Coping Skills (original) (raw)
by Francine Shapiro
EMDR : The Breakthrough Therapy for Overcoming Anxiety, Stress, and Trauma by Francine Shapiro, Margot Silk Forrest
"EMDR, or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, is a new, nontraditional, very short-term therapy for treating trauma victims that utilizes rhythmical stimulation such as eye movements or hand taps"
Bibliographies
Articles
Recommended coping skills are called:
Approach coping strategies- the use of moderate exercise (unless you have an eating disorder), information seeking, and relaxation. These types of coping skills are described below.
Not recommended are:
Avoidance coping strategies- antisocial behavior, "partying" behavior, and substance use mediates the effect of stressors on increased psychological symptoms. Self blame and denial are also considered avoidance coping skills. (Broder, 1996) These types of coping skills inhibit healing.
Chesney, M., Neilands, T., Chambers, D., Taylor, J., & Folkman, S. (2006). British Journal of Health Psychology, 11 (3), p 421-437.
Positive coping methods listed were:
"Table 1. CSE scale: standardized exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) loadings
Study 1 Study 2
Factor EFA CFA CFA
Use problem-focused coping
Break an upsetting problem down into smaller parts .89 .87 .83
Sort out what can be changed, and what cannot be changed .86 .80 .75
Make a plan of action and follow it when confronted with a problem .85 .85 .80
Leave options open when things get stressful .80 .77 .82
Think about one part of the problem at a time .71 .78 .79
Find solutions to your most difficult problems .68 .78 .75
Resist the impulse to act hastily when under pressurise .61 – –
Try other solutions to your problems if your first solutions don’t work .54 – –
Talk positively to yourself .49 – –
Stand your ground and fight for what you want .48 – –
See things from other person’s point of view during a heated argument .46 – –
Develop new hobbies or recreations .29 – –
Stop unpleasant emotions and thoughts
Make unpleasant thoughts go away .97 .91 .88
Take your mind off unpleasant thoughts .89 .81 .80
Stop yourself from being upset by unpleasant thoughts .86 .89 .91
Keep from feeling sad .73 .78 .82
Keep from getting down in the dumps .55 – –
Look for something good in a negative situation .52 – –
Keep yourself from feeling lonely .44 – –
Visualize a pleasant activity or place .36 – –
Pray or meditate .29 – –
Get support from friends and family
Get friends to help you with the things you need .94 .95 .92
Get emotional support from friends and family .76 .73 .79
Make new friends .58 .63 .63
Do something positive for yourself when you are feeling discouraged .42 – –
Get emotional support from community organizations or resources .22 – –"
Littleton, H. & Breitkopf, C. (2006). COPING WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF RAPE. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30 (1), p106-116.
"The coping strategies that a victim of a rape engages in can have a strong impact on the development and persistence of psychological symptoms. Research provides evidence that victims who rely heavily on avoidance strategies, such as suppression, are less likely to recover successfully than those who rely less heavily on these strategies. The present study utilized structural path analysis to identify predictors of avoidance coping following rape and examined factors in the assault itself (e.g., force, alcohol use), sequelae of the assault (e.g., self-blame, loss of self-worth), and social support as potential direct and indirect predictors of avoidance coping. From a sample of 1,253 university women, the responses of 216 women who endorsed an experience of rape were examined. Results suggested that sequelae of the assault such as feelings of self-blame and negative reactions received from others are potentially important predictors of avoidance coping. Implications of the results for future rape recovery research are discussed."
Littleton, H., Breitkopf, C. (2006). Coping with the experience of rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(1), pp. 106-116.
Quote:
"Research provides evidence that victims who rely heavily on avoidance strategies, such as suppression, are less likely to recover successfully than those who rely less heavily on these strategies. The present study utilized structural path analysis to identify predictors of avoidance coping following rape and examined factors in the assault itself (e.g., force, alcohol use), sequelae of the assault (e.g., self-blame, loss of self-worth), and social support as potential direct and indirect predictors of avoidance coping. "
Frazier, P., Mortensen, H., Steward, J. (2005). Coping Strategies as Mediators of the Relations Among Perceived Control and Distress in Sexual Assault Survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(3), pp. 267-278.
Quote:
"Past control (behavioral self-blame) was associated with more distress partly because it was associated with greater social withdrawal. Present control (control over the recovery process) was associated with less distress partly because it was associated with less social withdrawal and more cognitive restructuring."
Moos, R. (1997). Assessing approach and avoidance: Coping skills and their determinants and outcomes. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24(1), pp. 58-64.
