arbitrariness of how some words may come to be the standard forms in Scandinavian in contrast to West Germanic is illustrated by the example of words meaning "wood" by Haugen. In Common Scandinavian there were four such words m�rk, holt, vi�r and skogR. Today these mean respectively "open land" (except in Iceland where m�rk still means "forest"), "grove" (cf. lund), "wood" (e.g. Danish ved) and "forest" (mainland skog, Icelandic sk�gur). M�rk, holt and _vi�r_have cognates in Germanic but skogR stands in uncertain ablaut relation to OE sceaga "thicket". The West Germanic languages' standard term for forest descended from Germanic wal�uz (OHG, OS wald, OE weald, German Wald, English weald) which in Common Scandinavian had already come to mean "plain" (cf. ON v�llr, Icelandic v�llur "plain", Norwegianvoll "grassy field, meadow"). It not difficult to see how m�rk could evolve in meaning from "forest" to "open land" (OE weald has partly done this to modern wold "open country") in areas where forest clearing occurred but it is much more difficult to explain why the forerunner to v�llr has already in Common Scandinavian taken on the latter meaning but has never done so to any great extent in West Germanic.

Notes on the words in the word-list:

aurri�i literally "the sand rider", was loaned into MLG as �re"salmon" (de Vries).

bakki the ME word banke"slope" (> English bank) is presumably from older Danish banke; cf. OE bacca, bacce"ridge" (de Vries). Nielsen considers the form a side-form to Danish banke, with assimilation of -nk- to -kk-, a characteristic of Scandinavian (cf.drikke vs. drink).

bardagi is derived from ON berja "beat, strike" with the addition of suffix -dagi.

beiskr appears as a loan in ME as beggsk (later baiske), andsurvives in current northern English dialects as bask "very dry, bitter" (Thorsen); cf. Gothic baitrs "bitter".

bj�rn cf. OE bera, OHG bero, MDu bere, German B�r, Dutch beer, Frisian_bear_ "bear"; also OE beorn"warrior, hero, doughty man"; the name in Germanic denoted "the brown" (Nielsen, de Vries); the form in -nis unique to Scandinavian;

bl�na an inchoate verb formed from ON bl�r "blue, swarthy, black".

blyg� has a relation in OE �blycgan "grow pale; make afraid" (de Vries).

b�ndi - borrowed into OE as b�nda, b�nda "householder, farmer, freeman"and ME b�nde, b�nde "farmer".

br��hlaup - literally denoted the conveying home of the bride. OE br�dhl�p calques this Norse compound. Related compounds are OFris br�lop, OS br�dloht, MLG br�tloft, OHG br�thlauft, MHG br�tlauf (de Vries).

byg� from ON byggja, byggva"settle, inhabit, dwell", (cf. Norwegian bygge"build, dwell, settle down", Swedish bygga"build", Icelandic byggja"build, inhabit"), hence the ME verb biggen and northern dialect big "build, dwell"; cf. also OE b�an"stay, dwell, live, inhabit"; byggjastands in uncertain ablaut relation to ON b�a"dwell, live" (cf. Norwegian bo, bu "live, dwell") (de Vries).

byrja is etymologically related to Dutch beuren "lift", gebeuren"happen".

dagver�r, d�gur�r a Scandinavian neologism (just as _breakfast_is unique to English), formed from ON dagr"day" and ver�r "mealtime, eating" (cf. Nynorsk verd "meal") - the etymology is disputed but links have been made with Gothic wairdus, OE werd, wird, OHG wirt "host, head of the household" (the Scandinavian words identical with these, e.g. v�rd, v�rd "host, landlord, innkeeper" are loans from MLG) (de Vries, Nielsen).

d�ligr derives from ON d� "powerlessness, trance, faint" (Icelandic d� "coma, unconsciousness", Norwegian Bokm�l d�ne"faint; fade", Nynorsk d�en"deceased") and is closely related to ON d�inn"deceased", deyja "die" (hence d�inn) the possible source of English die.

dofinn - cf. OFris dof "powerless", Dutch dof "dull, dim"; related to daufr "deaf" (de Vries).

drengr - loaned into OE as dreng "Viking warrior", appearing in ME as dreng,dring "doughty young man".

dr�ttning - cf. OE dryhten "lord", OS druhtin "lord", OHG truht�n "lord"; unlike dr�ttning, words of this root were exclusively masculine and were never extended to denote "queen".

einsligr a compound adjective of the elements ON einn in the genitive case "alone, single" and the adjective forming suffix -ligr (cf. English -ly, -like); the compound is unique to the Nordic languages, cf. German einsam, Dutch eenzaam.

ekki is a compound of eitt (neuter of the numeral einn "one") and the element -gi sometimes added enclictically to nouns or pronouns, often forming negatives (e.g. ON aldrigi, engi, hvergi) (de Vries, Nielsen).

