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/Adieresis 8#305 /Aring 8#306 /AE 8#307 /Ccedilla 8#310 /Egrave 8#311 /Eacute 8#312 /Ecircumflex 8#313 /Edieresis 8#314 /Igrave 8#315 /Iacute 8#316 /Icircumflex 8#317 /Idieresis 8#320 /Eth 8#321 /Ntilde 8#322 /Ograve 8#323 /Oacute 8#324 /Ocircumflex 8#325 /Otilde 8#326 /Odieresis 8#327 /multiply 8#330 /Oslash 8#331 /Ugrave 8#332 /Uacute 8#333 /Ucircumflex 8#334 /Udieresis 8#335 /Yacute 8#336 /Thorn 8#337 /germandbls 8#340 /agrave 8#341 /aacute 8#342 /acircumflex 8#343 /atilde 8#344 /adieresis 8#345 /aring 8#346 /ae 8#347 /ccedilla 8#350 /egrave 8#351 /eacute 8#352 /ecircumflex 8#353 /edieresis 8#354 /igrave 8#355 /iacute 8#356 /icircumflex 8#357 /idieresis 8#360 /eth 8#361 /ntilde 8#362 /ograve 8#363 /oacute 8#364 /ocircumflex 8#365 /otilde 8#366 /odieresis 8#367 /divide 8#370 /oslash 8#371 /ugrave 8#372 /uacute 8#373 /ucircumflex 8#374 /udieresis 8#375 /yacute 8#376 /thorn 8#377 /ydieresis] def /Times-Roman /Times-Roman-iso isovec ReEncode /Times-Bold /Times-Bold-iso isovec ReEncode /$F2psBegin {$F2psDict begin /$F2psEnteredState save def} def /$F2psEnd {$F2psEnteredState restore end} def F2psBegin10setmiterlimitn−10007279m−1000−1000l13547−1000l135477279lcpclip0.060000.06000scF2psBegin 10 setmiterlimit n -1000 7279 m -1000 -1000 l 13547 -1000 l 13547 7279 l cp clip 0.06000 0.06000 sc % Polyline 15.000 slw [15 68] 68 sd n 10575 5925 m 11100 5925 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline gs clippath 10806 5415 m 11046 5475 l 10806 5535 l 11130 5535 l 11130 5415 l cp clip n 10575 5475 m 11100 5475 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10806 5415 m 11046 5475 l 10806 5535 l 10806 5475 l 10806 5415 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 10806 5640 m 11046 5700 l 10806 5760 l 11130 5760 l 11130 5640 l cp clip n 10575 5700 m 11100 5700 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10806 5640 m 11046 5700 l 10806 5760 l 10806 5700 l 10806 5640 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 10575 6075 m 11100 6075 l 11100 6225 l 10575 6225 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11175 5550 m gs 1 -1 sc (subfield) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11175 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (system/approach) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11175 6000 m gs 1 -1 sc (related work) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11175 6225 m gs 1 -1 sc (important) col0 sh gr % Polyline gs clippath 3973 1157 m 3728 1119 l 3962 1037 l 3639 1068 l 3651 1188 l cp clip n 3675 1125 m 7575 750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3973 1157 m 3728 1119 l 3962 1037 l 3968 1097 l 3973 1157 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 1572 2282 m 1325 2306 l 1531 2169 l 1226 2279 l 1267 2392 l cp clip n 1275 2325 m 3150 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 1572 2282 m 1325 2306 l 1531 2169 l 1552 2225 l 1572 2282 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3422 2051 m 3311 2272 l 3305 2025 l 3235 2341 l 3352 2367 l cp clip n 3300 2325 m 3450 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3422 2051 m 3311 2272 l 3305 2025 l 3364 2038 l 3422 2051 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4723 2129 m 4902 2298 l 4664 2233 l 4947 2392 l 5006 2287 l cp clip n 4950 2325 m 3750 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4723 2129 m 4902 2298 l 4664 2233 l 4694 2181 l 4723 2129 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5174 2726 m 4982 2881 l 5078 2654 l 4884 2913 l 4980 2985 l cp clip n 4950 2925 m 5175 2625 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5174 2726 m 4982 2881 l 5078 2654 l 5126 2690 l 5174 2726 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8871 905 m 9031 1093 l 8801 1003 l 9065 1191 l 9134 1094 l cp clip n 9075 1125 m 8550 750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8871 905 m 9031 1093 l 8801 1003 l 8836 954 l 8871 905 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8750 3359 m 8949 3504 l 8705 3470 l 9005 3592 l 9050 3481 l cp clip n 9000 3525 m 4200 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8750 3359 m 8949 3504 l 8705 3470 l 8728 3414 l 8750 3359 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8817 3988 m 8592 4091 l 8742 3894 l 8489 4097 l 8564 4191 l cp clip n 8550 4125 m 8925 3825 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8817 3988 m 8592 4091 l 8742 3894 l 8780 3941 l 8817 3988 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 10521 4013 m 10746 4115 l 10500 4131 l 10819 4189 l 10840 4071 l cp clip n 10800 4125 m 9150 3825 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10521 4013 m 10746 4115 l 10500 4131 l 10511 4072 l 10521 4013 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4490 3447 m 4248 3500 l 4436 3340 l 4146 3485 l 4200 3592 l cp clip n 4200 3525 m 4800 3225 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4490 3447 m 4248 3500 l 4436 3340 l 4463 3394 l 4490 3447 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5756 3351 m 5950 3503 l 5707 3460 l 6003 3592 l 6052 3482 l cp clip n 6000 3525 m 5325 3225 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5756 3351 m 5950 3503 l 5707 3460 l 5731 3406 l 5756 3351 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5667 3988 m 5442 4091 l 5592 3894 l 5339 4097 l 5414 4191 l cp clip n 5400 4125 m 5775 3825 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5667 3988 m 5442 4091 l 5592 3894 l 5630 3941 l 5667 3988 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 6408 3894 m 6557 4091 l 6333 3988 l 6586 4191 l 6661 4097 l cp clip n 6600 4125 m 6225 3825 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 6408 3894 m 6557 4091 l 6333 3988 l 6370 3941 l 6408 3894 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8925 4731 m 8678 4715 l 8904 4613 l 8585 4671 l 8606 4789 l cp clip n 8625 4725 m 10275 4425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8925 4731 m 8678 4715 l 8904 4613 l 8914 4672 l 8925 4731 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 10560 4631 m 10321 4698 l 10500 4527 l 10219 4688 l 10279 4792 l cp clip n 10275 4725 m 10800 4425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10560 4631 m 10321 4698 l 10500 4527 l 10530 4579 l 10560 4631 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 11658 4494 m 11807 4691 l 11583 4588 l 11836 4791 l 11911 4697 l cp clip n 11850 4725 m 11475 4425 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 11658 4494 m 11807 4691 l 11583 4588 l 11620 4541 l 11658 4494 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 450 1050 m 7275 1050 l 7275 4500 l 450 4500 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 7350 3450 m 12525 3450 l 12525 5100 l 7350 5100 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline gs clippath 8835 1856 m 8596 1923 l 8775 1752 l 8494 1913 l 8554 2017 l cp clip n 8550 1950 m 9075 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8835 1856 m 8596 1923 l 8775 1752 l 8805 1804 l 8835 1856 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 10453 1824 m 10672 1937 l 10425 1941 l 10740 2015 l 10768 1898 l cp clip n 10725 1950 m 9450 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10453 1824 m 10672 1937 l 10425 1941 l 10439 1883 l 10453 1824 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 7350 525 m 11325 525 l 11325 2325 l 7350 2325 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 2925 2625 m 1125 5325 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 4800 2625 m 3150 3150 l 2625 4725 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3150 3150 m 3825 5325 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 4200 3825 m 4800 4725 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 5475 4425 m 6000 5325 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9000 2250 m 10125 2625 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 6000 4125 m 7200 4125 l 7200 4425 l 6000 4425 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 7425 4725 m 9300 4725 l 9300 5025 l 7425 5025 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9450 4725 m 10800 4725 l 10800 5025 l 9450 5025 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 11025 4725 m 12450 4725 l 12450 5025 l 11025 5025 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 8475 2250 m 5400 2925 l gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3075 1575 m gs 1 -1 sc (\(micro-level\)) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8700 1575 m gs 1 -1 sc (\(marco-level\)) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 600 1350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 2400 1350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2 Intelligent Software Agents) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 600 2550 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.1 Languages) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 2400 2550 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.1 Architectures) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4275 2550 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.1 Theories) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4050 3150 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.2 Communication) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3675 3750 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.2 CYC) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 5475 3750 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.2 KSE) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4950 4350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.2 KIF) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7725 750 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1 DAI) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 10650 825 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8475 1350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1 Classical DAI) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7875 2175 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1 CONTRACT NET) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10200 2175 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1 ETHER) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8400 3750 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3 Brokering) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 11850 3750 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7875 4350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3 Search engines) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9975 4350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3 Knowledge-based brokers) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9150 2775 m gs 1 -1 sc (1 Connection problem) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1950 4950 m gs 1 -1 sc (3.2 Modal logics) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 750 5550 m gs 1 -1 sc (4 Planning) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 2925 5550 m gs 1 -1 sc (3.3 Meta-Knowledge) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4275 4950 m gs 1 -1 sc (4.2 Ontologies) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 5625 5550 m gs 1 -1 sc (3.1 FOPL) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6150 4350 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.2 KQML) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7575 4950 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1 ABSI facilitator) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9600 4950 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2 SHADE) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11175 4950 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.3 InfoSleuth) col0 sh gr F2psBegin10setmiterlimitn−10007279m−1000−1000l13547−1000l135477279lcpclip0.060000.06000scF2psEnd rs %%EndDocument @endspecial 1105 2143 a Ft(Figure)31 b(1:)43 b(Ov)m(erview)34 b(of)e(this)h(section)118 2428 y(Jennings,)g(1996)o(])46 b(whic)m(h)h(motiv)-5 b(ates)45 b(us)h(to)g(brie\015y)g(consider)h (this)e(area)h(\014rst.)85 b(D)m(AI)46 b(is)118 2609 y(the)31 b(sub\014eld)g(of)g(AI)f(that)h(is)f(in)m(terested)i(in)e (concurrency)i(in)e(AI)h(computations.)42 b(Its)31 b(main)118 2789 y(concerns)f(ha)m(v)m(e)h(b)s(een)e Fr(distribute)-5 b(d)31 b(pr)-5 b(oblem)31 b(solving)p Ft(,)d(i.e.)h(ho)m(w)g(the)g (task)h(of)e(solving)f(a)i(par-)118 2970 y(ticular)36 b(problem)g(can)i(b)s(e)f(divided)g(amongst)g(a)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)g(of) g(a)m(v)-5 b(ailable)35 b(problem)h(solv)m(ers,)118 3151 y(and)k Fr(multi-agent)i(systems)p Ft(,)g(i.e.)e(ho)m(w)h(a)f (collection)e(of)i(autonomous)g(in)m(telligen)m(t)e(agen)m(ts)118 3331 y(can)e(co)s(ordinate)e(their)g(kno)m(wledge,)j(goals,)e(skills,)g (and)g(plans)g(join)m(tly)f(to)g(tak)m(e)i(action)f(or)118 3512 y(to)d(solv)m(e)h(problems.)264 3718 y(D)m(AI)25 b(has)f(not)g(b)s(een)h(v)m(ery)h(concerned)g(with)e(the)h(problem)e (of)g(capabilit)m(y)g(brok)m(ering.)41 b(As)118 3899 y(p)s(oin)m(ted)29 b(out)h(in)f([W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge)30 b(and)j(Jennings,)g(1995)o(,)d(page)g(142],)f(the)h(classical)e (emphasis)118 4079 y(in)42 b(D)m(AI)h(has)g(mostly)e(b)s(een)j(on)e (the)h Fr(macr)-5 b(o-level)p Ft(,)44 b(i.e.)e(on)g(so)s(cial)f (phenomena)i(and)g(the)118 4260 y(emergen)m(t)24 b(b)s(eha)m(viour)g (of)g(a)f(group)h(of)f(problem)g(solv)m(ers.)41 b(Researc)m(h)26 b(in)d(in)m(telligen)m(t)e(soft)m(w)m(are)118 4440 y(agen)m(ts)32 b(emphasises)f(the)g Fr(micr)-5 b(o-level)p Ft(,)30 b(i.e.)g(the)h(arc) m(hitecture)h(and)f(theories)g(of)f(individual)118 4621 y(agen)m(ts.)41 b(The)23 b(latter)e(is)g(where)j(the)e(problem)f(of)h (capabilit)m(y)e(brok)m(ering)i(has)h(b)s(een)f(addressed)118 4801 y(previously)33 b(and)f(at)h(whic)m(h)g(w)m(e)g(will)e(lo)s(ok)g (in)h(section)g(2.2.)264 5008 y(Tw)m(o)37 b(arc)m(hitectures)g(that)e (grew)h(out)g(of)f(D)m(AI)h(are)f(w)m(orth)h(men)m(tioning)e(here.)54 b(Firstly)-8 b(,)118 5188 y(there)34 b(is)g(the)g Fq(contra)n(ct)k(net) 33 b Ft([Smith,)f(1977)o(,)h(Da)m(vis)g(and)f(Smith,)g(1983)o(].)46 b(In)34 b(the)g Fq(con-)118 5369 y(tra)n(ct)j(net)31 b Ft(arc)m(hitecture)i(a)f(giv)m(en)g(problem)f(is)h(\014rst)g(decomp)s 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(pattern-directed)118 1697 y(in)m(v)m(o)s(cation)k(formalism)e(for)j (parallel)e(problem)h(solving.)51 b Fq(ether)34 b Ft(pro)m(vides)i(a)f Fq(planner)p Ft(-)118 1877 y(lik)m(e)23 b(language)f(where)j(pro)s (cedure)f(in)m(v)m(o)s(cation)e(is)h(driv)m(en)h(b)m(y)g(pattern)g (matc)m(hing.)39 b(Unlik)m(e)23 b(in)118 2058 y(previous)30 b(approac)m(hes,)h(con)m(trol)d(o)m(v)m(er)j(the)e(distribution)e(is)i (not)g(in)f(the)i(hands)g(of)f(the)g(user.)118 2238 y(Instead,)47 b(the)d(patterns)f(are)h(used)g(to)f(distribute)f(the)i (problem-solving)c(pro)s(cess.)76 b(The)118 2419 y(basic)38 b(mec)m(hanism)f(for)g(the)h(distribution)e(is)h(b)m(y)h(broadcasting)g (of)f(patterns.)59 b(No)m(w)m(ada)m(ys)118 2599 y(virtually)30 b(all)f(D)m(AI)j(systems)h(use)g(patterns)f(to)g(distribute)f(the)h (problem-solving)d(pro)s(cess,)118 2780 y(but)36 b(the)g(sp)s (eci\014cs)h(of)f Fq(ether)f Ft(are)g(not)h(used)h(an)m(ymore)f(whic)m (h)g(is)f(wh)m(y)j(w)m(e)e(will)e(not)h(lo)s(ok)118 2961 y(at)d(it)g(an)m(y)h(further.)118 3275 y Fp(2.2)135 b(In)l(telligen)l (t)48 b(Soft)l(w)l(are)f(Agen)l(ts)118 3546 y Ft(In)m(telligen)m(t)d (soft)m(w)m(are)j(agen)m(ts)f(ha)m(v)m(e)g(recen)m(tly)g(receiv)m(ed)h (a)e(lot)f(of)h(atten)m(tion)g(within)f(AI)118 3726 y([Russell)32 b(and)h(Norvig,)f(1995)o(,)46 b(Bradsha)m(w,)33 b(1997)o(,)46 b(Huhns)34 b(and)f(Singh,)f(1998)o(].)83 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)118 3907 y(the)36 b(de\014nition)f(of)g Fr(agent)g Ft(is)g(elusiv)m(e,)i (i.e.)e(there)h(is)g(still)d(considerable)i(lac)m(k)h(of)f(consensus) 