Quote:
"Describes the development and psychometric characteristics of the Coping Responses Inventory (CRI), which assesses eight types of approach and avoidance coping responses among adults and youth. To illustrate some of the research applications of measuring coping responses, findings from longitudinal studies of adaptation among distressed and healthy individuals and two case reports (a 23-yr-old female in an abusive relationship and a 16-yr-old with an unplanned pregnancy) are reviewed. One relatively consistent finding is that individuals who rely more on approach and less on avoidance coping tend to experience better health and well-being. Applications of the work for clinicians and program evaluators are noted and issues for future research on stress and coping theory are considered."
Broder, B. (1996). Adolescent stress and styles of coping: Predictors and moderators of psychological distress. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 57(5-B), pp. 3126.
Quote:
"The present study hypothesized that the effect of coping on the relationship between life events (stressors) and psychological symptoms (distress) in adolescence depends on the type of coping skills used, specifically that avoidance coping skills mediate, and approach coping skills buffer or moderate, this relationship. As part of a large community-based prevention trial, a random sample of 9th, 10th and 11th grade students was administered a self-report survey that included life events, coping strategies, and psychological symptoms (anxiety, depression, and somatic complaints). Using baseline and one year follow-up data, longitudinal single and multiple group structural equation models were used to evaluate mediating and moderating effects of different coping strategies. Results supported the hypothesis that adolescent use of avoidance coping strategies of antisocial behavior, "partying" behavior, and substance use mediates the effect of stressors on increased psychological symptoms. The results also supported a stress-buffering effect of the use of high levels of approach coping strategies of exercise, information seeking, and relaxation. High levels of approach coping protect against the negative effects of stressful life events on psychological symptoms. Some gender and age-specific differences in levels of stressors and distress were observed. Females reported more stressful life events and more psychological symptoms or distress than males. Older students reported more stressful life events than younger students. The hypothesized results would suggest that prevention programs aimed at decreasing risk for mental illness, drug abuse, and problem behaviors in adolescents should emphasize both decreasing the use of avoidance coping strategies and increasing the use of approach coping strategies."
McGlone, G. (2004). Bibliography: Recovery and Healing From Sexual Abuse. Human Development, 25 (1). p47-48, 2p.
Quote:
"Presents a bibliography of articles on recovery and healing from sexual abuse. "The Me Nobody Knows: A Guide for Teen Survivors"; "Outgrowing the Pain Together: Partners, Friends, and Families of Abuse Victims"; "Outgrowing the Pain"; "Someone in My Family Molested Children"; "That's Never Been Told: Healing the Wounds of Childhood Sexual Abuse"; "How Long Does It Hurt? A Guide to Recovering From Incest and Sexual Abuse for Teenagers, Their Friend, and Their Families"."
Resick, P., Schnicke, M. (1990). Treating symptoms in adult victims of sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol 5(4). pp. 488-506.
Quote:
"Reviews the literature on the theories and treatment of sexual assault victims. Crisis theory and intervention are addressed, followed by a discussion of cognitive and behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and sexual dysfunctions. Treatments considered include exposure techniques, coping skills packages, and cognitive therapy. A description of information processing theory is included." PsycINFO Database
Hirai, M., Clum, G. (2005). An Internet-Based Self-Change Program for Traumatic Event Related Fear, Distress, and Maladaptive Coping. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18 (6). p631-636. link
Quote:
"This study compared the efficacy of an Internet-based, 8-week self-help program for traumatic event-related consequences (SHTC) (n = 13) to a wait-list (WL) condition (n = 14). The SHTC consisted of cognitive–behavioral modules that progressed from the least anxiety-provoking component (i.e., information) to the most anxiety-provoking (i.e., exposure). Participants were those who had experienced a traumatic event and had been experiencing subclinical levels of symptoms associated with the event. Participants mastered the material in each module before proceeding to the next module. Pre- and post-treatment assessments revealed that SHTC participants decreased avoidance behavior, frequency of intrusive symptoms, state anxiety, and depressive symptoms, and increased coping skills and coping self-efficacy significantly more than WL participants. SHTC participants demonstrated more clinically significant improvement than WL individuals."
Lawler, C., Ouimette, P., Dahlstedt, D. (2005). Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, Coping, and Physical Health Status Among University Students Seeking Health Care. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18 (6). p741-750. link
Quote:
"This study examined posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, coping, and physical health status in students reporting a trauma history (N = 138) using structural equation modeling. Participants completed questionnaires assessing PTSD symptoms, coping specific to health-related and trauma-related stressors and physical health. After accounting for coping with health-specific problems, trauma-specific avoidance coping was uniquely associated with poorer health status. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms were associated with poorer physical health status, controlling for age, health behaviors, and other psychopathology. In addition, the effect of PTSD symptoms on poorer health status was mediated by health- and trauma-specific avoidance coping. Results suggest that university health centers should screen for PTSD and consider psychoeducational programs and coping skills interventions for survivors of trauma."