ekkja from the PN form denoting "the lonely, solitary" derived from an adjective corresponding to Old Danish �nk� "singularly placed", ON einka "individual, separate" (Nielsen).

eldr once had relations in OE �led (poetic), OS �ld "fire, flame" and OE �l "fire, burning", �lan "burn"; the root is Indo-European but is not now known in Germanic outside the Scandinavian languages; English dialectal elding "fuel" is a derivative of a Scandinavian loan in _eld_-;

elfr has relations in MLG elve "riverbed" and MHG Elbe "the Elbe River" (from Germano-Latin Albis); traditionally it is ascribed to Latin albus "white", although other etymologies have been put forward.

elska derived from elskr "beloved, dearly valued" from a Germanic stem; the etymology is uncertain but usually explained in relation to ala (from Indo-European *_al_- "grow; nourish") and meaning "bring up, raise, rear" > "love" (de Vries, Nielsen).

f�t�kr from ON f�r "few" (cf. mainland Scandinavian f� "few", OE fea, OFris f�, OS faho, OHG fao) and t�kr"taking" a verbal adjective formed from taka- therefore "he who takes or receives little" (Nielsen, de Vries).

f�lagi is a late loan into OE as f�olaga and is found in ME forms as felawe,felage; it is a formation from f�lag"fellowship, partnership" and compounds the elements f� "property, money; cattle" and lag "fellowship".

fj�s is earlier f�h�s "sheep-house" (Haugen).

foss is found in ME as fors and continues in northen English dialects as force.

fylki may be the remnant of earlier compounds which had it as a second element, cf. OE gefylce"war band, host"; the related verb fylkja"array, draw up" (Danish, Norwegian fylke, Swedish fylka "array, draw up", Icelandic fylkja "muster a force, marshal") also has a parallel in OE fylcian "marshal"; the derivation ON fylking "battle array; host, legion" (Icelandic fylking"ranks, column") is found in the mainland languages in historical usage as fylking "phalanx"; the root is a formation on ON f�lk "people, nation, host"; the modern Scandinavian words (except in the case of the Norwegian fylke) are probably revived from Old Norse and are mainly confined to historical usage;

f�r "sheep" from Germanic *fahaz "hide", in ablaut relation to ON fax "mane" and related to older Danish faet "sheep's hide with wool on it", cf. OE f(i)eht, OFris fecht, MDu vacht "fleece, pelt"; cf. the stem form ON f� "livestock, goods, money" (Nynorsk fe, Swedish f�"cattle"; Gothic fa�hu, OE f�oh (> fee), OS fehu, OHG feho (> German Vieh)) from Germanic *_fehu_- "clipped wooly animal, sheep, small livestock" (Nielsen, de Vries).

galinn has relations in OE and OHG galan "to sing"; galinn could also denote "enchanted" (i.e. from song or incantation), usually by malevolent supernatural forces or beings and this sense was connected to the meaning "mad, frantic".

g�ta survives in northern English dialect goadick"mystery, riddle, puzzle" (Skeat); the West Germanic equivalent is *r�dilsi(< Germanic r�dan) (Haugen). cf. German R�tsel, Dutch raadsel"puzzle, riddle, mystery" English riddle (< OE r�dels"opinion, counsel; riddle"), OFris riedsal "riddle".

genta according to de Vries is related to Icelandic ganta "tease, mock", Nynorsk gantast "trifle, jest", ON gant "flirtation, dalliance", Danish gantes"flirt"; the word is a -t suffixed formation on ON gana "yawn, gape; stare" (de Vries, Nielsen).

geyja cf. OE g�ian "groan" (Haugen).

gleyma is a derivation originally implying "forgetfulness through revelry" from ON glaumr "merriment, revelry, noise", cf. OE gl�am (Nielsen).

gluggr related to gl�gg; cf. also glygg "opening; wind, storm (poet.)", Nynorsk glygge "gap in the cloud cover", i.e. caused by the wind; in ablaut relation to ON gl�a "shine, glow" (cf. OE gl�wan, OS gl�ian, OHG gluoen "glow, shine") (Nielsen).

gl�ggr is related to OE gl�aw "keen, wise, prudent" and OS and OHG glau"wise". It was borrowed into English, appearing in ME as _gleg_and is still found in northen English dialect glegg "clear-sighted, sharp" (de Vries, Thorsen).

g�lf provides ME golf "heap of sheafs", modern northern dialect goaf"haystore in a barn"; the etymology is uncertain (de Vries).

grein is found loaned into ME as grayne "twig" and survives in northern dialect grain, also "twig" (Thorsen).

gr�� the etymology is disputed - Alf Torp has linked it with Gothic gri�s"step, stride" while Wadstein has read *_ga_-hr�� and there a development of hr�� "storm; onset"; de Vries likes neither, preferring to associate it with gr��r "greed, hunger" which is at least logical. In this Nielsen agrees, since he links the word with Danish gr�dig.

gr�ss was loaned into English, recorded in ME as gr�s, now surviving in northern dialect grice(Thorsen).