118 4088 y(on)h(what)h(exactly)g(an)f(agen)m(t)h(is)f(or)g(what)h(the)g (researc)m(h)h(questions)f(are)f(that)h(need)g(to)f(b)s(e)118 4268 y(addressed.)73 b(An)41 b(o)m(v)m(erview)i(of)e(p)s(ossible)g (de\014nitions)g(of)h(agency)g(and)g(a)f(comprehensiv)m(e)118 4449 y(structuring)j(of)f(the)h(\014eld)g(has)g(b)s(een)g(presen)m(ted) i(in)d([W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge)30 b(and)j(Jennings,)g(1995)o(])118 4629 y(and)28 b(w)m(e)g(shall)e(mostly)h(adopt)g(their)g(approac)m(h.) 42 b(They)29 b(distinguish)e(agen)m(t)g(theories,)i(agen)m(t)118 4810 y(arc)m(hitectures,)i(and)e(agen)m(t)g(languages)f(as)h(the)g (three)h(ma)5 b(jor)27 b(sub\014elds)j(of)e(agen)m(t)i(researc)m(h.)118 5095 y Fo(2.2.1)113 b(Languages)39 b(Arc)m(hitectures)d(and)i(Theories) 118 5366 y Ft(Firstly)-8 b(,)41 b(the)h(sub\014eld)f(of)f Fr(agent)i(languages)e Ft(is)g(mainly)e(concerned)43 b(with)d(to)s(ols)f(that)i(al-)118 5547 y(lo)m(w)c(one)g(to)g(program)f (hardw)m(are)i(or)f(soft)m(w)m(are)h(computer)f(systems)i(using)e(the)h (concepts)1806 5871 y(5)p eop %%Page: 6 6 6 5 bop 118 407 a Ft(dev)m(elop)s(ed)38 b(in)e(agen)m(t)h(theories)g (as)h(outlined)d(b)s(elo)m(w.)57 b(Suc)m(h)38 b(to)s(ols)e(include,)h (for)g(example,)118 587 y(the)e(Agen)m(t)f(Beha)m(viour)g(Language)g ([W)-8 b(a)m(vish,)33 b(1992)o(],)i(the)f(agen)m(t-orien)m(ted)g (programming)118 768 y(paradigm)51 b([Shoham,)32 b(1993)o(],)58 b(Concurren)m(t)d Fq(Met)-7 b(a)g(teM)51 b Ft([Fisher,)32 b(1994],)58 b(or)52 b(the)h(Ja)m(v)-5 b(a)118 949 y(Agen)m(t)38 b(T)-8 b(emplate.)836 912 y Fn(1)931 949 y Ft(As)38 b(this)e(area)h(is) f(not)h(concerned)i(with)e(the)g(represen)m(tation)h(of)e(and)118 1129 y(reasoning)c(ab)s(out)g(capabilities,)e(w)m(e)k(shall)d(not)i(dw) m(ell)f(on)g(it)g(here.)264 1335 y(Secondly)-8 b(,)55 b(the)50 b(sub\014eld)h(of)e Fr(agent)h(ar)-5 b(chite)g(ctur)g(es)50 b Ft(is)f(concerned)j(with)d(issues)i(sur-)118 1516 y(rounding)39 b(the)g(construction)h(of)e(computer)i(systems)g(that)f(satisfy)g(the)h (prop)s(erties)f(sp)s(e-)118 1697 y(ci\014ed)46 b(b)m(y)g(agen)m(t)g (theories)f(\(b)s(elo)m(w\).)82 b(The)46 b(classical)e(approac)m(h)i (in)e(AI)i(is)f(the)h(delib)s(er-)118 1877 y(ativ)m(e)d(arc)m (hitecture)h(based)h(on)e(the)h(ph)m(ysical)f(sym)m(b)s(ol)f(system)j (h)m(yp)s(othesis,)i(i.e.)c(an)g(ar-)118 2058 y(c)m(hitecture)d(that)f (con)m(tains)g(an)g(explicitly)e(represen)m(ted,)43 b(sym)m(b)s(olic)38 b(mo)s(del)g(of)g(the)i(w)m(orld)118 2238 y([New)m(ell)32 b(and)h(Simon,)e(1976)o(,)c(Russell)32 b(and)g(Norvig,)g(1995)o(].)42 b(The)27 b(main)d(alternativ)m(e)h(to)h(the)118 2419 y(delib)s(erativ)m(e)36 b(approac)m(h)i(is)f(the)h(reactiv)m(e)g (approac)m(h)g(based)g(on)g(the)g(so-called)e(subsump-)118 2599 y(tion)g(arc)m(hitecture)j([Bro)s(oks,)33 b(1986)o(,)k(Bro)s(oks,) c(1991)o(].)58 b(Finally)-8 b(,)36 b(a)h(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)f(h)m (ybrid)h(ap-)118 2780 y(proac)m(hes)27 b(to)d(agen)m(t)i(arc)m (hitectures)g(ha)m(v)m(e)h(also)d(b)s(een)i(attempted.)41 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)29 b(none)c(of)g(these)118 2961 y(arc)m(hitectures) 40 b(explicitly)c(supp)s(orts)j(capabilit)m(y)e(brok)m(ering.)61 b(Since)38 b(delib)s(erativ)m(e)g(agen)m(ts)118 3141 y(will)k(need)k(to)e(tak)m(e)h(w)m(ell-planned)e(actions)h(it)g(is)g (often)g(assumed)h(that)g(suc)m(h)h(an)e(agen)m(t)118 3322 y(should)24 b(b)s(e)g(based)h(on)f(AI)g(planning)e(tec)m(hnology)i ([W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge)31 b(and)h(Jennings,)h(1995,)25 b(page)118 3502 y(131].)42 b(W)-8 b(e)28 b(will)f(lo)s(ok)g(at)h(AI)h (planning)e(more)g(closely)h(in)g(section)h(4)f(and)h(at)f(existing)g (agen)m(ts)118 3683 y(using)k(a)h(planner)f(sp)s(eci\014cally)g(in)f (section)i(4.4.)264 3889 y(Finally)-8 b(,)41 b(formal)d Fr(agent)k(the)-5 b(ories)41 b Ft(are)g(essen)m(tially)f(sp)s (eci\014cations)h(for)f(agen)m(ts)i(where)118 4070 y(an)51 b(agen)m(t)g(is)f(describ)s(ed)h(as)g(an)f(in)m(ten)m(tional)f(system)j (that)e(has)h(b)s(eliefs,)j(desires,)j(etc.)118 4250 y([Seel,)33 b(1989)o(].)108 b(Agen)m(t)54 b(theories)h(can)f(b)s(e)g (seen)h(as)g(represen)m(tational)e(framew)m(orks)i(for)118 4431 y(suc)m(h)46 b(attitudes.)80 b(The)45 b(dominan)m(t)f(approac)m (hes)i(are)e(based)i(on)e(mo)s(dal)f(logics)g(\(cf.)i(sec-)118 4611 y(tion)f(3.2\))h(and)h(meta-languages)d(\(cf.)i(section)h(3.3\).) 81 b(The)46 b(former)f(lead)f(to)h(the)h(adop-)118 4792 y(tion)i(of)h(the)g(p)s(ossible)f(w)m(orlds)h(seman)m(tics)g(whic)m(h)h (has)f(b)s(een)h(used)g(to)f(de\014ne)h(what)f(it)118 4973 y(means)i(for)f(an)h(agen)m(t)g(to)f(kno)m(w)i(something)e(and)h (to)f(reason)h(ab)s(out)f(kno)m(wledge)i(and)118 5153 y(b)s(elief)43 b([Hin)m(tikk)-5 b(a,)31 b(1962)o(,)44 b(Kripk)m(e,)33 b(1963)o(].)78 b(V)-8 b(arious)43 b(alternativ)m(es)g (w)m(ere)i(also)e(dev)m(elop)s(ed)118 5334 y(to)50 b(a)m(v)m(oid)g(the) h(problem)e(of)h(logical)d(omniscience)i([Lev)m(esque,)36 b(1984)o(,)50 b(Konolige,)31 b(1986)o(].)p 118 5427 1371 4 v 136 5488 a Fm(1)201 5518 y Fl(ja)-6 b(t)29 b Fk(is)e(a)n(v)-5 b(ailable)26 b(on)i(the)g(WWW)g(at)g(URL:)g Fj(http://cdr.stanf)o(or)o (d.)o(edu)o(/A)o(BE/)o(Ja)o(va)o(Age)o(nt)o(.ht)o(ml)1806 5871 y Ft(6)p eop %%Page: 7 7 7 6 bop 118 407 a Ft(Similarly)-8 b(,)56 b(but)f(to)f(a)h(lesser)g (exten)m(t,)62 b(there)55 b(ha)m(v)m(e)h(b)s(een)f(logics)f(of)g(goals) f(or)h(desires)118 587 y([Cohen)34 b(and)e(Lev)m(esque,)k(1990)o(,)31 b(W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge,)31 b(1994)o(].)43 b(Although)31 b(these)h(approac)m(hes)h(ha)m(v)m(e)118 768 y(addressed)47 b(man)m(y)e(attitudes)g(of)f(agen)m(ts,)49 b(there)d(remains)e(the)i (problem)d(of)i(in)m(tegrating)118 949 y(them)36 b(in)m(to)g(one)g (framew)m(ork)h(for)f(an)g(all-em)m(bracing)d(agen)m(t)k(theory)-8 b(.)55 b(The)37 b(issue)g(in)f(agen)m(t)118 1129 y(theories)42 b(w)m(e)g(shall)e(b)s(e)h(most)g(concerned)i(with)e(here)h(is)f(that)g (of)g Fr(agent)i(c)-5 b(ommunic)g(ation)118 1310 y Ft(whic)m(h)33 b(also)f(addresses)j(the)e(connection)f(problem.)118 1595 y Fo(2.2.2)113 b(Agen)m(t)36 b(Comm)m(unication)118 1866 y Ft(A)m(t)30 b(least)g(t)m(w)m(o)g(ma)5 b(jor)29 b(e\013orts)h(are)g(curren)m(tly)h(under)f(w)m(a)m(y)i(whic)m(h)e(b)s (oth)g(assume)g Fr(know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)118 2046 y(sharing)32 b Ft(to)g(b)s(e)h(the)g(k)m(ey)h(to)e(successful)i(agen)m(t)f(comm)m (unication)d(and)j(co)s(op)s(eration.)264 2253 y(The)f(\014rst)g (e\013ort)e(addressing)i(the)f(agen)m(t)g(comm)m(unication)d(problem)i (is)g(the)i Fq(Cyc)f Ft(pro-)118 2433 y(ject)26 b([Guha)33 b(and)f(Lenat,)h(1990)o(,)26 b(Guha)32 b(and)h(Lenat,)g(1994)o(,)26 b(Lenat,)33 b(1995)o(].)41 b(The)27 b(basic)f(idea)118 2614 y(here)36 b(is)f(that)g(agen)m(ts)g(need)i(to)d(ha)m(v)m(e)j(a)e (large)f(amoun)m(t)g(of)h(commonsense)g(kno)m(wledge)i(b)s(e-)118 2794 y(fore)31 b(they)i(can)e(in)m(telligen)m(tly)e(w)m(ork)j (together.)43 b(Since)32 b(the)g Fq(Cyc)f Ft(researc)m(hers)j(b)s (eliev)m(e)d(that)118 2975 y(commonsense)c(kno)m(wledge)h(can)e(not)h (b)s(e)f(learned)h(automatically)c(without)j(ha)m(ving)g(a)g(large)118 3156 y(b)s(o)s(dy)35 b(of)g(it)f(in)h(the)h(\014rst)f(place,)h(most)f (of)g(the)g(w)m(ork)i(in)d Fq(Cyc)i Ft(has)f(b)s(een)h(on)g(hand)f(co)s (ding)118 3336 y(suc)m(h)28 b(kno)m(wledge)f(and)g(on)f(dev)m(eloping)h (large)e(on)m(tologies)g(using)h(micro-theories.)40 b(W)-8 b(e)27 b(shall)118 3517 y(return)33 b(to)f(the)h(issue)h(of)e(on)m (tologies)f(in)h(section)g(4.2.)264 3723 y(The)55 b(second)g(ma)5 b(jor)52 b(e\013ort)h(addressing)h(the)g(agen)m(t)g(comm)m(unication)d (problem)h(is)118 3904 y(the)65 b Fr(ARP)-7 b(A)64 b(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)62 b(Sharing)h(E\013ort)i Ft([Fik)m(es)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1991)o(,)64 b(Nec)m(hes)35 b Fr(et)g(al.)p Ft(,)d(1991)o(,)118 4084 y(Genesereth)i(and)f(Ketc)m(hp)s(el,)g(1994)o (].)58 b(They)39 b(en)m(visage)f(a)f(generic)h(agen)m(t)g(comm)m (unication)118 4265 y(language)d(as)i(consisting)e(of)h(three)h(parts:) 51 b(the)36 b(v)m(o)s(cabulary)-8 b(,)37 b(the)g(inner)f(language)f (whic)m(h)118 4445 y(carries)40 b(the)h(con)m(ten)m(t)h(that)e(is)g(b)s (eing)g(comm)m(unicated,)h(and)g(the)g(outer)f(language)g(whic)m(h)118 4626 y(represen)m(ts)g(mainly)c(the)i(sp)s(eec)m(h)i(act)e(that)g(this) f(message)i(represen)m(ts.)61 b(The)39 b(v)m(o)s(cabulary)118 4806 y(is)30 b(to)f(b)s(e)h(de\014ned)i(within)d(one)h(or)f(more)h(on)m (tologies)e(that)i(will)d(b)s(e)k(shared)f(b)m(y)h(the)g(comm)m(u-)118 4987 y(nicating)40 b(agen)m(ts)h([Grub)s(er,)33 b(1993b)o(,)41 b(Grub)s(er,)33 b(1993a)o(,)41 b(F)-8 b(arquahar)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1996)o(].)69 b(Again,)118 5168 y(w)m(e)44 b(shall)e(return)i(to)f(the)h(issue)f(of)g(on)m(tologies)f(in)g (section)i(4.2.)75 b(A)43 b(generic)g(kno)m(wledge)118 5348 y(represen)m(tation)32 b(language)d(called)h Fq(kif)h Ft([Genesereth,)j(1991,)c(Genesereth)k Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)c(1992)o(])f(to)118 5529 y(and)h(from)e(whic)m(h)i(all)d(other)j (con)m(ten)m(t)h(languages)d(should)i(b)s(e)f(translatable)f(has)i(b)s (een)g(sug-)1806 5871 y(7)p eop %%Page: 8 8 8 7 bop 118 407 a Ft(gested)43 b(for)f(the)g(con)m(ten)m(t)h(to)f(b)s (e)g(comm)m(unicated,)i(including)c(the)i(con)m(ten)m(t)i(of)d (messages)118 587 y(ab)s(out)32 b(capabilities)e(\(cf.)j(section)g (2.3\).)118 872 y Fo(2.2.3)113 b(The)37 b(Kno)m(wledge)g(Query)h(and)h (Manipulation)d(Language)118 1142 y Ft(Researc)m(h)41 b(on)e(the)h(outer)f(language)f(men)m(tioned)h(ab)s(o)m(v)m(e)h(has)f (resulted)h(in)f(the)g(de\014nition)118 1322 y(of)32 b(the)h Fr(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)34 b(Query)h(and)f(Manipulation)h(L)-5 b(anguage)32 b Ft(\()p Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(\))h([Finin)e Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1992)o(,)118 1503 y(Finin)f Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1997)o(,)c(Labrou)k(and)h(Finin,)e(1997)o(].)42 b(W)-8 b(e)27 b(shall)f(describ)s(e)i Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(brie\015y)e (here.)264 1708 y(The)33 b(syn)m(tax)g(of)f Fq(k)n(qml)g Ft(is)g(simply)e(based)j(on)e(a)h(balanced)f(paren)m(thesis)i(list.)42 b(The)33 b(\014rst)118 1889 y(elemen)m(t)24 b(in)f(this)g(list)f (represen)m(ts)27 b(the)d Fr(p)-5 b(erformative)23 b Ft(of)g(this)g(message)2702 1853 y Fn(2)2742 1889 y Ft(.)41 b(The)24 b(p)s(erformativ)m(e)118 2069 y(indicates)36 b(the)g(t)m(yp)s(e)i(of)d(sp)s(eec)m(h)k(act)d(this)g(message)g(is.)54 b(F)-8 b(or)36 b(example,)h(the)f(p)s(erformativ)m(e)118 2250 y Fi(ask)28 b Ft(indicates)f(a)g(question)h(b)s(eing)e(ask)m(ed)j (and)e(the)h(p)s(erformativ)m(e)e Fi(tell)j Ft(indicates)d(a)h(state-) 118 2431 y(men)m(t)37 b(b)s(eing)g(made.)56 b(F)-8 b(or)36 b(eac)m(h)i(p)s(erformativ)m(e)e(in)h Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(there)f(is)g (also)f(a)h(proto)s(col)e(that)118 2611 y(de\014nes)42 b(with)f(whic)m(h)g(t)m(yp)s(e)g(of)f(messages)i(other)e(agen)m(ts)h (should)g(reply)f(to)h(this)f(message)118 2792 y(if)c(an)m(y)-8 b(.)56 b(F)-8 b(or)35 b(example,)j(there)f(should)f(alw)m(a)m(ys)h(b)s (e)g(a)g(reply)f(to)g(an)h Fi(ask)p Ft(-message)g(and)g(the)118 2972 y(p)s(erformativ)m(e)j(of)g(this)g(reply)g(message)h(should)g(b)s (e)g Fi(tell)p Ft(.)68 b(Although)40 b(there)h(is)f(a)g(set)i(of)118 3153 y(prede\014ned)i(p)s(erformativ)m(es)e(in)f Fq(k)n(qml)i Ft(it)e(is)h(not)g(mean)m(t)f(to)h(b)s(e)g(binding.)71 b(Agen)m(ts)43 b(ma)m(y)118 3333 y(c)m(ho)s(ose)37 b(to)f(use)g(this)g (set)h(or)e(in)m(v)m(en)m(t)i(their)f(o)m(wn)g(p)s(erformativ)m(es.)53 b(They)38 b(ma)m(y)d(also)g(c)m(ho)s(ose)118 3514 y(not)30 b(to)f(implemen)m(t)e(certain)j(prede\014ned)h(p)s(erformativ)m(es.)42 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)32 b(if)d(a)g(prede\014ned)j(p)s(er-)118 3695 y(formativ)m(e)25 b(is)h(used)h(it)e(should)h(b)s(e)g(used)i(with) d(the)i(proto)s(col)d(for)i(this)g(p)s(erformativ)m(e)f(de\014ned)118 3875 y(in)32 b(the)h Fq(k)n(qml)g Ft(sp)s(eci\014cation.)264 4081 y(The)48 b(p)s(erformativ)m(e)e(is)g(follo)m(w)m(ed)f(b)m(y)j(a)e (n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)f Fr(keywor)-5 b(d-value)47 b(p)-5 b(airs)p Ft(.)85 b(Again,)118 4261 y(there)31 b(is)e(a)h(n)m(um)m(b)s (er)g(of)f(prede\014ned)j(k)m(eyw)m(ords)g(lik)m(e)e Fi(:sender)h Ft(or)f Fi(:content)i Ft(that)d(all)f(ha)m(v)m(e)118 4442 y(a)j(fairly)d(ob)m(vious)j(meaning.)42 b(F)-8 b(or)30 b(example,)g(the)h(v)-5 b(alue)30 b(follo)m(wing)e(the)k(k)m(eyw)m(ord) g Fi(:sender)118 4622 y Ft(should)c(b)s(e)g(the)h(name)f(of)f(the)i (agen)m(t)f(sending)h(this)e(message)i(and)f(the)h(v)-5 b(alue)27 b(follo)m(wing)f(the)118 4803 y(k)m(eyw)m(ord)37 b Fi(:content)g Ft(should)d(b)s(e)h(the)g(actual)f(con)m(ten)m(t)i(of)f (the)g(message.)50 b(The)36 b(con)m(ten)m(t)g(of)118 4984 y(a)30 b Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(message)g(is)f(mean)m(t)g(to)g(b)s(e)g (opaque)h(to)f(the)h(message.)43 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)33 b(in)d(in)m(terpreting)118 5164 y(a)k Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(message)g(it)f (is)g(necessary)i(to)e(decide)h(where)h(the)f(con)m(ten)m(t)g(ends)h (and)e(th)m(us,)i(it)e(is)118 5345 y(necessary)44 b(to)d(lo)s(ok)f(at)h (the)h(con)m(ten)m(t)g(at)f(least)g(for)g(this.)70 b(There)42 b(are)f(also)g(a)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)p 118 5431 1371 4 v 136 5492 a Fm(2)201 5523 y Fk(In)31 b(the)g(literature)f(on)g Fl(k)n(qml)g Fk(and)g(sp)r(eec)n(h)h(acts)f(the)h(term)f Fh(p)l(erformative)j Fk(is)d(sometimes)g(also)g(used)h(to)201 5622 y(refer)c(to)g(the)h(whole)g(message.)1806 5871 y Ft(8)p eop %%Page: 9 9 9 8 bop 118 407 a Ft(fairly)39 b(ob)m(vious)j(constrain)m(ts)f(b)s(et)m (w)m(een)j(the)d(di\013eren)m(t)g(parts)h(of)f(a)f Fq(k)n(qml)i Ft(message.)70 b(F)-8 b(or)118 587 y(example,)30 b(if)e(the)i(language) f(\014eld)g(names)g(a)h(sp)s(eci\014c)g(con)m(ten)m(t)h(language)d (then)i(the)g(con)m(ten)m(t)118 768 y(should)j(b)s(e)f(in)g(this)g (language.)264 974 y Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(,)46 b(lik)m(e)c(most)g(approac)m (hes)i(to)e(the)h(connection)f(problem,)i(adv)m(o)s(cates)g(assisted) 118 1155 y(co)s(ordination)d(through)j(agen)m(ts)g(called)e Fr(facilitators)h Ft(and)g Fr(me)-5 b(diators)p Ft(.)76 b(A)43 b(facilitator)d(in)118 1335 y Fq(k)n(qml)e Ft(is)e(an)h(agen)m (t)g(that)g(p)s(erforms)f(v)-5 b(arious)36 b(useful)h(comm)m(unication) e(services.)57 b(One)38 b(of)118 1516 y(the)33 b(main)f(services)i (o\013ered)f(b)m(y)h(a)e(facilitator)e(is)i(to)h(help)f(other)h(agen)m (ts)h(\014nd)f(appropriate)118 1697 y(clien)m(ts)42 b(and)g(serv)m (ers.)74 b(Ho)m(w)43 b(clien)m(t)e(and)i(serv)m(er)h(agen)m(ts)e(can)h (\014nd)f(the)h(facilitators)c(is)j(a)118 1877 y(problem)30 b(to)h(whic)m(h)g Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(do)s(es)g(not)f(prescrib)s(e)g(a)g (solution.)42 b(Neither)31 b(is)f(the)i(mec)m(hanism)118 2058 y(to)48 b(b)s(e)h(used)g(b)m(y)g(the)g(facilitators)d(to)i(\014nd) g(appropriate)g(serv)m(ers)i(for)e(clien)m(ts)g(sp)s(eci\014ed)118 2238 y(in)39 b Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(.)66 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)44 b(there)d(are)f(a)f(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)g(related)f(p)s(erformativ)m (es)g(and)h(proto)s(cols)118 2419 y(for)c(these)j(p)s(erformativ)m(es)d (that)g(can)i(b)s(e)f(seen)h(as)f(the)g(de\014nition)f(of)h(an)f(in)m (terface)h(to)g(the)118 2599 y(facilitators.)h(This)25 b(in)m(terface)g(de\014nition)f(is)h(one)g(of)f(the)i(most)e(imp)s (ortan)m(t)f(con)m(tributions)i(of)118 2780 y(this)h(w)m(ork)i(as)f (far)f(as)h(capabilit)m(y)e(brok)m(ering)h(is)g(concerned.)44 b(Some)26 b(of)g(the)h(most)f(imp)s(ortan)m(t)118 2961 y(p)s(erformativ)m(es)32 