Iglesias, S., Azzara, S., Squillace, M., Jeifetz, M., Lores Arnais, M., Desimone, M., Diaz, L. (2005). A study on the effectiveness of a stress management programme for College students. Pharmacy Education, 5 (1). p27-31, 5p. link
Quote:
"The purpose of this study was to obtain empirical evidence of the effects of a stress management programme on undergraduate Pharmacy and Biochemistry students. As a first stage, we evaluated beliefs, academic skills and personal stress involvement problems in 136 students. As a second stage, we designed a stress management pilot programme (SMPP) including psycho-educational resources; coping skills training; deep breathing, relaxation and guided imaginary techniques; cognitive restructuring and time management. To evaluate the effects of the SMPP on students we assessed a set of variables before and after the treatment: Anxiety, anger, stress, coping strategies, helplessness, salivary cortisol and psycho-physiological reactivity levels. Towards the end of their SMPP exposure, students had lower levels of stress, anxiety, anger, neuroticism, helplessness and salivary cortisol. These results suggest that SMPP has a promising applicability to deal with high levels of stress, improving the students academic performance and health."
Brownhill, S. ( 2004). The Coping Quadrant: working with and against depression. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 17 (4). p425-435, 11p. link
Quote:
"This paper presents a model of coping that intersects the emotion and social dimensions of depression. It demonstrates the dynamic socio-emotion interplay and modulation of affect in response to our environment, specifically in relationship to others. Humans can be socially disconnected but emotionally repleted, or socially connected but emotionally depleted, but those who are depressed are more likely to be socially disconnected and emotionally depleted. Conversely, those who are socially connected and emotionally repleted are more likely to employ adaptive coping skills to alleviate emotional distress. When applied to counselling sessions, the model helps to explain client and counsellor dissatisfaction with the process and outcome of the interaction. The model is designed to increase awareness of emotion regulation and to enhance coping skills by offering a practical approach to managing socio-emotion response to the vicissitudes of life."
Carr, A. (2004). Interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatric Rehabilitation, 7 (4). p231-244, 14p. link
Quote:
"Clinical features, epidemiology and aetiology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are outlined. Treatment outcome studies involving children with PTSD who have survived traumatic accidents, natural disasters and child sexual abuse are reviewed. An evidence-based assessment and treatment protocol is outlined for children and adolescents with PTSD. Key components of effective treatment are psycho-education about trauma reactions, sustained exposure to trauma-related cues and memories until habituation occurs, coping skills training for children to help them manage anxiety and parent training to equip parents with the skills to help them facilitate their children's recovery."
Moos, R., Holahan, C. (2003). Dispositional and contextual perspectives on coping: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59 (12). p1387-1403, 17p. link
Quote:
"The clinical disciplines have witnessed a rapidly growing literature on the conceptualization and measurement of coping and on the role of coping in confronting stressful life circumstances and maintaining adaptive functioning. This literature has spawned a diversity of concepts and contrasting perspectives on the determinants and effects of coping. To address this complexity, we comment on dispositional and contextual perspectives on the coping process, describe the domains of coping styles and coping skills, and review some measures of these constructs. Next, we present a conceptual framework that integrates key aspects of these constructs and use the framework to guide a selective review of the linkages between personal and social resources, coping skills, and adaptive functioning. We then consider applications of the framework to clinical practice."
Simons, L., Ducette, J., Kirby, K., Stahler, G., Shipley Jr., T. (2003). Childhood Trauma, Avoidance Coping, and Alcohol and Other Drug Use Among Women in Residential and Outpatient Treatment Programs. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 21 (4). p37-54, 18p link
Quote:
"This study evaluates the different types of childhood trauma, avoidance coping, and patterns of drug and alcohol use among 112 alcohol and drug abusing females in outpatient and residential treatment. A passive research design with self-report surveys was administered to female participants during treatment to assess the relationship between childhood trauma, coping methods, and alcohol and drug use. A multiple regression analysis demonstrated that women with a history of emotional abuse were more likely to engage in avoidance coping skills than those without a history of emotional abuse, which provides some support for the theory that alcohol and drug abuse may be an avoidance coping method for childhood trauma."
Lefkowitz, C., Paharia, I., Prout, M., Debiak, D., Bleiberg, J. (2005). Animal-Assisted Prolonged Exposure: A Treatment for Survivors of Sexual Assault Suffering Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Society & Animals, 13 (4). p275-295, 21p. link
Quote:
"This paper proposes the development of a new model of treatment for survivors of sexual abuse suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdock (1991) and Foa, Rothbaum, and Furr (2003) support Prolonged Exposure (PE) as a highly effective treatment for PTSD. However, PE can be intimidating to survivors, contributing to hesitancy to participate in the treatment. This paper posits that animal-assisted therapy (AAT) will decrease anxiety, lower physiological arousal, enhance the therapeutic alliance, and promote social lubrication. The paper also posits that AAT will enhance the value of PE by making it more accessible to survivors, increasing social interaction, and perhaps decreasing the number of sessions required for habituation to the traumatic memories."