gr�n has provided MLG gr�ne, Dutch green "fir tree"; de Vries considers it the same word as gr�n "moustache, lip" and related to greni "fir tree, spruce, pine"; the name of the tree stems from its overhang resembling the hair of the upper lip, cf. OHG grana "beard hair"; it is says Nielsen "et spec. nord. navn".

haf has cognates in poetic OE h�f "ocean" and OFris hef, MLG (from which German Haff "lagoon") and MDu haf, from Germanic *_hafa_- but only now meaning "sea, ocean" in Scandinavian; it is closely related to ON hafn"harbour, haven" and has ousted the simplex form inherited from Indo-European ON marr "sea" in the modern Mainland languages (Latin mare, OHG mari, German Meer, OE and modern English mere, Dutch meer etc.).

hefnd - from the related verb hefna comes the ME verb hevenen"avenge" (de Vries).

hestr has relations in OE hengest "stallion", OFris hengst, _hingst_and OHG hengist "gelding", German Hengst"stallion".

hitta or a parallel Scandinavian form has given ME hitten, modern English hit.

hl��a provides ME l��en "listen" and modern dialectal lithe "listen". It is related to OE hl�dan "make a noise" and OS �hl�dian"sound", among others (de Vries) - the West Germanic equivalents denote "make a noise, sound" - cf. ON hlj��a"sound", Icelandic hlj��a "cry out", Norwegian lyde, ljode "sound", Swedish ljuda "sound, make a noise".

hr�ddur is found borrowed into ME as red, radd (cf. Norwegian redd) (de Vries).

hr��sla de Vries links the word (and the accompanying verbs hr��a"frighten", hr��ast "be afraid, fear, dread", cf. Bokm�l reddes, Nynorsk reddast "be frightened", Swedish r�das "fear, dread") with ON hra�r "quick" (cf. Nynorsk rad "quick; direct", OE hr��e"quick", > modern rather) and thereto hr�ddr.

h�str� is a phonological development of older Norse h�sfr�, Old Danish and Swedish h�sfr�a (with this process having gone further in the modern mainland languages), after the stress fell on the initial syllables and the long vowels were shortened. The word gradually came to loose its semantic relation to h�s "house" + fr� "lady, wife" and the orthographic division in the word was lost, resulting in an unknown consonant cluster -sfr- and the subsequent exchange of the offending -f- for a more natural -t- (Nielsen); the word is originally a loan into the Scandinavian languages from MLG h�svrouwe "house-lady", whose constituents survive identically compounded in Dutch huisvrouw, German Hausfrau.

hv�la "rest, repose" has direct relations in Gothic _hveila_and West Germanic OE and OS hw�l, OFris hw�le, MDu wijl, German Weile "while, time" (Nielsen, de Vries).

h�gri a comparative "the more convenient" from the adjective h�gr"easy, convenient" (Icelandic h�gur"easy, convenient, possible", Danish hynde"cushion, bolster"), in ablaut relation to hagr"state, condition" (cf. Ice hagur "circumstances"; Danish behag "pleasure, liking" from MLG) (de Vries, Nielsen).

kaka provided ME kake"flat loaf, flat cake", English cake.

kaupang is probably an early loan from West-Germanic, in the which the word no longer exists. Cf. OE c�aping "marketplace" (perhaps loaned into West Scandinavian) and MLG k�pinge "trade centre" (perhaps transmitted via East Scandinavian).

kelda or a corresponding form is the source of English dialectal kelda"spring"; Nielsen assigns it ablaut status in relation to Old Danish kald�r (ON kaldr) "cold", a belief also stated by de Vries, who discusses the word's unclear affinity to Germanic *well�n (cf. OE wiella) and summises the North Germanic form *kal�i�n has perhaps descended from *_kval�i�n_from associations with the forerunner of kaldr. cf. German Quelle "well, spring, source", from a source corresponding to Old Swedish kvild from *kvel�i. (Nielsen, de Vries)

kensl a derivation of the verb kenna "know, recognise; feel" (cf. Norwegian kjenne, Swedish k�nna "know, recognise; feel"; Gothic kannjan"make known", OE cennan "conceive, bring forth, declare", OFris kenna, OHG kennen "recognise", MLG_kennen_), a causative formed from the preterite of kunna "know, understand" (cf. Norwegian kunne, Swedish kunna, Icelandic kunna "know, know how"; Gothic kunnan, OE cunnan (> Scots. ken), OS, OHG kunnan, German k�nnen "know, know how, be able to") (de Vries, Nielsen).

kerling provides modern English carling, carline "fore-and-aft beam in a vessel, used for supporting the deck" (recorded in the 1300s); cf. the cognates and root form ON karl"man", OE ceorl "freeman of the lowest class, husbandman" (> English churl), OHG karl "man, husband" (> German Kerl "chap, fellow"), MLG kerle, Dutch kerel "man, chap", Norwegian kar, Swedish karl "man, chap, fellow".