b(for)g(brok)m(ering)h(in)e Fq(k)n(qml)j Ft(are)e(describ)s(ed)i(in)e(table)g(1.)264 3167 y(One)i(issue)f(w)m(orth)h(noting)d(at)i(this)g(p)s(oin)m(t)f(is)g (that)h Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(requires)f(the)h(con)m(ten)m(t)g(of)e(an)118 3347 y(adv)m(ertisemen)m(t)42 b(to)e(b)s(e)h(iden)m(tical)e(to)i(the)g (con)m(ten)m(t)h(of)e(the)h(capabilit)m(y-seeking)f(message.)118 3528 y(This)28 b(is)g(v)m(ery)h(restrictiv)m(e)f(and,)i(as)e(w)m(e)h (shall)d(see,)31 b(most)c(existing)g(brok)m(ers)j(ignore)d(this)g(part) 118 3709 y(of)32 b(the)h Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(sp)s(eci\014cation)e(and)g (pro)m(vide)h(a)g(more)e(sophisticated)i(matc)m(hing)e(service.)118 4023 y Fp(2.3)135 b(Brok)l(ering)46 b(Agen)l(ts)118 4294 y Ft(Returning)40 b(to)f(the)i(connection)f(problem,)h(whic)m(h)g(is)e (the)i(main)d(problem)h(of)h(capabilit)m(y)118 4474 y(brok)m(ering,)g ([Genesereth)35 b(and)d(Ketc)m(hp)s(el,)h(1994)o(])39 b(distinguish)e(t)m(w)m(o)i(basic)g(approac)m(hes)h(to)118 4655 y(this)33 b(problem:)43 b Fr(dir)-5 b(e)g(ct)35 b(c)-5 b(ommunic)g(ation)p Ft(,)32 b(in)g(whic)m(h)h(agen)m(ts)h (handle)f(their)f(o)m(wn)i(co)s(ordina-)118 4836 y(tion)h(and)h Fr(assiste)-5 b(d)37 b(c)-5 b(o)g(or)g(dination)p Ft(,)36 b(in)f(whic)m(h)i(agen)m(ts)g(rely)e(on)h(sp)s(ecial)f(system)i (programs)118 5016 y(to)32 b(ac)m(hiev)m(e)h(co)s(ordination.)42 b Fq(ether)31 b Ft(and)h(the)h Fq(contra)n(ct)k(net)p Ft(,)32 b(b)s(oth)g(describ)s(ed)h(in)f(sec-)118 5197 y(tion)37 b(2.1,)i(fall)c(in)m(to)i(the)i(\014rst)f(category)-8 b(.)59 b(The)39 b(facilitation)34 b(approac)m(h)k(de\014ned)h(in)e Fq(k)n(qml)118 5377 y Ft(falls)g(in)m(to)g(the)i(second)g(category)g (and)f(this)g(is)g(curren)m(tly)h(the)g(dominating)c(approac)m(h)k(in) 118 5558 y(in)m(telligen)m(t)30 b(agen)m(t)j(researc)m(h.)1806 5871 y(9)p eop %%Page: 10 10 10 9 bop 218 483 3225 4 v 218 5138 4 4656 v 396 671 a Fg(\017)49 b Fv(adv)m(ertise)p Fu(:)80 b(With)49 b(this)g(p)s (erformativ)m(e)h(the)g(sender)f(informs)f(the)i(receiv)m(er)490 784 y(\(whic)m(h)44 b(should)e(b)s(e)h(the)h(facilitator\))g(that)h (the)f(sender)g(is)f(willing)d(and)k(able)490 896 y(to)36 b(pro)s(cess)f(certain)f(messages.)56 b Ff(k)n(qml)34 b Fu(sp)s(eci\014es)f(that)j(the)f(pro)s(cessable)f(mes-)490 1009 y(sage)40 b(b)s(eing)d(adv)m(ertised)i(is)e(giv)m(en)i(as)g(the)g (con)m(ten)m(t)h(of)f(this)e(message,)42 b(i.e.)d(the)490 1122 y(con)m(ten)m(t)30 b(is)d(a)h Ff(k)n(qml)f Fu(message)i(again.)40 b(F)-8 b(urthermore,)28 b(the)g(p)s(erformativ)m(e)f(of)h(the)490 1235 y(con)m(ten)m(t)42 b(message)f(should)d(b)s(e)h(one)h(of)f(a)i (limited)c(set)j(and)f(there)h(are)g(certain)490 1348 y(basic)d(constrain)m(ts)g(on)g(the)h(sender)e(and)h(receiv)m(er)g(of)h (the)f(adv)m(ertisemen)m(t)h(and)490 1461 y(em)m(b)s(edded)30 b(message.)42 b(No)30 b(reply)g(message)h(is)e(required.)396 1649 y Fg(\017)49 b Fv(subscrib)s(e)p Fu(:)78 b(With)47 b(this)h(p)s(erformativ)m(e)f(the)i(sender)e(informs)f(the)j(receiv)m (er)490 1762 y(\(whic)m(h)26 b(should)f(b)s(e)h(the)h(facilitator\))g (that)g(it)f(w)m(an)m(ts)i(to)f(b)s(e)g(up)s(dated)e(ev)m(ery)j(time) 490 1874 y(that)i(the)f(w)m(ould-b)s(e)f(resp)s(onse)g(to)i(the)f(con)m (ten)m(t)i(message)f(is)e(di\013eren)m(t)h(from)f(the)490 1987 y(last)37 b(resp)s(onse)e(to)i(the)g(sender)e(of)i(this)e (message.)60 b(Th)m(us,)37 b(lik)m(e)f(for)g Fe(advertise)490 2100 y Fu(the)c(con)m(ten)m(t)h(m)m(ust)f(b)s(e)f(a)h Ff(k)n(qml)e Fu(message)j(and)e(similar)d(constrain)m(ts)k(apply)-8 b(.)43 b(In)490 2213 y(resp)s(onse,)26 b(the)g(facilitator)f(should)e (send)i(one)h(reply)e(to)i(the)g(em)m(b)s(edded)e(message)490 2326 y(immediately)29 b(and)h(further)f(messages)i(as)g(they)f(o)s (ccur.)396 2514 y Fg(\017)49 b Fv(recommend-one)p Fu(:)54 b(With)37 b(this)f(p)s(erformativ)m(e)h(the)g(sender)g(informs)f(the)h (re-)490 2627 y(ceiv)m(er)28 b(\(whic)m(h)e(should)g(b)s(e)g(the)h (facilitator\))h(that)f(it)g(w)m(an)m(ts)h(to)g(kno)m(w)f(ab)s(out)g (one)490 2740 y(agen)m(t)35 b(that)e(has)g(adv)m(ertised)g(that)g(it)f (will)f(pro)s(cess)h(the)h(message)h(giv)m(en)f(as)g(the)490 2852 y(con)m(ten)m(t)k(of)d(this)f(message.)54 b(The)34 b(exp)s(ected)g(reply)f(to)i(this)f(message)h(is)e(a)i(mes-)490 2965 y(sage)c(with)d(the)h(p)s(erformativ)m(e)g Fe(forward)p Fu(,)f(the)i(con)m(ten)m(t)h(of)e(whic)m(h)f(should)g(b)s(e)g(an)490 3078 y(adv)m(ertising)34 b(message.)53 b(The)34 b(con)m(ten)m(t)i(of)f (this)e Fe(recommend-one)d Fu(message)36 b(and)490 3191 y(the)31 b Fe(advertise)d Fu(message)j(should)e(b)s(e)g(iden)m(tical.) 396 3379 y Fg(\017)49 b Fv(recommend-all)p Fu(:)i(This)34 b(p)s(erformativ)m(e)h(is)g(lik)m(e)h Fe(recommend-one)p Fu(,)e(only)h(that)490 3492 y(the)27 b(reply)e(should)f(name)i(all)f (the)i(agen)m(ts)g(that)g(ha)m(v)m(e)g(adv)m(ertised)f(to)h(pro)s(cess) f(the)490 3605 y(giv)m(en)31 b(con)m(ten)m(t)h(message.)396 3792 y Fg(\017)49 b Fv(brok)m(er-one)p Fu(:)37 b(Again,)22 b(this)d(p)s(erformativ)m(e)h(is)g(lik)m(e)f Fe(recommend-one)e Fu(in)i(its)h(form.)490 3905 y(The)28 b(di\013erence)g(is)f(that)i (with)e(this)h(p)s(erformativ)m(e)f(the)i(sender)e(asks)i(the)f (facilit-)490 4018 y(ator)i(to)g(\014nd)e(an)h(agen)m(t)i(that)f(can)g (pro)s(cess)e(the)i(giv)m(en)f(message)h(and)f(then)g(send)490 4131 y(it)h(the)g(giv)m(en)f(message.)42 b(If)29 b(there)h(will)e(b)s (e)h(a)h(reply)e(to)j(this)e(message,)i(this)e(reply)490 4244 y(should)g(b)s(e)g(forw)m(arded)h(to)h(the)g(sender)f(of)g(the)h Fe(broker-one)c Fu(message.)396 4432 y Fg(\017)49 b Fv(recruit-one)p Fu(:)73 b(Again,)50 b(this)45 b(p)s(erformativ)m(e)g(is)g(lik)m(e)h Fe(recommend-one)c Fu(in)j(its)490 4544 y(form.)83 b(The)44 b(di\013erence)g(is)f(that)i(with)f(this)f(p)s(erformativ)m(e)h(the)h (sender)e(asks)490 4657 y(the)33 b(facilitator)e(to)i(\014nd)d(an)i (agen)m(t)h(that)g(can)f(pro)s(cess)g(the)g(giv)m(en)g(message)h(and) 490 4770 y(then)j(send)f(it)h(the)g(giv)m(en)g(message.)58 b(The)36 b(di\013erence)f(to)i Fe(broker-one)c Fu(is)i(that)490 4883 y(an)m(y)c(reply)e(should)f(go)j(directly)e(to)i(the)g(sender)e (of)i(the)f Fe(recruit-one)d Fu(message)490 4996 y(rather)k(than)f (through)f(the)i(facilitator.)p 3440 5138 V 218 5141 3225 4 v 397 5425 a Ft(T)-8 b(able)32 b(1:)43 b Fq(k)n(qml)34 b Ft(facilitation)28 b(p)s(erformativ)m(es)k([Labrou)g(and)h(Finin,)e (1997)o(])1782 5871 y(10)p eop %%Page: 11 11 11 10 bop 264 407 a Ft(Before)49 b(w)m(e)h(turn)f(to)f(a)h(surv)m(ey)i (of)d(existing)g(brok)m(ers)i(that)e(facilitate)e(assisted)k(co-)118 587 y(ordination,)61 b(it)56 b(is)g(also)g(w)m(orth)h(noting)f(that)h (a)f(kind)h(of)f(brok)m(ering)h(has)g(b)s(een)h(p)s(er-)118 768 y(formed)29 b(on)g(the)h(In)m(ternet)h(for)d(some)i(time)e(no)m(w)i (b)m(y)g Fr(se)-5 b(ar)g(ch)31 b(engines)d Ft([Witten)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1994)o(,)118 949 y(Ho)m(w)m(e)i(and)f (Dreilinger,)d(1997)o(].)50 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)38 b(most)d(searc)m(h)h (engines)f(matc)m(h)g(requests,)j(usu-)118 1129 y(ally)28 b(only)g(consisting)h(of)f(a)h(few)h(k)m(eyw)m(ords,)i(to)d(text)h (pages)g(on)f(the)g(In)m(ternet.)44 b(The)30 b(matc)m(h-)118 1310 y(ing)41 b(is)h(essen)m(tially)f(based)i(on)f(a)f(rev)m(erse)k(w)m (ord)d(frequency)i(coun)m(t)f(algorithm)3120 1274 y Fn(3)3198 1310 y Ft(and)f(can)118 1490 y(hardly)30 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Ft(is)28 b(true)h(in)f(situation)118 2599 y Fc(s)p Ft(.)68 b(Note)41 b(that)f(the)h(\015uen)m(t)h Fc(f)11 b Ft(,)42 b(although)e(it)f(migh)m(t)h(lo)s(ok)f(lik)m(e)h(an)h (atomic)d(form)m(ula,)j(is)g(a)118 2780 y(term,)c(i.e.)f(it)f(represen) m(ts)k(an)d(ob)5 b(ject)37 b(in)e(the)i(domain)e(represen)m(ted.)57 b(The)37 b(function)f(term)118 2961 y Fc(R)q(esul)r(t)p Ft(\()p Fc(a;)17 b(s)p Ft(\))39 b(is)f(used)i(to)e(denote)i(the)f (situation)e(obtained)h(b)m(y)i(executing)f(the)g(action)f Fc(a)118 3141 y Ft(in)c(the)i(situation)d Fc(s)p Ft(.)51 b(Sen)m(tences)37 b(in)e(\014rst-order)g(logic)e(called)h(e\013ect)h (axioms)f(can)h(no)m(w)h(b)s(e)118 3322 y(written)d(to)f(represen)m(t)i (the)f(e\013ects)h(and)f(preconditions)f(of)g(actions.)264 3528 y(Unfortunately)45 b(the)h(e\013ect)g(axioms)e(alone)h(turn)g(out) g(to)g(b)s(e)g(epistemologically)c(in-)118 3709 y(adequate)i(and)f (further)g(so-called)f(frame)g(axioms)g(are)g(needed)j(in)d(the)h (represen)m(tation,)118 3889 y(leading)k(to)h(the)g Fr(fr)-5 b(ame)48 b(pr)-5 b(oblem)46 b Ft(in)h(AI)g([Ha)m(y)m(es,)35 b(1974)o(,)51 b(page)c(69],)k([Shanahan,)33 b(1997)o(].)118 4070 y(F)-8 b(urthermore,)24 b(the)g(represen)m(tation)f(of)g(\015uen)m (ts)h(as)f(ob)5 b(jects)24 b(in)f(the)g(domain)e(seems)j(coun)m(ter-) 118 4250 y(in)m(tuitiv)m(e.)41 b(In)28 b(summary)-8 b(,)29 b(the)f(strong)g(p)s(oin)m(t)f(of)h(the)g(situation)f(calculus)g(has)i (traditionally)118 4431 y(b)s(een)g(the)f(theoretical)e(framew)m(ork)i (it)f(pro)m(vides)h(for)f(the)h(represen)m(tation)h(of)e(actions)g (based)118 4611 y(on)43 b(a)g(w)m(ell-de\014ned)g(seman)m(tics.)1337 4575 y Fn(4)1452 4611 y Ft(A)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)e(more)h(direct)g (action)f(represen)m(tations)118 4792 y(whic)m(h)h(also)e(address)j (the)f(frame)f(problem)f(ha)m(v)m(e)i(b)s(een)h(prop)s(osed)e(in)g(AI)h (and)f(w)m(e)i(shall)118 4973 y(review)33 b(some)f(of)g(them)f(in)h (section)g(4.1.)43 b(Still,)30 b(the)i(situation)f(calculus)g(remains)h (a)f(highly)118 5153 y(expressiv)m(e)g(action)c(represen)m(tation)j (with)e(probably)g(the)h(clearest)f(seman)m(tics)h(of)f(an)m(y)h(suc)m (h)118 5334 y(represen)m(tation.)p 118 5421 1371 4 v 136 5482 a Fm(4)201 5513 y Fk(Recen)n(t)i(w)n(ork)e(describ)r(ed)i(in)g ([Gruninger)c(and)g(F)-7 b(o)n(x,)28 b(1994)n(,)j(Gruninger)26 b Fh(et)k(al.)p Fk(,)f(1997)n(])i(addresses)e(some)201 5612 y(practical)e(asp)r(ects)g(of)g(reasoning)f(with)i(a)f(formal)g (situation)h(calculus.)1782 5871 y Ft(16)p eop %%Page: 17 17 17 16 bop 264 407 a Ft(McCarth)m(y)49 b(and)e(Ha)m(y)m(es')i(original) 43 b(w)m(ork)48 b(w)m(as)f(not)g(limited)d(to)i(the)h(represen)m (tation)118 587 y(of)40 b(and)h(reasoning)f(ab)s(out)g(actions)g(and)h (their)f(e\013ects,)k(but)d(also)f(included)g(the)h(general)118 768 y(concept)28 b(of)e Fr(ability)g Ft([McCarth)m(y)34 b(and)f(Ha)m(y)m(es,)h(1969)o(,)28 b(pages)f(470{477].)40 b(In)27 b(this)f(w)m(ork,)i(they)118 949 y(ha)m(v)m(e)37 b(attempted)f(to)g(formalise)d(what)j(it)f(means)h(for)g(an)f(agen)m(t) i(to)e(b)s(e)h(able)g(to)f(do)h(some-)118 1129 y(thing)31 b(b)m(y)i(de\014ning)e(a)h(predicate)g Fc(can)p Ft(\()p Fc(p;)17 b(\031)t(;)g(s)p Ft(\))31 b(meaning)g(\\agen)m(t)2546 1093 y Fn(5)2617 1129 y Fc(p)h Ft(can)g(bring)f(ab)s(out)g(the)118 1310 y(condition)42 b Fc(\031)48 b Ft(in)43 b(situation)f Fc(s)p Ft(.")76 b(The)45 b(in)m(teresting)e(result)h(here)g(is,)i(as)e (they)h(p)s(oin)m(t)d(out,)118 1490 y(that)31 b(it)f(is)h(not)g(at)g (all)f(clear)g(what)i(this)f(prop)s(osition)e(means.)43 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)34 b(although)c(highly)118 1671 y(relev)-5 b(an)m(t)36 b(for)f(the)h(epistemological)c(underpinnings)j(of)g(our)h (w)m(ork,)h(w)m(e)f(shall)f(not)g(go)g(in)m(to)118 1851 y(the)e(philosophical)d(problems)i(en)m(tailed)g(here.)118 2157 y Fp(3.2)135 b(Adv)-7 b(anced)44 b(Logics)118 2422 y Ft(Since)k(w)m(e)g(ha)m(v)m(e)h(men)m(tioned)e(the)h(situation)e (calculus)h(and)h(the)g(frame)e(problem,)k(it)d(is)118 2602 y(also)h(w)m(orth)i(noting)f(that)g(there)h(is)e(a)h(group)h(of)e (logics)g(that)h(ha)m(v)m(e)i(b)s(een)f(mainly)d(de-)118 2783 y(v)m(elop)s(ed)53 b(to)f(address)h(this)f(problem.)102 b(These)54 b(logics)d(are)h(referred)h(to)f(as)h Fr(nonmono-)118 2963 y(tonic)58 b(lo)-5 b(gics)57 b Ft([Ginsb)s(erg,)32 b(1987)o(,)58 b(Brewk)-5 b(a,)34 b(1991)o(],)64 b([Da)m(vis,)33 b(1990)o(,)64 b(section)59 b(3.1].)119 b(The)118 3144 y(classic)53 b(approac)m(hes)h(here)g(are)f(Default)f(Logic)g([Reiter,) 32 b(1980)o(])54 b(and)f(Circumscription)118 3324 y([McCarth)m(y)-8 b(,)35 b(1980b)o(,)e(McCarth)m(y)-8 b(,)35 b(1980a)n(].)47 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)36 b(as)e(these)g(approac)m(hes)h(address)g(the)118 3505 y(problem)g(b)m(y)h(c)m(hanging)g(the)g(inference)h(mec)m(hanism)e (rather)h(than)g(fundamen)m(tally)e(c)m(han-)118 3686 y(ging)f(the)i(represen)m(tation,)h(they)f(are)g(of)e(little)f(in)m (terest)j(to)f(us)h(and)g(w)m(e)g(shall)e(not)h(lo)s(ok)g(at)118 3866 y(them)e(further)h(here.)264 4067 y(Man)m(y)26 b(approac)m(hes)g (to)f(agen)m(t)g(theories)g(\(cf.)g(section)g(2.2.1\))f(are)h(based)h (on)e Fr(mo)-5 b(dal)27 b(lo)-5 b(gics)118 4247 y Ft([Chellas,)32 b(1980)o(,)d(Chagro)m(v)k(and)g(Zakhary)m(asc)m(hev,)i(1997)o(],)29 b([Da)m(vis,)j(1990,)d(section)f(2.7])g(and)118 4428 y(the)40 b(p)s(ossible)f(w)m(orlds)h(seman)m(tics)f([Hin)m(tikk)-5 b(a,)32 b(1962)o(,)40 b(Kripk)m(e,)32 b(1963])39 b(and)h(th)m(us,)i(w)m (e)f(shall)118 4609 y(ha)m(v)m(e)26 b(a)e(lo)s(ok)g(at)g(these)i (logics)d(next.)42 b(Agen)m(t)25 b(theories)g(are)f(sp)s (eci\014cations)h(of)f(agen)m(ts.)41 b(These)118 4789 y(sp)s(eci\014cations)32 b(can)g(b)s(e)g(used)g(b)m(y)h(agen)m(ts)f(to) g(reason)g(ab)s(out)f(other)h(agen)m(ts.)44 b(Our)32 b(aim)d(is)j(to)118 4970 y(reason)h(ab)s(out)f(the)h(capabilities)d(of) i(other)h(agen)m(ts.)264 5170 y(A)g(mo)s(dal)e(logic)f(augmen)m(ts)j(a) g(calculus,)f(e.g.)h(predicate)g(calculus,)f(with)g(a)h(n)m(um)m(b)s (er)g(of)118 5351 y(op)s(erators,)39 b(called)e Fr(mo)-5 b(dal)39 b(op)-5 b(er)g(ators)p Ft(,)38 b(that)g(tak)m(e)h(sen)m(ten)m (tial)f(argumen)m(ts.)59 b(Mo)s(dal)37 b(op)s(er-)p 118 5431 1371 4 v 136 5492 a Fm(5)201 5523 y Fk(They)27 b(are)f(lo)r(oking) h(at)g(a)g(w)n(orld)f(of)h(in)n(teracting)f(discrete)h(\014nite)h (automata)e(for)h(whic)n(h)g(w)n(e)g(will)g(use)g(the)201 5622 y(term)h(agen)n(t)e(here.)1782 5871 y Ft(17)p eop %%Page: 18 18 18 17 bop 118 407 a Ft(ators)36 b(are)g(usually)g(non-extensional,)g (i.e.)g(they)h(do)f(not)g(comm)m(ute)g(with)g(quan)m(ti\014ers,)i(or) 118 587 y(are)c(referen)m(tially)f(opaque.)49 b(The)35 b(seman)m(tics)g(of)e(a)h(mo)s(dal)e(language)h(is)h(based)h(on)f (Kripk)m(e)118 768 y(structures)27 b(whic)m(h)f(consist)g(of)f(a)g (collection)f(of)h(p)s(ossible)g(w)m(orlds,)i(connected)g(b)m(y)g(an)e (access-)118 949 y(ibilit)m(y)35 b(relation.)56 b(W)-8 b(e)38 b(sa)m(y)g(a)f(p)s(ossible)g(w)m(orld)g Fd(W)1990 964 y Fn(1)2067 949 y Ft(is)g(accessible)h(from)e(a)h(p)s(ossible)g(w)m (orld)118 1129 y Fd(W)216 1144 y Fn(2)293 1129 y Ft(in)g(a)f(Kripk)m(e) i(structure)g(if)e(they)i(are)g(connected)g(b)m(y)h(the)e(accessibilit) m(y)f(relation.)56 b(In)118 1310 y(eac)m(h)38 b(p)s(ossible)f(w)m (orld,)h(a)f(sen)m(tence)i(in)e(mo)s(dal)e(logic)g(can)i(b)s(e)h (either)f(true)g(or)g(false,)h(i.e.)f(a)118 1490 y(sen)m(tence)e(ma)m (y)d(ha)m(v)m(e)i(di\013eren)m(t)f(truth)g(v)-5 b(alues)32 b(in)g(di\013eren)m(t)h(p)s(ossible)f(w)m(orlds.)264 1697 y(F)-8 b(or)27 b(example,)i(in)e(prop)s(ositional)d(mo)s(dal)i (logic)g(the)i(truth)g(v)-5 b(alues)27 b(of)h(prop)s(ositions)e(can)118 1877 y(v)-5 b(ary)44 b(across)h(di\013eren)m(t)f(p)s(ossible)f(w)m (orlds.)78 b(Prop)s(ositions)42 b(can)j(b)s(e)f(connected)h(with)f(the) 118 2058 y(usual)30 b(connectiv)m(es)h(\(e.g.)f(negation,)g (conjunction,)g(disjunction\))f(to)h(form)f(more)g(complex)118 2238 y(sen)m(tences.)46 b(The)31 b(only)f(syn)m(tactical)g(extension)i (is)e(the)g(in)m(tro)s(duction)f(of)h(usually)g(t)m(w)m(o)h(new,)118 2419 y(dual)42 b(t)m(yp)s(es)h(of)f(sen)m(tences:)66 b Fb(2)p Fc(A)43 b Ft(\()p Fr(ne)-5 b(c)g(essarily)41 b Fc(A)p Ft(\))i(and)f Fb(3)p Fc(A)g Ft(\()p Fr(p)-5 b(ossibly)42 b Fc(A)p Ft(\),)j(where)e Fc(A)g Ft(is)118 2599 y(again)38 b(a)i(sen)m(tence)i(in)d(mo)s(dal)f(logic.)63 b(The)41 b(informal)36 b(seman)m(tics)k(is)g(that)f Fb(2)p Fc(A)i Ft(is)e(true)h(in)118 2780 y(a)j(p)s(ossible)g(w)m(orld)g Fd(W)52 b Ft(if)43 b(and)g(only)g(if)f Fc(A)i Ft(is)f(true)h(in)e(ev)m (ery)k(p)s(ossible)d(w)m(orld)g(accessible)118 2961 y(from)32 b Fd(W)41 b Ft(and)33 b(that)f Fb(3)p Fc(A)h Ft(is)f(true)i(in)e(a)g(p) s(ossible)g(w)m(orld)h Fd(W)41 b Ft(if)32 b(and)g(only)h(if)e Fc(A)i Ft(is)f(true)i(in)e(at)118 3141 y(least)i(one)g(p)s(ossible)f(w) m(orld)h(accessible)g(from)f Fd(W)8 b Ft(.)48 b(Other)35 b(mo)s(dal)c(op)s(erators)j(ma)m(y)g(also)f(b)s(e)118 3322 y(de\014ned.)264 3528 y(Mo)s(dal)43 b(logics)g(ha)m(v)m(e)i(b)s (een)f(used)h(in)f(agen)m(t)g(theories)g(mostly)f(to)g(reason)h(ab)s (out)g(the)118 3709 y(kno)m(wledge)g(of)f(other)g(agen)m(ts)h([W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge)30 b(and)j(Jennings,)g(1995)o(,)46 b(section)d(2].)75 b(This)43 b(is)118 3889 y(done)30 b(b)m(y)f(in)m(terpreting)g Fb(2)p Fc(A)g Ft(as)g(a)g(mo)s(dal)e(kno)m(wledge)j(op)s(erator,)f (i.e.)f(an)h(agen)m(t)g Fr(knows)f Fc(A)h Ft(if)118 4070 y(in)j(ev)m(ery)j(w)m(orld)d(that)h(is)f(consisten)m(t)i(with)f(its)f (kno)m(wledge,)i Fc(A)f Ft(is)f(true.)45 b(Reasoning)32 b(ab)s(out)118 4250 y(kno)m(wledge)g(using)e(mo)s(dal)e(logics)h(w)m (as)i(probably)f(\014rst)h(comprehensiv)m(ely)h(in)m(tegrated)e(in)m (to)118 4431 y(a)i(framew)m(ork)h(for)f(reasoning)g(ab)s(out)g(actions) g(b)m(y)i([Mo)s(ore,)f(1985)o(].)264 4637 y(A)49 b(further)f(extension) h(of)e(mo)s(dal)f(logics)h(are)h Fr(dynamic)g(lo)-5 b(gics)47 b Ft([Harel)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1982)o(,)118 4818 y(Harel,)g(1984)o(].)42 b(Dynamic)28 b(logics)f(w)m(ere)j(dev)m(elop)s (ed)g(to)e(reason)i(ab)s(out)e(programs)g(and)h(their)118 4998 y(executions.)44 b(Syn)m(tactically)-8 b(,)29 b(the)h(only)f(c)m (hange)i(from)d(normal)g(mo)s(dal)f(logic)h(is)h(that)h Fb(2)p Fc(A)g Ft(is)118 5179 y(replaced)h(b)m(y)g([)p Fc(\013)q Ft(])p Fc(A)f Ft(and)h Fb(3)p Fc(A)f Ft(is)g(replaced)h(b)m (y)g Fd(h)p Fc(\013)q Fd(i)p Fc(A)p Ft(,)f(where)i Fc(\013)f Ft(is)f(a)g(program.)41 b(A)31 b(program)118 5359 y(implicitly)39 b(de\014nes)45 b(an)e(accessibilit)m(y)f(relation,)i(i.e.)e(only)h (those)g(w)m(orlds)h(are)f(accessible)118 5540 y(that)34 b(are)g(p)s(ossible)f(states)h(after)g(the)g(execution)h(of)e(the)h (program.)46 b([)p Fc(\013)q Ft(])p Fc(A)34 b Ft(is)f(then)i(de\014ned) 1782 5871 y(18)p eop %%Page: 19 19 19 18 bop 118 407 a Ft(as)37 b(true)g(in)f Fd(W)45 b Ft(if)36 b(and)h(only)f(if)g Fc(A)h Ft(is)f(true)h(in)f(ev)m(ery)i(p)s (ossible)f(w)m(orld)f(accessible)h(from)f Fd(W)118 587 y Ft(with)f(the)h(accessibilit)m(y)e(relation)f(de\014ned)k(b)m(y)f Fc(\013)q Ft(,)g(i.e.)e(if)g Fc(A)i Ft(is)e(necessarily)i(true)g(after) f(the)118 768 y(execution)e(of)f Fc(\013)q Ft(.)264 974 y(Note)40 b(that)f(dynamic)g(logics)f(are)h(the)h(\014rst)f(logics)f (in)m(tro)s(duced)i(here)g(that)f(explicitly)118 1155 y(include)d(capabilities)d(in)j(the)g(form)f(of)h(programs)f(in)g (their)h(on)m(tology)-8 b(.)53 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)40 b(repres-)118 1335 y(en)m(ting)26 b(kno)m(wledge)i(in)e(and)g (automated)g(reasoning)g(o)m(v)m(er)i(dynamic)d(logics)h(has)g(pro)m(v) m(en)i(not)118 1516 y(v)m(ery)34 b(practical)d(and)i(th)m(us,)h(w)m(e)f (shall)e(not)i(pursue)h(this)e(path)h(an)m(y)g(further.)118 1831 y Fp(3.3)135 b(Meta-Lev)l(el)47 b(Kno)l(wledge)118 2101 y Ft(Exp)s(erimen)m(ts)25 b(in)e([Larkin)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1980)o(,)24 b(Chi)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1981],)26 b(and)e(other)g(w)m(ork)h(describ)s(ed)g(in)118 2282 y([Barr,)33 b(1979)o(,)28 b(Andrews,)34 b(1981)o(],)c(ha)m(v)m(e)f(sho) m(wn)h(that)e(exp)s(erts)h(in)f(a)g(\014eld)g(often)g(do)g(not)g(ha)m (v)m(e)118 2462 y(more)k(domain)e(kno)m(wledge)j(than)f(no)m(vices,)h 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b(The)30 b(emphasis)g(here)g (is)f(on)g(the)h(re-use)h(asp)s(ect)118 3907 y(whic)m(h)f(w)m(ould)g (mak)m(e)g(this)f(approac)m(h)h(v)m(ery)h(attractiv)m(e)f(to)f(our)h (aims)e(as)i(it)f(could)g(sa)m(v)m(e)i(us)g(a)118 4088 y(lot)i(of)h(w)m(ork.)50 b(Th)m(us,)37 b(w)m(e)f(shall)d(no)m(w)i(lo)s (ok)e(at)h(meta-kno)m(wledge)g(and)h(its)f(represen)m(tations)118 4268 y(to)e(see)i(whether)g(this)e(kno)m(wledge)i(can)f(b)s(e)f (re-used)i(for)e(capabilit)m(y)f(brok)m(ering.)118 4554 y Fo(3.3.1)113 b(T)m(yp)s(es)38 b(of)f(Meta-Lev)m(el)h(Kno)m(wledge)118 4824 y Ft(A)j(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)e Fr(classi\014c)-5 b(ations)41 b(of)i(meta-level)e(know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)40 b Ft(ha)m(v)m(e)i(b)s(een)g(attempted.)69 b(F)-8 b(or)118 5005 y(example,)65 b(an)59 b(early)g(classi\014cation)e(b)m(y)j([Da)m (vis)32 b(and)h(Buc)m(hanan,)h(1977)o(])59 b(distinguishes)118 5185 y(sc)m(hemata)46 b(for)f(reasoning)g(ab)s(out)g(ob)5 b(jects,)50 b(function)45 b(templates)g(for)g(reasoning)g(ab)s(out)118 5366 y(functions,)k(rule)c(mo)s(dels)g(for)g(reasoning)h(ab)s(out)f (inference)h(rules,)j(and)d(meta-rules)f(for)118 5547 y(reasoning)28 b(ab)s(out)g(strategies.)42 b(In)29 b([Lenat)k Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1983])c(there)h(is)f(not)h(so)g(m)m(uc)m(h)g(a)f (categor-)1782 5871 y(19)p eop %%Page: 20 20 20 19 bop 118 407 a Ft(isation)40 b(of)i(meta-kno)m(wledge,)i(but)e (instead)g(they)g(giv)m(e)g(a)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)g(of)f(examples)h (where)118 587 y(suc)m(h)35 b(kno)m(wledge)f(is)f(b)s(eing)f(used.)47 b(These)35 b(examples)e(include)f(meta-kno)m(wledge:)45 b(for)33 b(rule)118 768 y(selection;)39 b(to)e(record)h(needed)h(facts) e(ab)s(out)g(kno)m(wledge;)j(for)d(rule)g(justi\014cations;)h(to)f(de-) 118 949 y(tect)27 b(bugs;)j(etc.)42 b(The)28 b(last)d(example)i(they)g (giv)m(e)g(concerns)h(meta-kno)m(wledge)f(to)f(describ)s(e)i(a)118 1129 y(program's)k(abilities.)42 b(Unfortunately)33 b(they)h(do)f(not)g (describ)s(e)h(a)e(represen)m(tation)i(for)f(this)118 1310 y(t)m(yp)s(e)44 b(of)f(meta-kno)m(wledge.)76 b(Similarly)-8 b(,)42 b([Maes,)33 b(1986])43 b(argues)h(that)f(meta-lev)m(el)f(kno)m (w-)118 1490 y(ledge)f(is)g(needed)i(for)e(in)m(trosp)s(ection)g(and)g (classi\014es)h(it)e(b)m(y)i(the)g(tasks)g(it)f(is)g(needed)i(for,)118 1671 y(e.g.)33 b(in)g(assumption-based)g(reasoning,)g(in)f(learning,)g (in)g(handling)f(inconsisten)m(t,)j(incom-)118 1851 y(plete,)i(and)f (uncertain)g(kno)m(wledge)h(etc.)52 b(This)35 b(sho)m(ws)i(that)e (there)h(is)e(a)h(need)h(for)f(explicit)118 2032 y(meta-kno)m(wledge)d (in)g(kno)m(wledge-based)i(systems.)264 2238 y(There)d(are)f(also)e(a)h (n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)f Fr(examples)i(of)h(systems)d Ft(that)g(ha)m(v)m(e)i(used)f(explicit)e(meta-)118 2419 y(kno)m(wledge)33 b(for)e(a)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)i(of)e(purp)s(oses.)44 b(F)-8 b(or)31 b(example,)h([Filman)d Fr(et)36 b(al.)p Ft(,)c(1983)o(])g(describ)s(e)118 2599 y(sev)m(eral)39 b(exp)s(erimen)m(ts)f(using)g(meta-language)e(and)i(meta-reasoning)e (to)i(solv)m(e)g(problems)118 2780 y(in)m(v)m(olving)31 b(b)s(elief,)h(heuristics,)h(and)f(p)s(oin)m(ts)h(of)f(view;)h([A)m (ttardi)f(and)h(Simi,)d(1984)o(])j(describ)s(e)118 2961 y(a)44 b(meta-language)d(for)i(reasoning)h(ab)s(out)f(logical)e (consequence;)52 b([Ginsb)s(erg,)32 b(1986)o(])44 b(de-)118 3141 y(scrib)s(es)29 b(a)f(meta-lev)m(el)f(framew)m(ork)h(for)g(the)h (construction)f(of)g(kno)m(wledge)h(base)g(re\014nemen)m(t)118 3322 y(systems;)43 b([Haggith,)31 b(1995])38 b(describ)s(es)i(a)e (framew)m(ork)g(for)g(reasoning)g(ab)s(out)g(con\015icts)h(in)118 3502 y(kno)m(wledge)45 b(bases.)77 b(Man)m(y)45 b(other)f(systems)h (using)e(explicit)f(meta-kno)m(wledge)h(do)h(exist)118 3683 y(\(cf.)35 b([Maes)f(and)e(Nardi,)g(1988)o(]\).)50 b(This)35 b(illustrates)e(the)i(a)m(v)-5 b(ailabilit)m(y)31 b(of)j(meta-kno)m(wledge)118 3863 y(in)e(kno)m(wledge-based)i(systems.) 264 4070 y(Of)h(particular)f(in)m(terest)h(to)g(us)h(is)f(w)m(ork)h(on) f(using)g(meta-kno)m(wledge)g(for)g Fr(c)-5 b(omp)g(etenc)g(e)118 4250 y(assessment)47 b Ft([V)-8 b(o\031)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990)o(])49 b(as)f(this)g(is)f(directly)h(related)g(to)f (capabilit)m(y)g(retriev)-5 b(al.)118 4431 y(One)41 b(of)f(their)g (aims)f(w)m(as)i(to)g(dev)m(elop)g(a)f(system)h(that)g(kno)m(ws)h(when) f(it)f(cannot)h(solv)m(e)g(a)118 4611 y(giv)m(en)i(problem)g(without)f (ha)m(ving)h(to)g(fail)e(in)i(an)g(attempt)f(to)h(solv)m(e)h(it.)74 b(F)-8 b(or)43 b(this)g(task)118 4792 y(they)48 b(extended)h(their)e (problem)e(solv)m(er)j(with)e(a)h(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)e(re\015ectiv)m (e)i(mo)s(dules)e(that)118 4973 y(p)s(erformed)37 b(some)h(simple)e (tests.)60 b(The)39 b(represen)m(tation)g(of)e(kno)m(wledge)i(in)e(the) h(re\015ectiv)m(e)118 5153 y(mo)s(dules)31 b(is)h(pro)s(cedural)f (rather)h(than)g(declarativ)m(e)f(though,)i(and)f(the)g(mo)s(dules)f(w) m(ork)i(for)118 5334 y(con\014guration)23 b(tasks)i(only)-8 b(.)39 b(F)-8 b(urthermore,)25 b(comp)s(etence)g(assessmen)m(t)h(w)m (as)e(in)m(ternal)f(to)g(the)118 5514 y(dev)m(elop)s(ed)i(system)f(and) g(no)f(external)h(brok)m(er-lik)m(e)f(agen)m(t)h(could)f(p)s(erform)f (the)i(comp)s(etence)1782 5871 y(20)p eop %%Page: 21 21 21 20 bop 118 407 a Ft(assessmen)m(t.)264 612 y(Up)24 b(to)g(this)f(p)s(oin)m(t,)i(there)f(ha)m(v)m(e)h(b)s(een)g(few)f (approac)m(hes)h(whic)m(h)f(use)h(meta-kno)m(wledge)f(to)118 793 y(represen)m(t)35 b(capabilities)30 b(and)j(certainly)f(no)h (solution)e(that)i(could)g(b)s(e)g(used)h(for)e(capabilit)m(y)118 974 y(brok)m(ering,)h(as)g(w)m(e)g(had)g(hop)s(ed.)118 1258 y Fo(3.3.2)113 b(Searc)m(h)38 b(Con)m(trol)e(Kno)m(wledge)118 1528 y Ft(Although)26 b(man)m(y)g(di\013eren)m(t)h(uses)h(for)d (meta-lev)m(el)g(kno)m(wledge)j(ha)m(v)m(e)f(b)s(een)h(suggested)g (there)118 1708 y(has)35 b(b)s(een)f(one)h(area)f(where)h(the)f(use)i (of)d(meta-kno)m(wledge)h(has)g(had)h(the)f(largest)g(impact:)118 1889 y Fr(se)-5 b(ar)g(ch)31 b(c)-5 b(ontr)g(ol)29 b Ft([Da)m(vis,)j(1980)o(,)e(Bundy)j(and)g(W)-8 b(elham,)32 b(1981)o(,)d(George\013,)j(1982)o(].)43 b(The)30 b(idea)118 2069 y(here)h(is)f(that)g(sp)s(ending)g(some)g(time)f(on)h(where)h(one) g(is)e(going)g(to)h(searc)m(h)i(in)d(a)h(large)f(searc)m(h)118 2250 y(space)44 b(is)f(more)g(e\016cien)m(t)h(than)f(just)g(searc)m (hing.)76 b(As)44 b(men)m(tioned)f(ab)s(o)m(v)m(e,)k(exp)s(erts)d(in)f (a)118 2431 y(domain)c(often)h(distinguish)f(themselv)m(es)j(from)d(no) m(vices)j(not)e(b)m(y)h(ha)m(ving)g(more)e(relev)-5 b(an)m(t)118 2611 y(domain)33 b(kno)m(wledge,)j(but)f(b)m(y)h(using)e(it)g(more)g (e\016cien)m(tly)-8 b(.)50 b(This)35 b(suggests)h(that)e(the)h(kind)118 2792 y(of)28 b(meta-kno)m(wledge)h(that)f(is)h(strongly)f(correlated)g (to)h(capabilit)m(y)e(kno)m(wledge)i(as)g(w)m(e)h(need)118 2972 y(to)43 b(represen)m(t)i(it)d(is,)k(in)c(fact,)k(searc)m(h)f(con)m (trol)d(kno)m(wledge.)77 b(Th)m(us,)47 b(w)m(e)e(shall)d(no)m(w)h(lo)s (ok)118 3153 y(at)g(searc)m(h)i(con)m(trol)e(kno)m(wledge)i(to)e(see)i 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b(is)h(of)h(particular)e(in)m (terest)i(to)f(us)h(\(cf.)g(section)g(4.1\))f(and)h(there)g(are)118 4803 y(a)35 b(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)i(of)e(planners)h(that)f(use)i (sophisticated)e(searc)m(h)i(con)m(trol)e(tec)m(hniques)3117 4767 y Fn(6)3158 4803 y Ft(.)53 b(F)-8 b(or)35 b(ex-)118 4984 y(ample,)27 b([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1975)o(])28 b(describ)s(es)g(in)f (his)f(Ph.D.)i(thesis)g(ho)m(w)g(the)f(structure)i(of)e(a)f(giv)m(en)i (goal)118 5164 y(and)h(its)f(sub-goals)g(can)h(b)s(e)f(exploited)g(to)h (con)m(trol)e(searc)m(h;)32 b([Croft,)g(1985])c(examines)h(in)f(his)118 5345 y(w)m(ork)34 b(what)f(exactly)g(the)g(c)m(hoice)g(p)s(oin)m(ts)f (are)h(during)f(planning)f(and)h(dev)m(elops)i(heuristics)p 118 5431 1371 4 v 136 5492 a Fm(6)201 5523 y Fk(T)-7 b(o)34 b(a)n(v)n(oid)f(confusion)g(here,)j(the)f(term)f(meta-planning)f (has)h(b)r(een)h(in)n(tro)r(duced)f(b)n(y)f([Wilensky)-7 b(,)28 b(1981)n(])201 5622 y(but)g(do)r(es)g(not)f(refer)g(to)h(the)g 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/Ntilde 8#322 /Ograve 8#323 /Oacute 8#324 /Ocircumflex 8#325 /Otilde 8#326 /Odieresis 8#327 /multiply 8#330 /Oslash 8#331 /Ugrave 8#332 /Uacute 8#333 /Ucircumflex 8#334 /Udieresis 8#335 /Yacute 8#336 /Thorn 8#337 /germandbls 8#340 /agrave 8#341 /aacute 8#342 /acircumflex 8#343 /atilde 8#344 /adieresis 8#345 /aring 8#346 /ae 8#347 /ccedilla 8#350 /egrave 8#351 /eacute 8#352 /ecircumflex 8#353 /edieresis 8#354 /igrave 8#355 /iacute 8#356 /icircumflex 8#357 /idieresis 8#360 /eth 8#361 /ntilde 8#362 /ograve 8#363 /oacute 8#364 /ocircumflex 8#365 /otilde 8#366 /odieresis 8#367 /divide 8#370 /oslash 8#371 /ugrave 8#372 /uacute 8#373 /ucircumflex 8#374 /udieresis 8#375 /yacute 8#376 /thorn 8#377 /ydieresis] def /Times-Roman /Times-Roman-iso isovec ReEncode /Times-Bold /Times-Bold-iso isovec ReEncode /$F2psBegin {$F2psDict begin /$F2psEnteredState save def} def /$F2psEnd {$F2psEnteredState restore end} def F2psBegin10setmiterlimitn−10008629m−1000−1000l13547−1000l135478629lcpclip0.060000.06000scF2psBegin 10 setmiterlimit n -1000 8629 m -1000 -1000 l 13547 -1000 l 13547 8629 l cp clip 0.06000 0.06000 sc % Polyline 15.000 slw gs clippath 4493 4285 m 4249 4328 l 4444 4176 l 4148 4307 l 4197 4417 l cp clip n 4875 4050 m 4200 4350 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4493 4285 m 4249 4328 l 4444 4176 l 4469 4231 l 4493 4285 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5594 4193 m 5799 4331 l 5553 4306 l 5858 4417 l 5899 4304 l cp clip n 5025 4050 m 5850 4350 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5594 4193 m 5799 4331 l 5553 4306 l 5574 4250 l 5594 4193 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2093 3685 m 1849 3728 l 2044 3576 l 1748 3707 l 1797 3817 l cp clip n 2475 3450 m 1800 3750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2093 3685 m 1849 3728 l 2044 3576 l 2069 3631 l 2093 3685 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3123 4651 m 3134 4898 l 3008 4686 l 3101 4996 l 3216 4961 l cp clip n 2700 3450 m 3150 4950 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3123 4651 m 3134 4898 l 3008 4686 l 3066 4668 l 3123 4651 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4519 3644 m 4746 3741 l 4500 3763 l 4820 3814 l 4839 3695 l cp clip n 2925 3450 m 4800 3750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4519 3644 m 4746 3741 l 4500 3763 l 4510 3704 l 4519 3644 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 11255 4687 m 11365 4908 l 11164 4765 l 11374 5012 l 11465 4934 l cp clip n 2925 3450 m 10125 3450 l 11400 4950 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 11255 4687 m 11365 4908 l 11164 4765 l 11210 4726 l 11255 4687 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7261 4663 m 7323 4902 l 7156 4721 l 7312 5005 l 7417 4947 l cp clip n 6525 3450 m 7350 4950 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7261 4663 m 7323 4902 l 7156 4721 l 7208 4692 l 7261 4663 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8600 3542 m 8672 3778 l 8497 3604 l 8664 3882 l 8767 3820 l cp clip n 8475 3450 m 8700 3825 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8600 3542 m 8672 3778 l 8497 3604 l 8549 3573 l 8600 3542 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7000 5460 m 6788 5586 l 6915 5375 l 6686 5604 l 6771 5689 l cp clip n 7125 5250 m 6750 5625 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7000 5460 m 6788 5586 l 6915 5375 l 6958 5417 l 7000 5460 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7585 5632 m 7628 5875 l 7476 5681 l 7607 5977 l 7717 5928 l cp clip n 7350 5250 m 7650 5925 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7585 5632 m 7628 5875 l 7476 5681 l 7531 5656 l 7585 5632 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8362 5406 m 8573 5534 l 8326 5521 l 8636 5616 l 8671 5501 l cp clip n 7650 5250 m 8625 5550 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8362 5406 