"Post-traumatic stress disorder." Jacqueline L. Longe, M.D. and Jill Granger, MS The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Second Edition. Jacqueline L. Longe, Editor. 5 vols. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2001.
Quote:
"Several types of therapy may be useful and they are often combined in a multi-faceted approach to understand and treat this condition.
-Cognitive-behavioral therapy focuses on changing specific actions and thoughts through repetitive review of traumatic events, identification of negative behaviors and thoughts, and stress management. - Group therapy has been useful in decreasing psychological distress, depression, and anxiety in some PTSD sufferers such as sexually abused women and war veterans. - Psychological debriefing has been widely used to treat victims of natural disasters and other traumatic events such as bombings and workplace shootings, however, recent research shows that psychological debriefing may increase the stress response. Since this type of debriefing focuses on the emotional response of the survivor, it is not recommended for individuals experiencing an extreme level of grief.
Chibbaro, J. S., Jackson, C. M. (2006). Helping Students Cope in an Age of Terrorism: Strategies for School Counselors. Professional School Counseling, 9 (4), p314-321.
"That educators can foster the development of coping skills in young children through heightened sensory awareness, positive expectations, a clear understanding of one's strengths relating to accomplishment, and developing a sense of humor. Taking action is among the coping skills helpful to strengthen students' sense of self-control. Sklare (1997) wrote, "Getting clients to take action first shows them that they are able to succeed regardless of previous obstacles" (p. 14). Action and movement help overcome a feeling of helplessness that often arises from fear."
Anson, K., Ponsford, J. (2006). Evaluation of a coping skills group following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 20 (2). link
"Adaptive coping, as measured on the Coping Scale for Adults, increased significantly immediately following intervention. However, no significant changes in anxiety, depression, self-esteem and psychosocial function were observed on the measures used. Conclusions : The results suggest that it may be possible to modify coping strategy use following brain injury, through CBT."
Acierno, R. Rheingold, Alyssa A., Resnick, Heidi S., Stark-Riemer, Wendy (2004). Preliminary evaluation of a video-based intervention for older adult victims of violence. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17 (6).
"Results indicated that older adult victims assigned to the video condition and assessed later that day exhibited greater awareness of crime-related symptoms, healthy coping strategies, and safely planning strategies than did the older adult victims assigned to standard practice of care. However, despite knowledge gains, and in contrast to our predictions, no differences on measures of anxiety or depression were evident"
Bloks, Hans; van Furth, Eric F.; Callewaert, Ineke; Hoek, Hans W. (2004). Coping Strategies and Recovery in Patients with a Severe Eating Disorder. Eating Disorders, 12 (2). link
"Recovery is associated with less Avoiding, less Passive Reacting, more Active Tackling, and more Seeking of Social Support. Passive Reacting emerged as a robust predictor of recovery. Seeking Social Support predicted bulimic symptomatology and global functioning. Building coping skills in eating disorder patients may start early in treatment and may make patients less vulnerable for relapse."
Rekowski, L., Miejan, T. (2006). Victim No More: How To Break Free From Self-Judgement. Hampton Roads Publishing; Charlottesville. Retrieved Jan 14, 2006, from National Criminal Justice Reference Service Abstracts.
"Based on her own experiences, the author discusses how four major life challenges--health, relationships, self-worth, and abundance--are linked to the consciousness of being a victim, which can lead to a cycle of self-judgment and the abuse of one's self and others; guidance is given on how this state of mind can be transformed into self-love and spiritual empowerment. The author speaks out of her own experiences of abuse, including a violent date rape, multiple incidents of domestic abuse...She outlines five steps for this escape. First, commit yourself to removing the dominant self-consciousness of being a victim. Second, make a commitment to use the tools offered in this book for beginning and maintaining a plan of action. Third, say "no" to old negative thoughts from yourself or others that have for so long determined how you feel about yourself. Fourth, be aware of and catch yourself when you start talking negatively about yourself. Finally, surround yourself with others who want you to succeed in developing a new sense of self and will join you in the journey not only to help you but also them."
Search terms: LIFE skills, BEHAVIOR therapy, coping skill, coping skills, *Coping Behavior; *Help Seeking Behavior; *Nursing; *Rape; SurvivorsADJUSTMENT (Psychology), INTERPERSONAL relations, SOCIAL skills, STRESS (Psychology), ADJUSTMENT (Psychology), EATING disorders, LIFE skills, DISEASES -- Relapse, SOCIAL support, SYMPTOMS
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