keyra or a form corresponding to it supplies ME kairen, cairen "go, return", modern dialectal cair "drive" and MLG k�ren,keren "travel" (de Vries).

kj�klingr - from Germanic *_keuka_-; West Germanic diminutive *_keuk_-_�na_gives MLG k�ken, OE c�cen (> chicken) and German K�chlein(Nielsen).

kj�t is found as a loan in ME (ket) and survives in northern dialect ket"carrion" (Thorsen).

knekkja has relations in MLG knacken "bang", Dutch knakken"cleave in twain, break off, crack" (de Vries).

kn�rr is recorded loaned as cnearr into late OE; cf. Dutch knar"treestump" (de Vries).

kona cf. the related Gothic qin�, OE cwene ("woman, wife; harlot" (> English quean)), OS quena, MLG quene, kone, MHG quene "woman, wife" from Germanic *kwen�n; to Germanic *_kw�ni_- are ascribed Gothic q�ns "woman, wife", OS qu�n "wife", OE cw�n "queen; consort, woman", (> English queen), Proto-Norse *_kw�ni_-, ON kv�n "wife" (Nielsen); (cf. Icelandic kvendi "quean, hussy", kvenast "marry", archaic and poetic kv�n "woman, wife").

kr�ka first appears in 1300s ME as crake, identical with the modern word (an alternative derivation is the related ON kr�kr "raven";

k�ti a derivation (just as the accompanying verb k�ta"gladden") of the adjective k�tr"merry, cheerful" (cf. Swedish k�ttja "lust", k�t "horny", Danish k�d "cheerful, playful, frisky, gay, wanton", Norwegian BM kj�te "gaiety; wantoness", k�t "frisky, boisterous; horny", NN k�tleik "gaiety") - the etymology is uncertain (de Vries).

logn or a corresponding form is the source of ME lune "calm, still, rest", northern English dialectal lown "calm, still; sheltered" (de Vries); according to Wess�n the underlying meaning of the word is "gleaming spot on the water" (therefore implying the water must be reasonably calm), later coming to denote a lull or calm in the wind, something of importance to seafarers.

lundr is still found in northern English dialect lum "grove" (Thorsen).

l�fa cf. Swedish luv "fringe", Norwegian luv "shock of hair".

lykill/n�gel etc. - the exact relations are disputed but the words are related and owe their differences in form to dialect considerations and phonological change.

lykill/n�gel opinion is divided on whether ONlykill or Old Danish nykil, Old Swedish nykil represents the older form, the first may be the case since lykill is only now found at the margins of the North Germanic speaking area. Nor can agreement be found upon the precise nature of the relationship between the l- and n- forms. Nielsen derives nykil from PN *_hnukila_- (tool naming suffix *ila + ON hn�ka"sit cowering") and therefore meaning "bowed tool". Forms with l- are also attested in Old East Scandinavian: Old Danish lykil, l�gel, Old Swedish lykil(whose descendants still exist in the dialects). The proto-form here is claimed to be PN *_lukila_- "locking tool" formed from *l�kan"lock" (cf. OE l�can "lock, close"). As Nielsen himself puts it "Forholdet mellom de to former er omstridt og uklart" (p.309) and the issue has not been resolved.

lyndi stands in umlaut relation to lund, which in ON meant "mind, temper" (cf. Icelandic lund "temperament", Danish lune "mood, spirits, humour", Norwegian lune "mood, humour") and supplied ME lund "nature, condition" (de Vries).

lyng is found in loaned ME ling, modern northen English dialect ling"heather".

l�ti stands in umlaut relation to ON lj�tr "ugly, hideous" (cf. NN ljot "ugly, hideous, disagreeable").

l�sa stands in umlaut relation to ON l�ss "lock" from PN *lamsaR (cf. Icelansdic l�s"lock", mainland Scandinavian l�s"lock"). The corresponding mainland verbs Danish and Norwegian l�se, Swedish l�sa, have (or had) in Danish dialectal l�se and Norwegian alternative form l�se, older Swedish l�sa, forms which more closely resemble the ON; rounding of the vowel to � is the result of analogy with l�s (Old Danish and Swedish las) (de Vries, Nielsen).

l�g (or rather the unattested singular *lagu) supplied OE lagu, ME laghe "law" etc. and modern law.

l�gma�r was loaned in MLG as lochman.

maki provided ME loan make "mate, match, spouse" and modern English dialectal maik; it has direct cognates in OE gem�cca "mate, equal, comrade; spouse" (> English match), OS gemako, OHG_gimahho_ (but not a loan from OS as some have supposed), and is related to Germanic *mak�n "make, do" (de Vries).

mettr and the modern forms related to it are from a Germanic adjective formed on the forebear of ON matr food, Scandinavian mat, mad (cf. English meat) "food" or formed from the past participle to Germanic *matjan(cf. Icelandic metta "satisfy, satiate", OE mettan "feed") (Nielsen).