m 8573 5534 l 8326 5521 l 8344 5464 l 8362 5406 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8800 4185 m 8588 4311 l 8715 4100 l 8486 4329 l 8571 4414 l cp clip n 8850 4050 m 8550 4350 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8800 4185 m 8588 4311 l 8715 4100 l 8758 4142 l 8800 4185 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 9506 4176 m 9700 4328 l 9457 4285 l 9753 4417 l 9802 4307 l cp clip n 9075 4050 m 9750 4350 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 9506 4176 m 9700 4328 l 9457 4285 l 9481 4231 l 9506 4176 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 10740 5374 m 10595 5574 l 10628 5330 l 10508 5631 l 10620 5675 l cp clip n 10725 5250 m 10575 5625 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10740 5374 m 10595 5574 l 10628 5330 l 10684 5352 l 10740 5374 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 11674 5385 m 11874 5529 l 11630 5497 l 11931 5617 l 11975 5505 l cp clip n 11175 5250 m 11925 5550 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 11674 5385 m 11874 5529 l 11630 5497 l 11652 5441 l 11674 5385 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2184 6196 m 2043 6399 l 2072 6154 l 1958 6457 l 2071 6499 l cp clip n 2250 5850 m 2025 6450 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2184 6196 m 2043 6399 l 2072 6154 l 2128 6175 l 2184 6196 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2962 6472 m 3045 6705 l 2862 6539 l 3042 6808 l 3142 6742 l cp clip n 2475 5850 m 3075 6750 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2962 6472 m 3045 6705 l 2862 6539 l 2912 6505 l 2962 6472 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4309 5412 m 4523 5535 l 4276 5527 l 4587 5616 l 4620 5501 l cp clip n 3525 5250 m 4575 5550 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4309 5412 m 4523 5535 l 4276 5527 l 4292 5469 l 4309 5412 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2690 5472 m 2448 5525 l 2636 5365 l 2346 5510 l 2400 5617 l cp clip n 3000 5250 m 2400 5550 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2690 5472 m 2448 5525 l 2636 5365 l 2663 5419 l 2690 5472 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 3772 5879 m 3867 6106 l 3676 5951 l 3870 6210 l 3966 6138 l cp clip n 3225 5250 m 3900 6150 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3772 5879 m 3867 6106 l 3676 5951 l 3724 5915 l 3772 5879 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 600 3075 m 12525 3075 l 12525 7125 l 600 7125 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline gs clippath 10887 892 m 11121 970 l 10877 1011 l 11200 1037 l 11210 918 l cp clip n 6525 600 m 11175 975 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10887 892 m 11121 970 l 10877 1011 l 10882 951 l 10887 892 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7523 859 m 7747 964 l 7500 976 l 7818 1040 l 7841 922 l cp clip n 5925 600 m 7800 975 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7523 859 m 7747 964 l 7500 976 l 7512 917 l 7523 859 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4721 925 m 4475 955 l 4678 813 l 4375 930 l 4419 1042 l cp clip n 5400 600 m 4425 975 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4721 925 m 4475 955 l 4678 813 l 4699 869 l 4721 925 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 2760 2856 m 2700 3096 l 2640 2856 l 2640 3180 l 2760 3180 l cp clip n 4800 600 m 2700 825 l 2700 3150 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 2760 2856 m 2700 3096 l 2640 2856 l 2700 2856 l 2760 2856 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 4932 1474 m 5125 1627 l 4883 1583 l 5177 1717 l 5227 1608 l cp clip n 4350 1275 m 5175 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 4932 1474 m 5125 1627 l 4883 1583 l 4907 1528 l 4932 1474 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 5188 1983 m 5291 2207 l 5094 2058 l 5297 2311 l 5391 2236 l cp clip n 5025 1875 m 5325 2250 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5188 1983 m 5291 2207 l 5094 2058 l 5141 2020 l 5188 1983 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 2850 900 m 5925 900 l 5925 2550 l 2850 2550 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline gs clippath 3925 1485 m 3713 1611 l 3840 1400 l 3611 1629 l 3696 1714 l cp clip n 4050 1275 m 3675 1650 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3925 1485 m 3713 1611 l 3840 1400 l 3883 1442 l 3925 1485 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7045 1522 m 6800 1554 l 7001 1410 l 6700 1530 l 6744 1642 l cp clip n 7500 1275 m 6750 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7045 1522 m 6800 1554 l 7001 1410 l 7023 1466 l 7045 1522 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 7478 1804 m 7302 1978 l 7375 1742 l 7208 2020 l 7311 2082 l cp clip n 7725 1275 m 7275 2025 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 7478 1804 m 7302 1978 l 7375 1742 l 7426 1773 l 7478 1804 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 8381 1401 m 8575 1553 l 8332 1510 l 8628 1642 l 8677 1532 l cp clip n 7950 1275 m 8625 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 8381 1401 m 8575 1553 l 8332 1510 l 8356 1456 l 8381 1401 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 6150 900 m 9600 900 l 9600 2400 l 6150 2400 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline gs clippath 10600 1410 m 10388 1536 l 10515 1325 l 10286 1554 l 10371 1639 l cp clip n 10650 1275 m 10350 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 10600 1410 m 10388 1536 l 10515 1325 l 10558 1367 l 10600 1410 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 11300 1742 m 11372 1978 l 11197 1804 l 11364 2082 l 11467 2020 l cp clip n 10950 1275 m 11400 2025 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 11300 1742 m 11372 1978 l 11197 1804 l 11249 1773 l 11300 1742 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 11749 1410 m 11949 1554 l 11705 1522 l 12006 1642 l 12050 1530 l cp clip n 11250 1275 m 12000 1575 l gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 11749 1410 m 11949 1554 l 11705 1522 l 11727 1466 l 11749 1410 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline n 9825 900 m 12450 900 l 12450 2400 l 9825 2400 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3525 975 m 4875 975 l 4875 1275 l 3525 1275 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9975 975 m 11700 975 l 11700 1275 l 9975 1275 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline gs clippath 3701 6526 m 3856 6717 l 3629 6622 l 3888 6816 l 3960 6720 l cp clip n 2700 5850 m 3900 6750 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 3701 6526 m 3856 6717 l 3629 6622 l 3665 6574 l 3701 6526 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 1650 5550 m 2925 5550 l 2925 5850 l 1650 5850 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3675 6750 m 5025 6750 l 5025 7050 l 3675 7050 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline gs clippath 5051 6403 m 5272 6513 l 5025 6520 l 5341 6590 l 5367 6473 l cp clip n 4650 6375 m 5325 6525 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 5051 6403 m 5272 6513 l 5025 6520 l 5038 6461 l 5051 6403 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3600 6150 m 4650 6150 l 4650 6450 l 3600 6450 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9900 5550 m 11025 5550 l 11025 5850 l 9900 5850 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 11250 5550 m 12375 5550 l 12375 5850 l 11250 5850 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 2400 3150 m 1575 2550 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 1200 2925 m 1500 3825 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 2925 5700 m 3600 6300 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 8025 5100 m 9675 4650 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9675 4650 m 8850 7425 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 10200 2925 m 11550 4950 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 11625 2925 m 11625 4950 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 10500 5850 m 10875 7425 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 5925 2550 m 8700 2850 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 4200 1275 m 4575 2775 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 11250 600 m 11400 975 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline gs clippath 831 540 m 1071 600 l 831 660 l 1155 660 l 1155 540 l cp clip n 600 600 m 1125 600 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 831 540 m 1071 600 l 831 660 l 831 600 l 831 540 l cp gs 0.00 setgray ef gr col0 s % Polyline gs clippath 831 765 m 1071 825 l 831 885 l 1155 885 l 1155 765 l cp clip n 600 825 m 1125 825 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr gr % arrowhead n 831 765 m 1071 825 l 831 885 l 831 825 l 831 765 l cp gs col7 1.00 shd ef gr col0 s % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 600 1050 m 1125 1050 l gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 600 1200 m 1125 1200 l 1125 1350 l 600 1350 l cp gs col7 0.75 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4800 525 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3 Actions in planning) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 750 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.1 Situation calculus) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7800 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.5 Real world planners) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6375 5175 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.4 Contingencies) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9600 5175 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.6 Shared action representations) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3675 4575 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.3 SAT) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4875 4575 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.3 Refinement) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 5925 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.4 Warplan-C) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7800 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.4. Cassandra) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7125 6150 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.4 CNLP) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7950 4575 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.5 SIPE) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9075 4575 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.5 O-Plan) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9975 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.6 SPAR) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11325 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.6 PDDL) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 2025 5175 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 Classical representations) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1725 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 STRIPS) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3825 5775 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 Complexity) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 11850 3375 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.1) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1800 3375 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1 Action representations) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3600 1200 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2 Ontologies) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3000 1800 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2 Ontolingua) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4425 1800 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2 Foundations) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 4650 2400 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2 Concepts) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7125 1200 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.3 Processes) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6300 1800 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.3 QPT) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7650 1800 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.3 Process Handbook) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6900 2250 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.3 IDEF3) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10050 1200 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.4 Planning agents) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11475 1800 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.4 UWL) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 750 6675 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 STRIPS assumption) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 2250 6975 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 Semantics) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3750 6975 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 Planners) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3675 6375 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 ADL) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 5400 6675 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.2 UCPOP) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 675 2925 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.2.1 FOPL) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8775 2925 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1.2.2 Knowledge Sharing) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 11100 2925 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.1.2.3 KQML) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 5250 1200 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 8925 1200 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.3) col0 sh gr /Times-Bold-iso ff 270.00 scf sf 11850 1200 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.4) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9900 600 m gs 1 -1 sc (3.3.2 Flexibility Scenario) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3750 2925 m gs 1 -1 sc (4.3 Performable Tasks) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 675 2550 m gs 1 -1 sc (4.2.1 Capabilities) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8025 7575 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.4.1.3 Planning PSM) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10200 7575 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.2 Ontologies) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1200 900 m gs 1 -1 sc (system/approach) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1200 1125 m gs 1 -1 sc (related work) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1200 1350 m gs 1 -1 sc (important) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9900 1800 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.4 PHOENIX) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10650 2250 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.4 Plan execution) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1200 675 m gs 1 -1 sc (subfield) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3900 3975 m gs 1 -1 sc (2.3.1.3 Disjunctive representations) col0 sh gr F2psBegin10setmiterlimitn−10008629m−1000−1000l13547−1000l135478629lcpclip0.060000.06000scF2psEnd rs %%EndDocument @endspecial 1105 2588 a Ft(Figure)31 b(3:)43 b(Ov)m(erview)34 b(of)e(this)h(section)264 2871 y(An)40 b(o)m(v)m(erview)h(of)f(this)f (section,)i(whic)m(h)g(pro)m(vides)f(a)f(conceptualisation)f(of)i(the)g (rela-)118 3052 y(tionships)h(b)s(et)m(w)m(een)i(the)f(di\013eren)m(t)g (sub-\014elds)g(and)g(approac)m(hes/systems)i(describ)s(ed)e(in)118 