mj�kr - gives rise by borrowing to ME m�oc, m�k "meek, mild" and to modern meek.

myrkr cf. identical adjective myrkr from Germanic *_merkwia_-, (Icelandic merkur "dark, gloomy, obscure", NN myrk, Danish and BM m�rk, Swedish m�rk"dark, gloomy, mirky" (the modern English word is a loan from Old Scandinavian)) and OE mierce, OS mirki "darkness, murk" (de Vries); the root of the word (just as in morgen"morning") supposes a development of *_mer_- "flicker, shimmer, glitter" (Nielsen).

m�rr - has given us ME m�re, modern mire; related are OE meos, OHG mios, German mies "lousy, rotten", ON mosi"moss; moorland", Nowegian, Danish mose"bog, marsh; moss", Swedish mossa"moss", MLG and MDu mos "moss") (de Vries); _moor_is essentially West Germanic (Danish mor, Norwegian mor "humus" are loaned from MLG m�r < OS _m�r_, OE _m�r_ (> moor), German _Moor_is a loan from Low German), however it may partly be from a word derived from ON merja "crush" and found as modern Swedish and Norwegian dialect mor"mouldered, crumbled matter", Icelandic mor"peat, mud, sediment" (Nielsen).

m�li stands in umlaut relation to ON m�l "language, speech" (cf. Norwegian, Swedish m�l"language; dialect", but the word also denotes "suit, action; case, affair" cf. NN m�l "errand, matter", OE m��el "council, meeting, assembly; speech", OS mathal "council, meeting, assembly; speech", OHG madal"law assembly"); ON m�la"speak" has direct equivalents in OE m�lan, ma�elian"make a speech", OFris m�lia, Gothic ma�ljan (de Vries).

n�ttver�r formed from a compound of ON n�tt "night" (but here denoting "evening") and ver�r"mealtime, eating" (cf. Nynorsk verd"meal") - the etymology is disputed but links have been made with Gothic wairdus, OE werd, wird, OHG wirt "host, head of the household" (the Scandinavian words identical with these, e.g. v�rd, v�rd "host, landlord, innkeeper" are loans from MLG) (de Vries, Nielsen).

n��ingr was borrowed into OE (n��ing), and survives in northern dialect nithing "miser".

n�kkurr the -n forms in modern NN nokon, BM noen, Danish nogenand Swedish n�gon stem from the equivalents to the ON accusative singular n�kkurn; cf. OE n�thw�"someone" (lit. "I know not whom") and therefore identical with the Common Scandinavian *_ni_-_veit_-_ek_-_hv�rir_from which the ON form and the others descend, Latin nescio quis "I know not whom" (de Vries).

oddi - English _odd_is the result of its meaning of "odd number" being loaned from Norse; cf. the related ON oddr "point of a weapon, spear; spur; leader".

orrosta was loaned into late OE (orreste) but did not survive long, appearing only once in ME as orrest.

ostr was loaned into English and survives in northern dialect oast "round soft cheese".

p�ka may be a loanword from Finnish piika "serving wench" (Nielsen, de Vries).

rannsaka provided ME ransaken, modern ransack; rann "large house" is a purely Norse form but is perhaps related to OE �rn"hall, large house" (de Vries).

r�n was loaned into OE as r�n "robbery, rapine".

refr is usually explained as "the red animal" the etymology has produced some wildly differing hypotheses, some linking it with Spanish, Portugeuse and Finnish words - all are guesses however; de Vries remarks, probably correctly, "das Wort ist aber nur Skand. bekannt..." (p. 436); Nielsen suggests it may be a word which in pre-literary times ousted the Scandinavian form of fox, since the latter word may have been a taboo word (p. 354);

reyna has a known early cognate in runic Gothic raunijaR "tester"; cf. the derived noun ON raun "trial, test; experience; proof" (Icelandic raun"trial, experience; distress; truth", Swedish r�n "discovery, observation; experience", NN r�yna "experiment, trial", r�ynd "experience, reality" (< ON reynd "experience"), r�ynsle "experience, fact" and the verbs Swedish r�na "meet with, come in for", Norwegian r�yne "try, test, experience".

rotinn provided ME with roten, modern English with rotten; rotna is however not the source of English _rot_which stems the native OE verb rotian "rot, putrefy".

s�ld has been loaned to several Baltic languages and Russian. Perhaps related is Dutch zeelt"tench" (de Vries); Nielsen relates it to ON s�l"sand launce" and suggests an Old Irish cognate; the etymology is disputed;

skegg has a relation in OE sceagga "head-hair" (> modern shag"knotted tangle").

skipti - the corresponding ON verb skipta "divide; distribute; change, shift" was borrowed in the OE period as sciftan(ME skiften "change, move") and retains the Norse form today in dialectal skift "shift, move"; cognates are for example native OE sciftan "divide, arrange" (> modern shift), OFris skifta "decide, determine", MLG schiften, schichten"divide; arrange" (de Vries, Barnhart).

sk�gr stands in ablaut relation to OE sceaga "copse" (modern dial. shaw). The Norse word is found loaned in ME sc�gh, which has given rise to northern dialect skeugh.

*skr�ma is inferred from ON skr�mast "flee, take to flight"; cf. MLG, MDu schromen "fear, be afraid" (de Vries), MDu schremen"scream" (Barnhart); English scream may be from the ON word or from a Low Germanic loan into OE which is not extant.

s�l has a forebear in Gothic sugil, while the OE word s�l is certainly influenced by the Norse form (cf. the native poetic OE sigel"sun", which is perhaps not related), note also Latin sol; as de Vries states it: "Die form mit l ist goto-nordisch, und daher nach England gelangt..." (p.529). The characterisic West Germanic form is _sunna_and is probably a development from the Indo-European form *sauel (de Vries);

spakr is the origin of ME spac "sober, thoughtful" and modern northern dialect spack"wise". No relations are known in Germanic (de Vries, p. 531).

sta�na is a inchoative verb formed fromsta�inn "stood still, stationary, stopped", the past particple of standa "stand";

stafkarl is a formation of stafr "staff, stick" and karl "fellow, chap" and this compound is obscured by the mutated modern Scandinavian forms;

st�rr is the origin of ME st�r, surviving in the northern dialectal adverbs store,stoore "very, much" and has cognates in OFris stor, OS st�ri, Dutch stoer "stalwart" (de Vries).

systkin is formed from systir with the Germanic suffixing element of belonging -�n (Nielsen); the form systirwith a -y- is a Nordic feature;

s�ng has a possible Germanic derivation of * sahia-wangiR "rigid grass pillow" (de Vries);

tj�rn gave ME terne, tarne and modern dialectal tarn "small lake, pond"; the etymology is disputed but it may have distant relatives with the IE languages;

tupp is a Swedish and Norwegian dialectal only word; Wess�n (1985) links it to topp in the sense of "crest, tuft";

tvilling a formation with -ling to forms corresponding to ON tvennr "twofold" (Nielsen);

umbo�sma�r from ON umbo� "charge, commission" (< bj��a um "commit to one's charge") and corresponding forms in Old East Norse (Nielsen); English ombudsman is a 20th century loan from Swedish;

unna has former cognates in OE unnan, OS unnan, OHG unnan "grant, bestow", MDu onnen and Dutch gunnen "grant" (de Vries);

�s�ll is the origin of ME usell "wretched, miserable" and northern dialect oozly "slovenly, miserable". Related are OE uns�le"bad", OHG unsalig "unhappy, miserable", Gothic uns�ls"bad, poor".

vargr has direct cognates in OE wearg "wolf; outlaw", OS warag "criminal, bandit", OHG warg, as well as the verbs Gothic gawarjan"curse", OE wiergan (through umlaut) "condemn, abuse, curse", wyrgan "strangle" (> modern worry), Dutch worgen "strangle", and a number of others in older Low Germanic languages; it is now a uniquely Nordic word to denote wolf;

vatn is a Scandinavian and Gothic ("goto-nordisch") form (from Germanic *_watan_-, an -n stem noun relic from an earlier syncopated case form), corresponding to Gotic wat�, as opposed to the formally deviating forms of the West Germanic languages (Wasser, water etc. from Germanic variant *_watar_-); Danish vand was ealier ODan. watn, wadn;

v�ndr both de Vries and Nielsen connect the root to ON v�"woe, calamity" and perhaps a past participle from a verb formed fromv� "blame"; an alternative interpretation points to ON v� "nook, corner" (Nielsen);

v�zka is related to v�tr "wet", cf. Swedish, Norwegian v�t, Danish v�d"damp, moist, wet" and OE w�t, OFris w�t "moist, wet".

�j�rr is probably an _s_- lacking cognate (Germanic *_�aura_-) to OE st�or"steer", Gothic stuir, OHG stior, German Stier, developed from Germanic *_steura_- and answering to Latin taurus"bull"(de Vries, Nielsen); _stj�ri_is found as a name for an ox in ON;

�ordyn, thordyn correspond to the compounding of Old Norse elements ��rr "Thor" (but here referring to thunder) and dynr "din, noise, clattering". In ON and modern Icelandic, the standard terms for "thunder" are �ryma and �ruma/�ruma, the latter standing in umlaut relation to �rymr "din, roar, rumble", with cognates in Latin, Old Irish (de Vries) and OE (�rymme"force, power, might" among other meanings) - ��rr < *�unnar and dynrstem from the same source.

�reyttr is a past participle to ON �reyta "strive hard" (and corresponding verbs in Old East Norse) that has been made into a common adjective;

�r�ll gives rise to modern English thrall, first appearing as OE �r�l. Related is OHG_drigil_ "servant" (de Vries).