3233 y(this)32 b(section,)h(is)f(giv)m(en)h(in)f(\014gure)h(3.)118 3546 y Fp(4.1)135 b(Action)45 b(Represen)l(tation)j(F)-11 b(ormalisms)118 3816 y Ft(There)36 b(are)f Fr(two)i(r)-5 b(e)g(asons)34 b Ft(wh)m(y)j(action)d(represen)m(tations)i(as)f(used)h (b)m(y)g(AI)g(planners)f(are)g(of)118 3997 y(particular)30 b(imp)s(ortance)g(for)g(our)i(w)m(ork.)44 b(Firstly)-8 b(,)30 b(a)h(primitiv)m(e)e(action,)i(one)h(of)e(the)i(inputs)118 4178 y(to)h(the)h(classical)d(planning)h(problem)g([T)-8 b(ate)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)e(1990)o(,)g(page)g(28],)h(can)f(b)s(e)h (in)m(terpreted)118 4358 y(as)39 b(the)h(represen)m(tation)g(of)e(a)h (capabilit)m(y)-8 b(.)61 b(The)40 b(second)h(reason)e(for)g(our)g(in)m (terest)g(in)g(ac-)118 4539 y(tion)g(represen)m(tations)j(and)e(AI)g (planning)f(is)g(more)h(complex.)66 b(As)40 b(p)s(oin)m(ted)g(out)g(b)s (efore,)118 4719 y(in)m(telligen)m(t)27 b(agen)m(ts)j(are)g(often)f (assumed)i(to)e(use)h(a)f(planner)h(to)f(determine)g(a)g(course)i(of)e (ac-)118 4900 y(tion)36 b(that)h(ac)m(hiev)m(es)i(a)e(giv)m(en)g(ob)5 b(jectiv)m(e)39 b([W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge)30 b(and)j(Jennings,)g(1995)o(,) 39 b(page)e(131].)118 5080 y(Th)m(us,)32 b(it)c(is)h(plausible)f(to)h (assume)h(that,)g(for)f(a)g(giv)m(en)h(ob)5 b(jectiv)m(e,)31 b(there)f(exists)h(a)e(planning)118 5261 y(problem)39 b(that)h(has)h(a)f(solution)f(if)g(the)i(agen)m(t)g(is)e(capable)h(of)g (ac)m(hieving)g(this)g(ob)5 b(jectiv)m(e.)118 5442 y(Under)34 b(this)e(assumption,)g(the)h(problem)f(of)g(capabilit)m(y)f(assessmen)m (t)k(ma)m(y)d(b)s(e)h(reduced)i(to)118 5622 y(the)e(plan)f(existence)i (problem.)1782 5871 y(25)p eop %%Page: 26 26 26 25 bop 118 407 a Fo(4.1.1)113 b(First-Order)37 b(Logic)f(and)j(the)e (Situation)f(Calculus)118 677 y Ft(The)g(planning)d(problem)g(w)m(as)j (\014rst)f(addressed)i(in)d(AI)g(e.g.)h(in)f([Green,)f(1969)o(])i(and)g (in)f(the)118 858 y(situation)g(calculus)h([McCarth)m(y)g(and)e(Ha)m(y) m(es,)h(1969)o(,)i(Shanahan,)d(1997)o(].)2874 822 y Fn(7)2966 858 y Ft(Both)j(of)f(these)118 1039 y(approac)m(hes)40 b(did)e(not)g(devise)i(a)e(new)i(represen)m(tation)f(for)f(actions)g (but)h(used)h Fr(\014rst-or)-5 b(der)118 1219 y(pr)g(e)g(dic)g(ate)41 b(lo)-5 b(gic)39 b Ft(to)g(represen)m(t)i(w)m(orld)e(states,)k (actions,)e(and)e(their)g(e\013ects.)66 b(Using)39 b(\014rst-)118 1400 y(order)49 b(logic)d(lead)i(to)g(a)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)g(of)g (problems,)k(most)c(notably)-8 b(,)51 b(the)e(frame)e(problem.)118 1580 y(Although)27 b(there)i(has)f(b)s(een)h(considerable)e(progress)i (to)m(w)m(ards)g(represen)m(tations)g(of)f(actions)118 1761 y(in)43 b(\014rst-order)g(logic)f(that)h(a)m(v)m(oid)g(the)h (frame)e(problem,)j(it)d(can)i(b)m(y)g(no)g(means)f(b)s(e)g(con-)118 1941 y(sidered)c(solv)m(ed.)60 b(Since)38 b(w)m(e)h(ha)m(v)m(e)g (already)e(discussed)j(\014rst-order)e(logic)e(as)i(a)g(capabilit)m(y) 118 2122 y(represen)m(tation)33 b(in)f(section)h(3.1,)f(w)m(e)i(shall)d (not)h(go)g(in)m(to)g(more)g(detail)f(at)h(this)h(p)s(oin)m(t.)118 2408 y Fo(4.1.2)113 b(Classical)35 b(Non-Hierarc)m(hical)h(Represen)m (tations)118 2678 y Ft(One)54 b(of)e(the)i(earliest)e(systems)j(in)d (AI)h(to)g(address)i(the)e(planning)f(problem)g(using)h(a)118 2859 y(task)58 b(sp)s(eci\014c)g(represen)m(tation)g(w)m(as)g(the)g Fq(strips)d Ft(system)k([Fik)m(es)33 b(and)f(Nilsson,)g(1971)o(,)118 3039 y(Fik)m(es)h Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1972)o(].)44 b(The)33 b Fq(strips)f Fr(r)-5 b(epr)g(esentation)34 b(of)g(actions)e Ft(basically)f(consists)j(of:)263 3354 y Fd(\017)49 b Fo(an)32 b(action)e(pattern)p Ft(:)41 b(the)27 b(iden)m(ti\014er)g(of)g (the)g(action)f(and)h(some)g(v)-5 b(ariables)26 b(describ-)362 3534 y(ing)32 b(the)h(parameters;)263 3798 y Fd(\017)49 b Fo(a)40 b(precondition)e(form)m(ula)p Ft(:)46 b(a)33 b(form)m(ula)g(that)h(m)m(ust)g(b)s(e)g(true)h(b)s(efore)f(this)g (action)362 3978 y(can)f(b)s(e)g(applied;)263 4242 y Fd(\017)49 b Fo(an)41 b(add)g(list)p Ft(:)46 b(a)34 b(list)f(of)i(form) m(ulae)e(that)h(will)f(b)s(e)i(true)g(as)g(a)g(result)f(of)h(this)f (action;)362 4423 y(and)263 4686 y Fd(\017)49 b Fo(a)43 b(delete)e(list)p Ft(:)50 b(a)36 b(list)f(of)i(form)m(ulae)e(that)h (will)f(no)h(longer)g(b)s(e)h(true)g(as)g(a)f(result)h(of)362 4867 y(this)32 b(action.)264 5181 y(In)i(the)g(original)d(de\014nition) h(of)h(the)h Fq(strips)e Ft(represen)m(tation,)j(the)f(di\013eren)m(t)g (form)m(ulae)118 5361 y(in)44 b(the)g(represen)m(tation)h(w)m(ere)h (allo)m(w)m(ed)d(to)h(b)s(e)g(full)f(\014rst-order)h(logic)e(and)j(a)e (resolution)p 118 5449 1371 4 v 136 5510 a Fm(7)201 5540 y Fk(The)26 b(earliest)f(AI)h(system)g(addressing)e(this)j(problem)e(w) n(as)g(probably)g Fl(gps)h Fk([New)n(ell)i(and)f(Simon,)h(1963)n(].) 1782 5871 y Ft(26)p eop %%Page: 27 27 27 26 bop 118 407 a Ft(theorem)37 b(pro)m(v)m(er)i(w)m(as)g(used)f(to)g (reason)g(ab)s(out)f(w)m(orld)g(states.)59 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)42 b(in)36 b(a)i(later)e(de-)118 587 y(scription)42 b([Nilsson,)32 b(1980)o(,)45 b(c)m(hapter)f(7])f(only)f(conjunctions)h(of)g(literals)d (are)j(p)s(ermitted,)118 768 y(whic)m(h)37 b(greatly)f(simpli\014es)f (the)i(planning)e(pro)s(cess.)56 b(This)37 b(later)f(v)m(ersion)h(is)f (what)h(is)f(no)m(w)118 949 y(generally)42 b(referred)i(to)f(as)g(the)g Fq(strips)f Ft(represen)m(tation.)76 b(The)44 b(signi\014can)m(t)e(adv) -5 b(ance)44 b(of)118 1129 y(this)f(represen)m(tation)h(o)m(v)m(er)h (the)f(situation)d(calculus)i(is)g(the)h Fq(strips)f Fr(assumption)p Ft(:)65 b(only)118 1310 y(what)41 b(is)f(men)m(tioned)g (in)g(the)h(represen)m(tation)g(c)m(hanges)h(when)g(an)e(action)g(is)g (p)s(erformed,)118 1490 y(i.e.)32 b(an)m(ything)h(that)f(is)g(not)h (listed)e(in)h(the)h(add)g(or)f(delete)h(list)e(will)f(not)j(c)m (hange.)264 1697 y(One)51 b(in)m(teresting)f(asp)s(ect)i(of)e(the)h Fq(strips)e Ft(represen)m(tation)i(is)f(that)h(there)g(w)m(as)g(no)118 1877 y Fr(formal)d(semantics)e Ft(de\014ned)j(for)e Fq(strips)f Ft(for)h(a)g(rather)g(long)f(time.)87 b(In)48 b(a)f(classic)g(pa-)118 2058 y(p)s(er,)30 b([Ha)m(y)m(es,)k(1974)o(])29 b(p)s(oin)m(ted)f(out)g (that)g(man)m(y)g(represen)m(tations)i(in)d(AI)i(su\013ered)h(from)d (this)118 2238 y(problem,)37 b(and)g(that)g(formalisms)d(that)j(ha)m(v) m(e)i(no)e(seman)m(tics)g(should)g(not)g(b)s(e)g(considered)118 2419 y(represen)m(tations.)42 b(Still,)23 b(it)f(w)m(as)j(not)e(un)m (til)f([Lifsc)m(hitz,)33 b(1986)o(])23 b(that)h(a)f(seman)m(tics)h(for) f Fq(strips)118 2599 y Ft(w)m(as)35 b(formally)30 b(de\014ned.)48 b(Lifsc)m(hitz)33 b(also)g(illustrates)e(ho)m(w)k(the)f(\014rst)g(in)m (tuitiv)m(e)e(approac)m(hes)118 2780 y(are)42 b(not)g(alw)m(a)m(ys)g (quite)g(the)g(righ)m(t)f(de\014nitions.)71 b(It)42 b(has)g(to)f(b)s(e) h(said,)i(though,)g(that)e(the)118 2961 y Fq(strips)d Ft(represen)m(tation)h(pro)m(v)m(ed)h(to)f(b)s(e)g(an)f (extraordinarily)f(successful)k(action)d(repres-)118 3141 y(en)m(tation.)70 b(There)43 b(are)f(still)d(planners)j(b)s(eing)e (dev)m(elop)s(ed)j(to)s(da)m(y)f(that)f(use)i(exactly)f(this)118 3322 y(represen)m(tation.)264 3528 y(The)47 b Fq(strips)d Fr(planner)h Ft(on)g(the)h(other)f(hand)h(su\013ered)h(from)d(man)m(y)i (problems)e(that)118 3709 y(w)m(ere)35 b(addressed)h(in)c(a)i(n)m(um)m (b)s(er)g(of)f(subsequen)m(t)k(systems,)e(mostly)e(follo)m(wing)d(the) 35 b Fq(strips)118 3889 y Ft(approac)m(h)f([George\013,)f(1987)o(,)h (Allen)d Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990,)i(T)-8 b(ate)32 b Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)c(1990)o(].)47 b(The)35 b(\014nal)e(incarn-)118 4070 y(ation)25 b(of)g(a)h(planner)g(in)f(the)h(mould)f(of)g Fq(strips)g Ft(is)h(probably)f(the)i(partial-order)c(causal-link)118 4250 y(planner)28 b Fq(snlp)g Ft([McAllester)33 b(and)f(Rosen)m(blitt,) g(1991)o(].)42 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)32 b(there)d(has)g(b)s(een)g(no)f (sig-)118 4431 y(ni\014can)m(t)33 b(adv)-5 b(ance)33 b(in)e(the)i(represen)m(tation)g(of)f(actions)g(used)i(b)m(y)f(these)h (systems,)g(and)f(this)118 4611 y(is)f(the)h(asp)s(ect)h(w)m(e)f(are)g (most)f(in)m(terested)h(in)f(here.)264 4818 y(One)27 b(of)f(the)g(more)f(serious)i(limitations)22 b(of)j(the)i Fq(strips)e Ft(represen)m(tation)h(is)g(its)g(express-)118 4998 y(iv)m(eness.)44 b(F)-8 b(or)26 b(example,)i(the)f(situation)f (calculus)h(is)f(considered)j(a)e(m)m(uc)m(h)g(more)g(expressiv)m(e)118 5179 y(represen)m(tation.)66 b(It)40 b(w)m(as)h(not)e(un)m(til)g([P)m (ednault,)33 b(1989)o(])40 b(that)g(a)f(serious)h(attempt)f(at)h(ex-) 118 5359 y(ploring)34 b(the)i(middle)d(ground)j(b)s(et)m(w)m(een)i (these)e(t)m(w)m(o)h(approac)m(hes)f(w)m(as)h(made.)52 b(The)36 b(result)118 5540 y(of)i(this)g(w)m(ork)h(w)m(as)g(the)f(new)i Fr(action)f(description)g(language)e Ft(\()p Fq(adl)p Ft(\))i(that)f(com)m(bined)g(the)1782 5871 y(27)p eop %%Page: 28 28 28 27 bop 118 407 a Ft(expressiv)m(eness)34 b(of)28 b(the)i(situation)e (calculus)h(with)g(the)h Fq(strips)e Ft(assumption)h(to)g(retain)g(the) 118 587 y(b)s(est)d(of)e(b)s(oth)h(w)m(orlds.)41 b(The)26 b(underlying)f(idea)f(in)g Fq(adl)i Ft(w)m(as)g(to)e(exploit)g(the)i (fact)f(that)f(e\013ect)118 768 y(axioms)i(in)g(the)h(situation)e (calculus)h(all)e(more)i(or)h(less)g(ha)m(v)m(e)h(the)f(same)f(syn)m (tactical)h(format.)118 949 y(P)m(ednault)j(used)h(this)f(pattern)g(to) f(de\014ne)i Fq(adl)f Ft(and)g(ho)m(w)h Fq(adl)f Ft(expressions)h (should)f(b)s(e)g(ex-)118 1129 y(panded)38 b(in)m(to)e(situation)f (calculus)h(form)m(ulae.)54 b(In)37 b(this)f(w)m(a)m(y)-8 b(,)39 b(the)e(seman)m(tics)g(of)f Fq(adl)h Ft(w)m(as)118 1310 y(grounded)c(in)e(the)i(situation)e(calculus)g(but)i(the)f(syn)m (tax)i(lo)s(ok)m(ed)e(m)m(uc)m(h)h(more)e(lik)m(e)h Fq(strips)118 1490 y Ft(with)g(precondition,)g(add,)h(and)f(delete)h(form)m(ulae.)264 1697 y(What)49 b(P)m(ednault)g(did)f(not)g(do)g(w)m(as)h(design)g(a)f (planner)g(for)g Fq(adl)p Ft(.)91 b(Although)48 b(one)118 1877 y(could)33 b(translate)g(the)h(represen)m(tation)h(in)m(to)e (\014rst-order)g(logic)f(and)i(reason)g(ab)s(out)f(it)g(with)118 2058 y(a)48 b(theorem)g(pro)m(v)m(er,)53 b(this)48 b(w)m(as)g(clearly)g (not)f(the)i(in)m(tension.)89 b(The)49 b(\014rst)g(planner)e(that)118 2238 y(w)m(as)30 b(based)g(on)f(a)g(restricted)h(v)m(ersion)g(of)f Fq(adl)g Ft(w)m(as)h Fq(ucpop)f Ft([P)m(en)m(b)s(erth)m(y)35 b(and)e(W)-8 b(eld,)32 b(1992)o(,)118 2419 y(Barrett)h Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1995)o(].)74 b(The)43 b(basic)g(extension)g(of)g Fq(ucpop)p Fr('s)g(version)g(of)h Fq(adl)f Ft(o)m(v)m(er)h(the)118 2599 y Fq(strips)h Ft(represen)m(tation)i(w)m(as)g(the)f(in)m(tro)s (duction)f(of)g(conditional)f(e\013ects.)85 b(E\013ects)47 b(are)118 2780 y(the)f(union)f(of)h(add)g(and)f(delete)h(lists)f(and)h (conditional)d(e\013ects)k(are)f(e\013ects)h(that)f(only)118 2961 y(o)s(ccur)30 b(if)e(certain)h(secondary)i(preconditions)e(hold)g (b)s(efore)h(the)f(action)g(is)g(executed.)45 b(Also,)118 3141 y(conditional)25 b(e\013ects)j(can)f(o)s(ccur)g(an)m(y)h(n)m(um)m (b)s(er)f(of)g(times)f(with)g(di\013eren)m(t)i(instan)m(tiations)d(for) 118 3322 y(a)e(giv)m(en)g(action)f(instance.)40 b(By)24 b(restricting)e(the)h(domains)f(of)g(all)f(v)-5 b(ariables)22 b(to)g(kno)m(wn,)27 b(\014nite)118 3502 y(domains)g(it)g(w)m(as)h(p)s (ossible)g(to)f(extend)j(the)e(basic)g Fq(snlp)f Ft(algorithm)e(to)i (handle)h(conditional)118 3683 y(e\013ects.)118 4029 y Fo(Complexit)m(y)47 b(of)j Fq(strips)e Fo(Planning)97 b Ft(As)44 b(w)m(e)g(ha)m(v)m(e)g(men)m(tioned)f(ab)s(o)m(v)m(e,)k(one) c(of)g(the)118 4209 y(reasons)28 b(wh)m(y)g(w)m(e)g(are)f(in)m (terested)g(in)f(AI)h(planning)f(is)g(b)s(ecause)i(the)f(capabilit)m(y) e(assessmen)m(t)118 4390 y(problem)43 b(ma)m(y)g(b)s(e)h(reduced)h(to)e (the)i(plan)d(existence)k(problem.)75 b([Bylander,)33 b(1994)o(])44 b(has)118 4570 y(sho)m(wn)32 b(that)f(the)g(problem)f(of) h(determining)e(whether)j(a)f(giv)m(en)g(instance)g(of)f(the)i (planning)118 4751 y(problem)37 b(has)i(an)m(y)g(solution)e(is,)j(ev)m (en)g(for)e(prop)s(ositional)d Fq(strips)p Ft(,)k(a)f Fq(psp)-7 b(a)n(ce)p Ft(-complete)118 4931 y(problem.)56 b(Th)m(us,)39 b(assessing)f(capabilit)m(y)d(via)i(plan)f(existence)i (is)f(not)g(a)f(promising)f(route)118 5112 y(as)e(far)f(as)h(capabilit) m(y)d(retriev)-5 b(al)32 b(is)g(concerned.)264 5318 y(An)f(in)m(v)m (estigation)d(in)m(to)i(whether)h(and)f(wh)m(y)h(di\013eren)m(t)g(t)m (yp)s(es)g(of)f(planning)e(algorithms)118 5499 y(are)37 b(more)e(e\016cien)m(t)i(than)g(others)g(can)g(b)s(e)f(found)h(in)e ([Barrett)e(and)g(W)-8 b(eld,)32 b(1994)o(].)55 b(In)37 b(the)1782 5871 y(28)p eop %%Page: 29 29 29 28 bop 118 407 a Ft(course)28 b(of)f(this)g(w)m(ork,)i(they)f (de\014ned)h(the)e(complexit)m(y)g(of)f(a)h(planning)f(problem.)40 b(W)-8 b(e)28 b(could)118 587 y(p)s(oten)m(tially)41 b(use)j(suc)m(h)g(a)e(complexit)m(y)g(measure)i(to)e(estimate)g (whether)i(a)f(plan)f(will)e(b)s(e)118 768 y(found)25 b(within)e(giv)m(en)i(resources,)j(i.e.)c(to)g(address)i(the)f(plan)f (existence)i(problem.)40 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)118 949 y(the)d(complexit)m(y)e(of)h(the)g(b)s(enc)m(hmark)h(problems)f(they)h (used)g(w)m(as)g(giv)m(en)g(in)e(terms)h(of)g(the)118 1129 y(length)31 b(of)h(the)g(shortest)h(plan)e(solving)f(them,)i(i.e.) f(in)g(general,)h(the)g(complexit)m(y)f(w)m(as)i(only)118 1310 y(kno)m(wn)h(once)f(the)g(problem)f(w)m(as)h(solv)m(ed.)118 1595 y Fo(4.1.3)113 b(Disjunctiv)m(e)36 b(Represen)m(tations)118 1866 y Ft(In)45 b([Kautz)33 b(and)g(Selman,)e(1992)o(])45 b(a)f(new)i(approac)m(h)f(to)g(planning)e(has)i(b)s(een)h(suggested.) 118 2046 y(Instead)28 b(of)f(re\014ning)g(a)g(partial)e(plan)i(through) g(searc)m(h)i(they)f(ha)m(v)m(e)h(reform)m(ulated)d(the)i(plan-)118 2227 y(ning)42 b(problem)g(as)h(a)g Fr(satis\014ability)h(pr)-5 b(oblem)42 b Ft(to)h(whic)m(h)h(they)g(applied)d(their)i(sto)s(c)m (hastic)118 2408 y(hill)31 b(clim)m(bing)g(algorithm)g Fq(gsa)-7 b(t)34 b Ft([Selman)d Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)e(1992)o(].)47 b(The)35 b(di\016cult)d(task)j(here)g(is)e(the)118 2588 y(reform)m(ulation.)40 b([Blum)31 b(and)i(F)-8 b(urst,)32 b(1995])c(indep)s(enden)m(tly)i(found)f(suc)m(h)h(a)f(reform)m(ulation) 118 2769 y(that)42 b(led)f(to)g(a)h(signi\014can)m(t)f(increase)h(in)f (p)s(erformance)h(o)m(v)m(er)g(con)m(v)m(en)m(tional)g(planners)g(as) 118 2949 y(demonstrated)36 b(b)m(y)g(their)f(planner,)g(Graphplan.)51 b(This)35 b(new)h(form)m(ulation)d(w)m(as)j(later)e(im-)118 3130 y(pro)m(v)m(ed)43 b(and)e(com)m(bined)f(with)h(W)-8 b(alksat,)42 b(an)f(ev)m(olution)f(of)h Fq(gsa)-7 b(t)p Ft(,)43 b(to)d(giv)m(e)h(ev)m(en)i(b)s(etter)118 3310 y(results)33 b([Kautz)g(and)f(Selman,)g(1996)o(].)264 3517 y(No)m(w,)26 b(wh)m(y)e(is)f(it)f(that)g(these)j(satis\014abilit)m (y)20 b(planners)k(could)e(so)h(drastically)e(outp)s(erform)118 3697 y(all)38 b(deductiv)m(e)k(partial-order)c(causal-link)h(approac)m (hes?)68 b(This)41 b(question)g(has)g(b)s(een)g(ad-)118 3878 y(dressed)24 b(in)e([Selman,)31 b(1994,)22 b(Kam)m(bhampati,)30 b(1997)o(])23 b(and)f(they)h(suggest)g(that)g(the)f(essen)m(tial)118 4058 y(di\013erence)36 b(lies)e(in)g(the)h(fact)g(that)g(the)g (represen)m(tations)h(used)g(b)m(y)g(satis\014abilit)m(y)d(planners)118 4239 y(are)j(capable)g(of)g(represen)m(ting)i(a)e(new)h(kind)f(of)g Fr(disjunction)i(in)g(plans)p Ft(,)e(i.e.)g(sets)i(of)e(plans)118 4420 y(that)25 b(con)m(tain)g(disjunctions)g(of)g(actions)g(to)h(b)s(e) f(included)g(in)g(the)h(\014nal)e(plan.)41 b(As)26 b(a)f(resp)s(onse) 118 4600 y(to)d(this)g(\014nding)g(there)h(are)f(no)m(w)h(some)g (deductiv)m(e)g(planners)g(that)f(also)f(use)j(disjunctiv)m(e)e(rep-) 118 4781 y(resen)m(tations,)27 b(e.g.)e Fq(Cops)g Ft([Ginsb)s(erg,)32 b(1996b)o(])25 b(or)g(Descartes)h([Joslin)31 b(and)i(P)m(ollac)m(k,)f (1996)o(].)118 4961 y(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)g(they)e(do)g(not)f(seem)g(to)g (ha)m(v)m(e)i(the)e(p)s(erformance)g(of)g(satis\014abilit)m(y)e (planners)i(y)m(et.)264 5168 y(As)45 b(far)f(as)h(action)e(represen)m (tations)j(are)e(concerned,)49 b(these)d(new)f(planners)f(can)h(b)s(e) 118 5348 y(considered)26 b(a)g(step)g(bac)m(kw)m(ards)i(rather)d(than)h (forw)m(ard.)41 b(All)24 b(the)h(actions)g(the)h(satis\014abilit)m(y) 118 5529 y(planners)i(can)g(reason)g(ab)s(out)g(are)f(strictly)g(prop)s (ositional,)f(a)i(limitation)23 b(that)k(stems)h(from)1782 5871 y(29)p eop %%Page: 30 30 30 29 bop 118 407 a Ft(the)36 b(satis\014abilit)m(y)e(algorithm)f (used.)55 b(Th)m(us,)38 b(this)e(w)m(ork)h(is)e(of)h(little)d(in)m (terest)j(to)g(us.)54 b(The)118 587 y(ab)s(o)m(v)m(e)34 b(planners)f(do)g(ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er)i(reason)f(ab)s(out)e(disjunction)g (in)g(plans)h(and,)g(as)g(far)g(as)g(plan)118 768 y(represen)m(tations) f(are)g(concerned,)h(this)d(presen)m(ts)k(a)c(signi\014can)m(t)h(adv)-5 b(ance.)44 b(This)31 b(is)f(not)h(an)118 949 y(issue)i(here)h(though.) 