�ungr has some relations in Old Slavonic and the Baltic languages but appears to be a unique form within Germanic (de Vries, Nielsen);

�v�tta stands in an uncertain relation to ON �v�"wash" (Icelandic �vo, Nynorsk, Swedish tv�, Danish (arch., literary) to "wash", OE �w�an, OS thwahan, MDu dwahen, OHG dwahan, MHG dwahen (de Vries).

�yngd and �yngsl stand in umlaut relation to �ungr "heavy".

�rn cf. OE earn, MLG arn, MDu aern, OHG arn;

Addendum:

barn is a Germanic word with cognates in OE_bearn_, OFris. bern, Gothic, OHG, OSax. barn, all meaning "child"; ME barn and northern English dialect and Scots _bairn_are from the ON and not survivals of the OE word (de Vries).

b�a stands in ablaut relation to OSax./OHG_b�an_ �live, occupy, plant�, OE b�an �live, dwell�, German _bauen_�build� (Nielsen, de Vries, Katlev).

b�r originally meant �dwelling�, later coming to mean �farm, village� (Nielsen).

draugr cf. OSax. gidr�g �apparition, vision, illusion�, OHG gitrog, MHG getroc �deception�, MDu. _ghedrocht_�deception; spectre� (de Vries).

drepa has cognates in MLG drepen, OHG treffan �hit� (German treffen �meet�), OE drepan �beat, hit; slay� (Nielsen).

d�rka has a relation in OE d�eran, d�ersian �honour, praise� (de Vries).

f� has cognates in Gothic/OHG f�han, MHG v�hen, OE f�n, MLG v�n, OFris f� (Nielsen, de Vries).

fjall has a cognate in German _Fels_�rock, cliff� (< OHG felis) (Nielsen); modern English dialect _fell_�mountain, hill� is a loan from Norse (de Vries).

forellrar has cognate words in MLG voreldern, German Voreltern �forefathers� (Nielsen).

fr� � appears in ME as fr�, fr� and modern English to and fro(de Vries).

fr�/frj� � appears in ME fri �seed, descendant; roe�, and modern English fry �roe� (de Vries). The word had a relation in Gothic fraiw (Nielsen).

gamall has cognates in OE gamol, MLG gamel, OHG _gamal_- �old� and OE gamelian, MLG gamelen �grow old� (de Vries).

gedda appears in ME as gedd(e) and modern English dialect as ged (de Vries).

ger(va) from common Germanic *_garwian_�prepare�, cf. OE gearwian, gierwan �make ready, prepare�, OHG _garawen_�make ready, prepare�, Low German gerwen, German gerben �tan�, German adj. gar �done, cooked�; ON gervi �equipment� (Katlev).

gipta derived from gipt, gift �gift, good luck�; cf. OE giftian �to give a woman in marriage�, OHG giften (de Vries).

g��a has cognates in MHG g�eten �make good�, OFris g�da, MDu _vergoeden_�recompense, replace� (Nielsen, de Vries).

h�nn (and h�n) de Vries reports �Das Wort is nur in Nordgerm. bezeugt.�

haugr cf. OHG houg, MHG houc �hill, mound�, German H�gel (de Vries).

helv�ti is a loan from OE hellew�te, OS helliw�ti �punishment in the underworld� (de Vries).

henda has relations in OE gehenden �hold�, OFris henda �catch� (de Vries).

hera� � etymology is uncertain but the word is �ausschliesslich Skand.� (de Vries).

h�ll � also found in LG holdern, OHG holantar, German Holunder (Katlev, De Vries).

hos is an unstressed form of hus "house". The word can be considered an East Norse development (Nielsen).

j�tunn � cf. OE _eoten_�giant�.

kasta � modern English cast is loaned from Old Norse.

krefja � cf. OE _crafian_�demand� (de Vries).

kumbl � cf. OE cum(b)_l_�standard�, OSax. kumbal, OHG kumpal �sign, mark� (de Vries).

kveld, cf. OE _cwildt�d_�evening�, OHG quiltiwerc �evening work�, German Kilt �nightly visit to one�s sweetheart� (de Vries, Katlev, Nilelsen).

l�gr is loaned into OE as l�h, and appeared in ME as l�h, l�g, giving rise to modern English low. It had relations in OFris l�ch, MLG l�ge, MDu lage, laech, lege, leech (de Vries).

leir � apparently related to ON l�m �lime, mortar� (de Vries).

lo�inn has relations in Gothic liudan, OE l�odan, OS liodan and OHG _liotan_�grow� (de Vries).

l�knir has etymologically related near-equivalents in Gothic l�keis, OS l�ki, OHG l�chi, OE l�ce �leech; doctor�, modern English leech. Leech has been replaced by doctor in English. Cf. also MHG l�chen�re; related is OHG l�chin �health�, MHG l�chen�e �consultation; witchcraft�. The root is ultimately a common Germanic word meaning �conjurer, physician� (Nielsen).

m�ki is based on a common Germanic word, *m�wa meaning "shrieking bird", cf. Germanic *m�wan "shriek, cry". The first element is ON m�r "sea-mew". German M�we and Dutch meeuw are related words, cf. OHG m�wen "cry, scream". Cf. also Swedish, and dialectal Norwegian, m�s(e), which comes from the same root (Katlev, Wess�n).

minni has a common Germanic (and ultimately IE) root, cf. OE gemynd �mind, memory, memorial�, modern English mind, Gothic gamunds �memory� (Katlev, Nielsen).

mykr � English _muck_is a loan from Scandinavian.

n�b�i shows related developments in OE neahgeb�r (modern neighbour), MLG n�ber, OHG n�hgib�r, except in the Nordic word the second element is Old Norse b� �dwelling, household�, cf. OE b�, German Bau, rather than �farmer�(Nielsen).

n�fning � has element -ing to verb ODan. n�fn�, ON nefna(Nielsen).

ok has relations in OS �k, OHG ouh (German auch), OE �ac �also� and OE ac �but�. It appears in ME as occ �and� (Nielsen, de Vries).

sannr, cf. OE/OSax.s�� �true� (modern English sooth), OHG sant (de Vries, Katlev, Nielsen).

sem has relations in OE same, OS sama, samo and OHG sama �as well� (de Vries).

skei� is loaned into OE as sc�g�, scei� (de Vries).

skei� � original meaning in ON was actually "slotted piece of wood"; cf. OE sc��, OFris skēthe, OSax skēthia, OHG sceida (German Scheide) "sheath", also OE scēa�el, MLG schēdele"peak; weaving reed" (De Vries) Cf. Common Gmic *skai�iō(Katlev).

skeyta � cf. noun in modern Danish sk�de �deed� derived from the homograph verb meaning �transfer real property�.

sk� appears in ME as sk�e, giving rise to modern sky. OE _sc�o_�cloud� is related (de Vries).

smj�r � cf. OSax./OHG smero �fat, tallow�, OE smeoru �fat, grease� (modern smear), German dial. Schmer �pork fat� (de Vries, Nielsen).

spyrja cf. MLG/MDu. sporen, OHG spurian,spurren �follow a track/trace, go to see, find out�, German _sp�ren_�track; notice, perceive�, OE spyrian �track, investigate; enquire after� (Nielsen).

ste�i � modern English stith, stithy are descended from Norse loans (de Vries).

steik � modern English steak is a loan from Scandinavian and appears in ME as steik(de Vries).

styggr � cf. Dutch stug �stiff, obstreperous�, MDu. stugge �unfriendly, curt� (de Vries, Katlev, Nielsen).

taka � cf. MDu. t�ken �grip, seize, take�, Gothic t�kan �take�; ME taken, Modern English take are loaned from Norse (de Vries).

tr�a � cf. Gothic trauan, OSax. tr��n, OHG tr�w�n, German _trauen_�trust�, OE tr�wian �trust (in), confide� (de Vries, Nielsen).

vitna has a related word in OE gewitnian �punish� (de Vries).

�� � cf. Gothic �ana, OE �on (Eng. then), OFris/OSax than, OHG than (German dann) (De Vries, Katlev, Nielsen).

�erna � modern English tern is a loanword from Scandinavian.

��fa has relations in OE ��f �deciduous tuft�, ��fel �bush, brush� (de Vries).

�yrnir � cf. OE weak noun �yrne �thornbush� (de Vries).

*Sources:

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Landr�, M.I. & Wangensteen, B. (red.): Bokm�lsordboka._Definisjons_- og rettskrivningsordbok, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo, 1996;

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Serjeantson, M.S.: A History of Foreign Words in English, London, 1935; (ch.4 "The Scandinavian Element");

Skautrup, Peter: Det danske sprogs historie, 4 vols. K�benhavn, 1944-70;

Skeat, Walter W.: English Dialects from the Eighth Century until the Present Day, Cambridge University Press, 1912;

_The Oxford_-Duden German Dictionary. German<>English. Oxford U.P. & Dudenverlag,1994;

Thorsen, Per: An Inquiry into the Scandinavian Elements in the Modern English Dialects (part I of the series "Anglo-Norse Studies"), Amsterdam: N.V. Swets en Zeitlinger, 1936;
Torp, Arne: Nordisk spr�k i nordisk og germansk perspektiv, Oslo: Novus Forlag, 1998;

Vinterberg, H. & Bodelsen, C.A.: _Dansk_-engelsk ordbog, (Gyldendals store r�de ordb�ger), Gyldendals, K�benhavn, 1990;

de Vries, Jan: Altnordisches Etymologisches W�rterbuch. Zweite verbesserte Auflage. Leiden: Brill, 2000;

Wess�n, Elias: De nordiska spr�ken, 6:e uppl. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1960;

Wess�n, Elias: V�ra ord, deras uttal och ursprung, Esselte Studium, Uppsala, 1985;

Zo�ga, Geir T.: A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic, London: Oxford University Press, 1961.

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