118 1234 y Fo(4.1.4)113 b(Con)m(tingencies)118 1505 y Ft(An)46 b(in)m(teresting)f(extension)h(of)f(the)g Fq(strips)p Ft(-based)g(action)f(represen)m(tations)j(presen)m(ted)118 1685 y(this)28 b(far)g(has)h(b)s(een)g(in)m(tro)s(duced)f(in)g Fr(c)-5 b(ontingency)30 b(planning)p Ft(.)40 b(Essen)m(tially)-8 b(,)29 b(the)g(idea)f(here)h(is)118 1866 y(that)k(certain)g(actions)f (ma)m(y)h(ha)m(v)m(e)h(sev)m(eral)g(alternativ)m(e)e(outcomes.)45 b(The)34 b(\014rst)g(planner)f(to)118 2046 y(address)d(this)e(problem)f (w)m(as)i(W)-8 b(arplan-C)27 b([W)-8 b(arren,)33 b(1976)o(].)43 b(The)29 b(represen)m(tation)g(used)g(b)m(y)118 2227 y(W)-8 b(arplan-C)33 b(w)m(as)h(again)e(based)j(on)e(the)h Fq(strips)e Ft(represen)m(tation.)48 b(The)34 b(ma)5 b(jor)33 b(di\013erence)118 2408 y(w)m(as)43 b(that)f(sev)m(eral)g (alternativ)m(e)g(sets)h(of)e(e\013ects)i(can)g(b)s(e)f(sp)s(eci\014ed) h(for)e(an)h(action,)h(eac)m(h)118 2588 y(of)36 b(whic)m(h)h(is)f(giv)m (en)g(a)g(con)m(tingency)i(lab)s(el.)53 b(Eac)m(h)37 b(set)g(of)f(e\013ects)i(w)m(as)f(represen)m(ted)i(as)d(an)118 2769 y(add)j(and)h(a)f(delete)g(list,)h(as)f(it)g(w)m(ould)g(b)s(e)g (for)g(a)g(normal)e Fq(strips)h Ft(action.)63 b(The)40 b(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)118 2949 y(of)f(con)m(tingencies)g(w)m(as)i(assumed)f (to)e(b)s(e)i(small)d(and)i(not)g(all)e(actions)i(w)m(ere)i(exp)s (ected)g(to)118 3130 y(lead)34 b(to)f(con)m(tingencies.)48 b(There)36 b(has)e(also)f(b)s(een)i(some)f(w)m(ork)h(on)f(extending)g (O-Plan)f(\(see)118 3310 y(b)s(elo)m(w\))28 b(to)g(deal)g(with)g(con)m (tingencies)h([Sec)m(k)m(er,)35 b(1988)o(],)29 b(but)g(the)g(curren)m (t)h(v)m(ersion)f(do)s(es)f(not)118 3491 y(con)m(tain)k(an)m(y)i(suc)m (h)g(extension.)264 3697 y(A)g(more)f(recen)m(t)i(con)m(tingency)g (planner)e(is)g Fq(cnlp)g Ft([P)m(eot)h(and)e(Smith,)g(1992)o(],)i (whic)m(h)g(is)118 3878 y(basically)24 b(a)g(non-linear)g(v)m(ersion)h (of)g(W)-8 b(arplan-C.)24 b(The)j(underlying)d(action)g(represen)m (tation)118 4058 y(did)30 b(not)g(c)m(hange)i(from)d(W)-8 b(arplan-C)29 b(though.)43 b(A)30 b(v)-5 b(arian)m(t)30 b(of)g Fq(cnlp)p Ft('s)g(algorithm)e(has)i(b)s(een)118 4239 y(used)j(in)f(the)h(Cassandra)g(planner)f([Pry)m(or)h(and)g (Collins,)e(1996)o(])h(whic)m(h,)h(lik)m(e)e Fq(ucpop)p Ft(,)h(also)118 4420 y(handles)45 b(conditional)e(e\013ects.)82 b(In)45 b(Cassandra's)i(action)d(represen)m(tation)i(the)f(di\013eren)m (t)118 4600 y(con)m(tingencies)28 b(w)m(ere)g(represen)m(ted)i(as)d (conditional)e(e\013ects,)k(where)f(the)g(con)m(tingency)g(lab)s(el)118 4781 y(can)40 b(b)s(e)g(seen)g(as)g(a)f(secondary)i(precondition)e(of)g (the)h(di\013eren)m(t)g(e\013ects)g(in)f(the)h(di\013eren)m(t)118 4961 y(con)m(tingencies.)264 5168 y(E\013ectiv)m(ely)-8 b(,)33 b(con)m(tingencies)g(can)f(b)s(e)g(seen)i(as)e(in)m(tro)s (ducing)f(disjunctions)h(in)m(to)f(e\013ects,)118 5348 y(th)m(us)f(signi\014can)m(tly)f(extending)h(the)f(expressiv)m(eness)34 b(of)28 b(the)i(represen)m(tation.)43 b(Th)m(us,)32 b(these)118 5529 y(represen)m(tations)i(are)e(of)h(great)f(in)m(terest)h(to)f(us.) 1782 5871 y(30)p eop %%Page: 31 31 31 30 bop 118 407 a Fo(4.1.5)113 b(Real)36 b(W)-9 b(orld)36 b(Planners)118 677 y Ft(Most)e(of)f(the)h(planners)f(men)m(tioned)g (this)h(far)e(are)i(researc)m(h)h(v)m(ehicles)f(and)f(ha)m(v)m(e)i(not) e(b)s(een)118 858 y(applied)50 b(to)h(realistic)e(domains.)97 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)58 b(there)52 b(are)f(at)g(least)g(t)m(w)m(o)g (planners)g(that)118 1039 y(ha)m(v)m(e)36 b(b)s(een)g(used)g(outside)f (a)g(researc)m(h)h(en)m(vironmen)m(t:)49 b Fr(O-Plan)34 b Ft([Currie)e(and)h(T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1991)o(,)118 1219 y(T)-8 b(ate)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1994)o(,)39 b(T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1995])39 b(and)g Fq(sipe)e Ft([Wilkins,)32 b(1988)o(].)63 b(Both)39 b(these)h(systems)g(are)118 1400 y(quite)31 b(similar)c(in)k(that)f(they)i(supp)s(ort)f(a)g(v)m (ery)h(ric)m(h)f(represen)m(tation)g(to)g(supp)s(ort)g(planning)118 1580 y(in)h(realistic)f(domains.)264 1787 y(The)k(O-Plan)e(planner)g (essen)m(tially)g(consists)i(of:)45 b(a)33 b(set)i(of)e(kno)m(wledge)i (sources)g(whic)m(h)118 1967 y(can)h(address)i(di\013eren)m(t)e(t)m(yp) s(es)h(of)f(\015a)m(ws)h(or)e(issues)i(in)e(a)h(plan;)h(a)f(set)g(of)g (constrain)m(t)g(man-)118 2148 y(agers)45 b(to)f(ev)-5 b(aluate)44 b(di\013eren)m(t)h(t)m(yp)s(es)g(of)f(constrain)m(ts)h(in)f (a)g(plan;)50 b(and)44 b(a)h(con)m(troller)e(for)118 2328 y(these)53 b(mo)s(dules.)101 b(The)53 b Fr(op)-5 b(enness)50 b Ft(of)i(O-Plan)e(means)i(new)h(mo)s(dules)e(can)h(b)s(e)h (added)118 2509 y(to)47 b(the)h(planner)g(without)f(to)s(o)g(m)m(uc)m (h)h(e\013ort.)88 b(The)49 b(represen)m(tation)f(used)h(b)m(y)f(O-Plan) 118 2689 y(is)j(based)g(on)g(the)g Fc(<)p Fq(i-n-o)n(v)-9 b(a)p Fc(>)51 b Ft(constrain)m(t)g(mo)s(del)e(of)i(activit)m(y)f([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1996a)o(])51 b(whic)m(h)118 2870 y(views)44 b(a)f(plan)f(as)h(a)g(set)g(of)g(constrain)m(ts)g(on)g(p)s(ossible)f(b) s(eha)m(viour.)75 b(The)44 b(actual)e(action)118 3051 y(represen)m(tation)h(language)e(used)i(in)f(O-Plan)e(is)i(called)f (O-Plan)g(T)-8 b(ask)43 b(F)-8 b(ormalism)38 b(\()p Fq(tf)p Ft(\))118 3231 y([O-Plan)32 b Fq(tf)p Ft(,)g(1997,)c(T)-8 b(ate)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)e(1998)o(].)42 b(O-Plan)28 b Fq(tf)h Ft(is)f(primarily)e(based)k(on)f(a)g(hierarc)m(h-)118 3412 y(ical)21 b(mo)s(del)g(of)i(action)e(expansion.)41 b(The)24 b(represen)m(tation)f(of)g(primitiv)m(e)d(actions,)k(the)g (asp)s(ect)118 3592 y(w)m(e)37 b(are)e(most)g(in)m(terested)i(in,)f (has)g(a)f(great)g(degree)i(of)e(ric)m(hness,)i(allo)m(wing)d(for)h(a)g (n)m(um)m(b)s(er)118 3773 y(of)h(constrain)m(t)g(t)m(yp)s(es)i(in)d (the)i(represen)m(tation,)h(e.g.)e(complex)g(temp)s(oral)e(constrain)m (ts,)j(re-)118 3954 y(source)f(constrain)m(ts,)g(etc.)52 b(The)36 b(abilit)m(y)c(to)j(add)g(new)h(constrain)m(t)f(managers)g(as) g(required)118 4134 y(giv)m(es)h(O-Plan)f(the)h(high)g(\015exibilit)m (y)e(needed)j(for)f(realistic)e(domains.)52 b(Another)36 b(in)m(terest-)118 4315 y(ing)28 b(asp)s(ect)i(of)e(the)h(O-Plan)f (planner)g(is)h(that)g(is)f(has)h(b)s(een)h(mo)s(delled)d(as)i(a)f (Common)p Fq(kads)118 4495 y Ft(problem-solving)i(metho)s(d)i ([Kingston)g Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1996)o(])h(\(cf.)f(section)h (5.1.3\).)264 4702 y(When)47 b(it)d(comes)i(to)f(mo)s(delling)c (realistic)j(domains,)j(the)f(ric)m(hness)h(o\013ered)f(b)m(y)g(the)118 4882 y(represen)m(tations)41 b(of)e(these)i(real)d(w)m(orld)i(planners) f(presen)m(ts)j(a)d(signi\014can)m(t)g(adv)-5 b(ance)40 b(o)m(v)m(er)118 5063 y(the)45 b(earlier)d Fq(strips)p Ft(-based)h(represen)m(tations.)80 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)49 b(our)44 b(aim)e(for)h(no)m(w)i(is)f(not)g(to)118 5243 y(dev)m(elop)49 b(a)g(brok)m(er)g(for)g(a)f(realistic)f(domain)g(whic)m (h)i(migh)m(t)e(require)i(suc)m(h)h(ric)m(hness)g(in)118 5424 y(its)42 b(capabilit)m(y)g(represen)m(tations.)75 b(F)-8 b(urthermore,)45 b(whether)f(more)f(ric)m(hness)h(necessarily) 118 5604 y(means)37 b(more)f(expressiv)m(eness)41 b(is)36 b(an)h(op)s(en)g(question.)56 b(The)38 b(most)e(in)m(teresting)g(asp)s (ect)i(of)1782 5871 y(31)p eop %%Page: 32 32 32 31 bop 118 407 a Ft(these)29 b(planners)f(for)f(our)g(w)m(ork)i(is)e (the)h(op)s(enness)h(of)e(O-Plan)f(whic)m(h)i(giv)m(es)g(it)f(its)g (\015exibilit)m(y)-8 b(.)118 692 y Fo(4.1.6)113 b(Shared)38 b(Action)e(Represen)m(tations)118 963 y Ft(P)m(art)30 b(of)g(the)h(curren)m(t)g(mo)m(v)m(emen)m(t)f(to)m(w)m(ards)h(kno)m (wledge)g(sharing)f(and)g(shared)h(represen)m(ta-)118 1144 y(tions)26 b(\(cf.)h(section)g(2.2.2\))f(in)m(v)m(olv)m(es)i(the)f (dev)m(elopmen)m(t)h(of)e Fr(shar)-5 b(e)g(d)29 b(action)g(r)-5 b(epr)g(esentations)p Ft(.)118 1324 y(In)39 b(section)g(2.2.3,)h(w)m(e) g(ha)m(v)m(e)g(already)e(lo)s(ok)m(ed)h(at)f Fq(k)n(qml)i Ft(whic)m(h)f(can)g(b)s(e)g(considered)h(one)118 1505 y(suc)m(h)i(language,)g(as)f(a)g Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(expression)g(represen) m(ts)h(an)e(action.)67 b(A)m(t)41 b(least)g(t)m(w)m(o)g(other)118 1685 y(e\013orts)34 b(with)g(the)g(aim)e(of)h(standardising)g(a)h (common)e(action)h(represen)m(tation)i(that)f(facil-)118 1866 y(itates)e(kno)m(wledge)i(sharing)e(are)g(curren)m(tly)i(under)f 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b(sharing)e(is)g(not)118 3156 y(only)31 b(through)g(a)f(language)g(with)h(an)g(op)s(en)g(syn)m(tax,)i(but)e (also)f(b)m(y)i(pro)m(viding)e(an)h(on)m(tology)118 3336 y(of)39 b(fundamen)m(tal)g(concepts)i(for)e(represen)m(ting)i(and)f (reasoning)f(ab)s(out)g(actions.)64 b(A)40 b(brief)118 3517 y(lo)s(ok)31 b(at)i(the)g Fq(sp)-7 b(ar)32 b Ft(on)m(tology)f (will)g(follo)m(w)g(in)g(section)i(4.2.)264 3723 y(Another)28 b(shared)f(action)f(represen)m(tation)i(is)e(the)h Fr(Planning)h (Domain)g(De\014nition)h(L)-5 b(an-)118 3904 y(guage)31 b Ft(\()p Fq(pddl)p Ft(\))h(that)g(w)m(as)g(dev)m(elop)s(ed)h(as)f(a)f (common)f(format)h(for)g(all)e(comp)s(etitors)i(in)g(the)118 4084 y(AIPS'98)40 b(planning)f(comp)s(etition)e([Ghallab)31 b Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998)o(].)66 b(The)40 b(scop)s(e)h(of)e Fq(pddl)h Ft(is)g(far)118 4265 y(more)33 b(limited)e(than)j Fq(sp)-7 b(ar)p Ft(:)45 b Fq(pddl)34 b Ft(w)m(as)h(only)e(aiming)e(for) i(a)g(represen)m(tation)i(that)e(co)m(v)m(ers)118 4445 y(the)f(represen)m(tations)h(used)g(b)m(y)g(comp)s(eting)d(planning)g (algorithms.)41 b(One)32 b(of)f(the)h(in)m(terest-)118 4626 y(ing)i(features)i(of)f(this)g(language)f(is)h(that)g(it)g(con)m (tains)g(explicit)f(\015ags)h(for)g(di\013eren)m(t)g(exten-)118 4806 y(sions)40 b(to)f(the)i(basic)e(language)g(that)h(ha)m(v)m(e)h(to) e(b)s(e)h(set)h(in)e(a)g(problem)g(description)g(if)g(the)118 4987 y(according)31 b(extension)h(is)e(used.)45 b(A)31 b(planner)g(not)g(supp)s(orting)f(these)j(extensions)f(can)g(then)118 5168 y(simply)38 b(c)m(hec)m(k)k(these)e(\015ags)g(to)f(see)i(whether)f (it)f(can)h(generate)g(plans)f(for)g(the)g(describ)s(ed)118 5348 y(problems.)264 5555 y(Both)e(represen)m(tations)g(are)f(only)g (mean)m(t)g(as)g(an)g(in)m(terlingua)e(and)i(not)g(as)h(represen)m(t-) 1782 5871 y(32)p eop %%Page: 33 33 33 32 bop 118 407 a Ft(ations)35 b(whic)m(h)i(are)f(reasoned)i(o)m(v)m (er)f(directly)-8 b(.)53 b(Still,)35 b(b)s(oth)h(these)h(languages,)g (and)f Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(,)118 587 y(as)e(w)m(ell,)g(o\013er)g(v)m(ery)h (in)m(teresting)f(features)h(that)e(a)h(capabilit)m(y)e(represen)m (tation)j(m)m(ust)f(also)118 768 y(ha)m(v)m(e,)g(suc)m(h)g(as)f Fq(sp)-7 b(ar)p Ft('s)33 b(op)s(enness)h(and)f(\015exibilit)m(y)-8 b(.)118 1083 y Fp(4.2)135 b(On)l(tologies)47 b(of)f(Actions)118 1353 y Ft(A)36 b(logic)d(only)i(de\014nes)i(the)f(syn)m(tax)h(and)e (seman)m(tics)h(for)f(a)g(represen)m(tation,)i(but)f(it)e(is)h(the)118 1534 y(on)m(tology)28 b(that)g(de\014nes)i(the)f(v)m(o)s(cabulary)-8 b(.)42 b(Approac)m(hes)30 b(to)e(kno)m(wledge)i(sharing)e(therefore)118 1714 y(agree)46 b(on)f(the)h(need)h(for)e Fr(shar)-5 b(e)g(d)46 b(ontolo)-5 b(gies)44 b Ft(\(cf.)i(section)f(2.2.2\).)82 b(Th)m(us,)50 b(w)m(e)d(to)s(o)e(will)118 1895 y(need)j(a)e(shared)h (on)m(tology)e(of)h(actions)g(to)g(represen)m(t)j(and)d(reason)h(ab)s (out)f(capabilities.)118 2075 y(One)37 b(of)g(the)g(b)s(est)h(kno)m(wn) g(languages)f(for)f(de\014ning)h(sharable)g(on)m(tologies)f(is)g(On)m (tolingua)118 2256 y([Grub)s(er,)d(1992)o(],)39 b(whic)m(h)f(has)f(b)s (een)i(de\014ned)f(as)g(part)f(of)g(the)h(kno)m(wledge)g(sharing)f (e\013ort.)118 2437 y(Metho)s(dological)32 b(issues)37 b(for)d(dev)m(eloping)h(on)m(tologies)e(are)j(discussed)g(in)f([Grub)s (er,)d(1993a)o(,)118 2617 y(F)-8 b(ern\023)-49 b(andez)34 b Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1997)o(,)h(G\023)-49 b(omez-P)m(\023)j(erez,)32 b(1998)o(].)264 2824 y Fr(F)-7 b(oundations)32 b Ft(for)h(sharable)g (on)m(tologies)f(of)h(actions)g(are)g(describ)s(ed)h(in)f([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1996b)o(].)118 3004 y(According)40 b(to)g(T)-8 b(ate,)43 b(an)d(on)m(tology)g(can)g(b)s(e)h(comp)s(osed)f(of)g(four)g (ma)5 b(jor)40 b(parts.)67 b(Firstly)-8 b(,)118 3185 y(there)30 b(is)e(the)h(meta-on)m(tology)e(whic)m(h)i(con)m(tains)g (fundamen)m(tal)e(on)m(tological)f(elemen)m(ts)j(used)118 3365 y(to)40 b(describ)s(e)h(the)g(on)m(tology)e(itself.)65 b(Secondly)-8 b(,)43 b(there)e(is)f(the)g(top)h(lev)m(el)e(on)m(tology) h(whic)m(h)118 3546 y(is)33 b(the)g(minimal)c(on)m(tology)k(used)h(as)f (a)g(framew)m(ork)h(b)m(y)g(all)d(detailed)h(on)m(tologies.)44 b(Thirdly)-8 b(,)118 3726 y(there)48 b(is)g(a)f(library)f(of)h(shared)i (on)m(tological)44 b(elemen)m(ts)k(whic)m(h)h(ma)m(y)e(b)s(e)h(shared)h (across)118 3907 y(a)c(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)h(of)f(detailed)g(on)m(tologies) f(but)i(need)g(not)g(b)s(e)g(included.)82 b(Finally)-8 b(,)46 b(there)g(are)118 4088 y(the)c(detailed)f(on)m(tologies)f(whic)m (h)i(build)e(on)i(the)g(top)f(lev)m(el)g(on)m(tology)g(and)g(ma)m(y)h (include)118 4268 y(on)m(tologies)31 b(from)h(the)h(library)-8 b(.)264 4474 y(A)28 b(fundamen)m(tal)f(question)h(is)f Fr(which)j(c)-5 b(onc)g(epts)27 b Ft(the)h(di\013eren)m(t)g(parts)g(of) f(a)g(shared)i(on)m(to-)118 4655 y(logy)k(of)g(actions)g(should)g(con)m (tain.)46 b(There)35 b(are)e(a)h(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)g(of)f(suc)m(h)i(on)m (tologies)d(that)h(ha)m(v)m(e)118 4836 y(suggested)28 b(di\013eren)m(t)e(concepts,)j(mostly)c(for)h(the)g(meta-on)m(tology)e 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/registered 8#257 /macron 8#260 /degree 8#261 /plusminus 8#262 /twosuperior 8#263 /threesuperior 8#264 /acute 8#265 /mu 8#266 /paragraph 8#267 /periodcentered 8#270 /cedilla 8#271 /onesuperior 8#272 /ordmasculine 8#273 /guillemotright 8#274 /onequarter 8#275 /onehalf 8#276 /threequarters 8#277 /questiondown 8#300 /Agrave 8#301 /Aacute 8#302 /Acircumflex 8#303 /Atilde 8#304 /Adieresis 8#305 /Aring 8#306 /AE 8#307 /Ccedilla 8#310 /Egrave 8#311 /Eacute 8#312 /Ecircumflex 8#313 /Edieresis 8#314 /Igrave 8#315 /Iacute 8#316 /Icircumflex 8#317 /Idieresis 8#320 /Eth 8#321 /Ntilde 8#322 /Ograve 8#323 /Oacute 8#324 /Ocircumflex 8#325 /Otilde 8#326 /Odieresis 8#327 /multiply 8#330 /Oslash 8#331 /Ugrave 8#332 /Uacute 8#333 /Ucircumflex 8#334 /Udieresis 8#335 /Yacute 8#336 /Thorn 8#337 /germandbls 8#340 /agrave 8#341 /aacute 8#342 /acircumflex 8#343 /atilde 8#344 /adieresis 8#345 /aring 8#346 /ae 8#347 /ccedilla 8#350 /egrave 8#351 /eacute 8#352 /ecircumflex 8#353 /edieresis 8#354 /igrave 8#355 /iacute 8#356 /icircumflex 8#357 /idieresis 8#360 /eth 8#361 /ntilde 8#362 /ograve 8#363 /oacute 8#364 /ocircumflex 8#365 /otilde 8#366 /odieresis 8#367 /divide 8#370 /oslash 8#371 /ugrave 8#372 /uacute 8#373 /ucircumflex 8#374 /udieresis 8#375 /yacute 8#376 /thorn 8#377 /ydieresis] def /Times-Roman /Times-Roman-iso isovec ReEncode /DrawEllipse { /endangle exch def /startangle exch def /yrad exch def /xrad exch def /y exch def /x exch def /savematrix mtrx currentmatrix def x y tr xrad yrad sc 0 0 1 startangle endangle arc closepath savematrix setmatrix } def /$F2psBegin {$F2psDict begin /$F2psEnteredState save def} def /$F2psEnd {$F2psEnteredState restore end} def F2psBegin10setmiterlimitn−10008812m−1000−1000l12637−1000l126378812lcpclip0.060000.06000sc7.500slwF2psBegin 10 setmiterlimit n -1000 8812 m -1000 -1000 l 12637 -1000 l 12637 8812 l cp clip 0.06000 0.06000 sc 7.500 slw % Ellipse n 10125 5737 600 262 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 1200 5737 375 262 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 3675 5737 450 262 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 6450 5775 525 375 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 8325 5737 600 263 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 3825 3337 525 262 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 6937 3337 487 262 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 9900 3337 525 263 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Ellipse n 6975 937 675 263 0 360 DrawEllipse gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 0 6675 m 600 6675 l 600 7200 l 0 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 225 7275 m 1275 7275 l 1275 7800 l 225 7800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 1425 7275 m 2025 7275 l 2025 7800 l 1425 7800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 1800 6675 m 2475 6675 l 2475 7200 l 1800 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 3000 6675 m 3675 6675 l 3675 7200 l 3000 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 6600 6675 m 7725 6675 l 7725 7200 l 6600 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 7800 6675 m 8850 6675 l 8850 7200 l 7800 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 9000 6675 m 10050 6675 l 10050 7200 l 9000 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 10200 6675 m 10875 6675 l 10875 7200 l 10200 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 3825 6675 m 4875 6675 l 4875 7200 l 3825 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 5100 6675 m 6300 6675 l 6300 7200 l 5100 7200 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 3375 4275 m 4200 4275 l 4200 4800 l 3375 4800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 6600 4275 m 7425 4275 l 7425 4800 l 6600 4800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 8400 4275 m 9450 4275 l 9450 4800 l 8400 4800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 10800 4275 m 11625 4275 l 11625 4800 l 10800 4800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 9600 4275 m 10650 4275 l 10650 4800 l 9600 4800 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 6000 1875 m 8100 1875 l 8100 2400 l 6000 2400 l cp gs col0 s gr % Polyline 15.000 slw n 6900 2400 m 3825 3075 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 6900 2400 m 6900 3075 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 6900 2400 m 9900 3075 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 3750 4800 m 1200 5475 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 3750 4800 m 3675 5475 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 3750 4800 m 6450 5400 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 7425 4800 m 8325 5475 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline n 7425 4800 m 10200 5475 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 6975 1200 m 6975 1875 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3825 3600 m 3750 4275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 6975 3600 m 6975 4275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9900 3600 m 8850 4275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9975 3600 m 9975 4275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 9975 3600 m 11250 4275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 1200 6000 m 225 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 1200 6000 m 750 7275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 1200 6000 m 1725 7275 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 1200 6000 m 2175 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3675 6000 m 3300 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 3675 6000 m 4350 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 6525 6150 m 5700 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 6525 6150 m 7275 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 8325 6000 m 8250 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 10200 6000 m 9450 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd % Polyline [15 68] 68 sd n 10200 6000 m 10500 6675 l gs col7 0.00 shd ef gr gs col0 s gr [] 0 sd /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8475 4500 m gs 1 -1 sc (causal-link) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8475 4725 m gs 1 -1 sc (based) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 75 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 75 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (linear) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 300 7725 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 300 7500 m gs 1 -1 sc (hierarchical) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1500 7725 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1500 7500 m gs 1 -1 sc (smart) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1875 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 1875 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (random) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3075 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3075 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (smart) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3900 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3900 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (goal-driven) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 5175 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (goal-test) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 5175 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (current-state) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6675 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (goal-test) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6675 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (MTC-based) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7875 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (propagation) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7875 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (constraint) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9075 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (based) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9075 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (causal-link) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10275 7125 m gs 1 -1 sc (based) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10275 6900 m gs 1 -1 sc (MTC-) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9675 5700 m gs 1 -1 sc (interaction) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 7875 5700 m gs 1 -1 sc (consistency) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6075 5850 m gs 1 -1 sc (unachieved) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6150 5625 m gs 1 -1 sc (test for) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 8100 5925 m gs 1 -1 sc (critique) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9825 5925 m gs 1 -1 sc (critique) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6225 6075 m gs 1 -1 sc (goals) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3375 5700 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3375 5925 m gs 1 -1 sc (operator) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 975 5925 m gs 1 -1 sc (goal) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 975 5700 m gs 1 -1 sc (select) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9675 4725 m gs 1 -1 sc (MTC-based) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10875 4725 m gs 1 -1 sc (selection) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 10875 4500 m gs 1 -1 sc (ordering) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3450 4575 m gs 1 -1 sc (propose I) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6675 4575 m gs 1 -1 sc (critique I) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3450 3525 m gs 1 -1 sc (expansion) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6675 3300 m gs 1 -1 sc (critique) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 3525 3300 m gs 1 -1 sc (propose) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6825 3525 m gs 1 -1 sc (plan) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9675 3300 m gs 1 -1 sc (modify) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 9750 3525 m gs 1 -1 sc (plan) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6075 2175 m gs 1 -1 sc (Propose-Critique-Modify) col0 sh gr /Times-Roman-iso ff 180.00 scf sf 6675 975 m gs 1 -1 sc (planning) col0 sh gr F2psBegin10setmiterlimitn−10008812m−1000−1000l12637−1000l126378812lcpclip0.060000.06000sc7.500slwF2psEnd rs %%EndDocument @endspecial 247 2397 a Ft(Figure)31 b(5:)44 b(T)-8 b(ask-Metho)s(d)33 b(Decomp)s(osition;)d(from)i([Barros)g Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1996)o(,)f(page)h(15])118 2688 y(lev)m(el,)43 b(the)e(problem-solving)d(b)s(eha)m(viour)j(of)g(man)m(y)f(mo)s(dern)h (planners.)68 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)46 b(it)40 b(is)118 2868 y(di\016cult)31 b(to)g(see)i(ho)m(w)f(this)g(description)f(can)h (b)s(e)g(used)g(to)g(decide)g(whether)h(a)e(planner)h(will)118 3049 y(b)s(e)i(able)f(to)g(\014nd)h(a)f(solution)f(for)g(a)i(giv)m(en)f (planning)f(problem,)h(i.e.)g(ho)m(w)h(this)f(description)118 3229 y(can)g(b)s(e)g(used)g(to)g(assess)h(capabilit)m(y)-8 b(.)118 3515 y Fo(5.1.4)113 b(Indexing)37 b Fq(psm)p Fo(s)g(in)g(the)g(Library)118 3785 y Ft(During)31 b(the)i(kno)m(wledge) h(acquisition)d(pro)s(cess)j(the)f(kno)m(wledge)g(engineer)g(migh)m(t)e (iden)m(tify)118 3966 y(a)42 b Fq(psm)g Ft(from)f(the)i(library)e(as)i (appropriate)e(for)h(the)h(task)g(at)f(hand)h(and)f(then)h(use)h(this) 118 4147 y(mo)s(del)e(to)i(fo)s(cus)g(the)g(kno)m(wledge)g(acquisition) e(pro)s(cess,)48 b(e.g.)c(b)m(y)h(attempting)d(to)h(elicit)118 4327 y(domain)d(kno)m(wledge)j(to)f(\014ll)e(relev)-5 b(an)m(t)42 b(kno)m(wledge)h(roles)e(and)h(b)m(y)h(de\014ning)f(the)g (domain)118 4508 y(view)34 b([Brazier)e Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1995].)46 b(Th)m(us,)35 b(the)f(retriev)-5 b(al)32 b(of)i(an)f(appropriate)g(mo)s(del)f(from)g(the)118 4688 y(library)-8 b(,)50 b(also)c(referred)i(to)f(as)h(the)f Fr(indexing)g(pr)-5 b(oblem)p Ft(,)51 b(is)46 b(an)i(imp)s(ortan)m(t)d (step)j(in)f(the)118 4869 y Fq(kads)c Ft(metho)s(dology)-8 b(,)43 b(just)g(lik)m(e)f(it)g(is)g(for)g(capabilit)m(y)f(brok)m (ering.)73 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)48 b(it)41 b(is)h(also)118 5049 y(exp)s(ected)d(that)e(the)h(mo)s(del)e(from)g(the)i(library)d (will)h(need)i(further)g(re\014nemen)m(t)g(b)s(efore)f(it)118 5230 y(can)h(b)s(e)f(transformed)g(in)m(to)f(the)i(design)f(mo)s(del.) 56 b(This)37 b(re\014nemen)m(t)i(is)d(called)g(kno)m(wledge)118 5411 y(di\013eren)m(tiation)28 b(in)h Fq(kads)p Ft(.)42 b(It)30 b(is)f(w)m(orth)i(noting)d(at)h(this)h(p)s(oin)m(t)f(that)g (the)h(resulting)f(mo)s(del,)118 5591 y(the)k(design)g(mo)s(del,)e(is)h (not)g(mean)m(t)h(to)f(b)s(e)h(op)s(erational)d(in)i Fq(kads)p Ft(.)1782 5871 y(42)p eop %%Page: 43 43 43 42 bop 264 407 a Ft(One)39 b(approac)m(h)f(to)g(the)h(indexing)e (problem)g(in)g Fq(kads)h Ft(w)m(as)h(the)g(de\014nition)e(of)h(a)f Fr(tax-)118 587 y(onomy)48 b(of)g(generic)g(tasks)f Ft(whic)m(h)h(is)f (supp)s(osed)i(to)e(help)h(the)g(kno)m(wledge)g(engineer)g(to)118 768 y(iden)m(tify)25 b(an)h(appropriate)e Fq(psm)h Ft(in)g(the)h (library)e([Breuk)m(er)34 b(and)f(V)-8 b(an)32 b(de)h(V)-8 b(elde,)33 b(1994)o(,)27 b(page)118 949 y(59].)66 b(The)41 b(idea)f(w)m(as)h(for)e(the)i(kno)m(wledge)g(engineer)f(to)g(follo)m(w) f(one)h(path)g(do)m(wn)h(a)f(hier-)118 1129 y(arc)m(h)m(y)j(that)f (ends)h(in)e(the)h(most)f(sp)s(eci\014c)h Fq(psm)g Ft(suitable)f(for)g (the)h(task)g(at)g(hand.)71 b(Ho)m(w-)118 1310 y(ev)m(er,)46 b(in)c(practise)g(this)g(turned)h(out)f(not)g(to)g(b)s(e)g(so)h (simple.)70 b(Another)43 b(approac)m(h)g(tried)118 1490 y(in)38 b(the)i Fq(kads)f Ft(pro)5 b(ject)40 b(w)m(as)g(the)g(indexing) e(of)h Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(in)g(the)g(library)f(with)g Fr(task)j(fe)-5 b(atur)g(es)118 1671 y Ft([Aamo)s(dt)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1993)o(])d(for)f(whic)m(h)i(they)g(ha)m(v)m(e)g(suggested)g(a)f (quite)g(elab)s(orate)f(list)f(of)i(suc)m(h)118 1851 y(features.)264 2058 y(The)h(latest)e(insigh)m(t)g(ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er)j (seems)f(to)e(b)s(e)h(to)f(tak)m(e)i(a)e(more)g(indirect)g(approac)m (h.)42 b(The)118 2238 y(basic)g(argumen)m(t)f(in)g([Breuk)m(er,)35 b(1997)o(])42 b(is)f(that)h(one)g(is)f(giv)m(en)h(a)g(problem)e(and)i (di\013eren)m(t)118 2419 y(kinds)29 b(of)f Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(migh)m(t)e (b)s(e)i(able)f(to)g(solv)m(e)i(this)e(problem.)41 b(The)30 b Fq(psm)e Ft(selection)g(mec)m(hanism)118 2599 y(should)g(re\015ect)g (this)g(b)m(y)g(pro)m(viding)f(a)g Fr(suite)k(of)f(pr)-5 b(oblem)29 b(typ)-5 b(es)28 b Ft(and)f(asso)s(ciating)g(a)g(n)m(um)m(b) s(er)118 2780 y(of)44 b Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(with)f(eac)m(h)i(problem)d(t)m (yp)s(e.)81 b(The)46 b(selection)e(amongst)g(these)i(could)e(then)h(b)s (e)118 2961 y(b)m(y)40 b(assumptions)f(made)f(b)m(y)i(the)f Fq(psm)p Ft(,)h(b)m(y)g(the)f(domain,)g(or)f(b)m(y)i(the)g(depth)f (with)g(whic)m(h)118 3141 y(the)i Fq(psm)f Ft(has)h(b)s(een)g(mo)s (delled.)66 b(Another,)43 b(recen)m(t)f(criticism)c(of)i(the)h (original)c(indexing)118 3322 y(mec)m(hanism)44 b(is)g(that)h(it)f(is)g (based)i(only)e(on)h(y)m(es/no)h(distinctions)d(and)i(do)s(es)g(not)g (allo)m(w)118 3502 y(gradual)31 b(re\014nemen)m(t)j([v)-5 b(an)33 b(Harmelen)e(and)i(ten)g(T)-8 b(eije,)33 b(1998)o(].)264 3709 y(Since)25 b(w)m(e)g(cannot)g(use)g(the)g Fq(kads)f Ft(represen)m(tation)h(for)f Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(to)f(represen)m(t)i (capabilities)118 3889 y(directly)-8 b(,)32 b(w)m(e)i(also)d(cannot)i (adopt)f(their)g(indexing)g(mec)m(hanisms.)118 4175 y Fo(5.1.5)113 b(Brok)m(ering)36 b(for)h Fq(psm)p Fo(s)118 4445 y Ft(There)e(are)f(curren)m(tly)h(at)e(least)h(t)m(w)m(o)g (approac)m(hes)i(in)d(progress)h(that)g(attempt)f(to)h(address)118 4626 y(the)g(indexing)e(problem)g(with)h(a)f Fr(br)-5 b(oker)p Ft(.)45 b(Naturally)-8 b(,)32 b(w)m(e)i(are)f(in)m(terested)h (in)e(this)h(w)m(ork)h(as)118 4806 y(the)f(problem)e(addressed)k(is)d (v)m(ery)i(similar)29 b(to)k(our)f(problem.)264 5013 y Fq(ib)p Ft(,)39 b(the)f Fr(Intel)5 b(ligent)38 b(Br)-5 b(oker)37 b Ft([F)-8 b(ensel,)33 b(1997)o(,)k(Dec)m(k)m(er)d Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998],)38 b(curren)m(tly)g(under)118 5193 y(researc)m(h)50 b(at)e(the)g(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)e(Karlsruhe)h (is)g(one)g(suc)m(h)i(brok)m(er.)91 b(The)49 b(aim)d(of)i(this)118 5374 y(brok)m(er)c(is)e(not)g(to)g(facilitate)e(agen)m(t)j(co)s(op)s (eration,)h(as)f(it)e(is)h(for)g(the)h(brok)m(ers)h(describ)s(ed)118 5555 y(in)37 b(section)h(2.3,)h(but)f(to)g(\014nd)g(a)g Fq(psm)f Ft(for)g(a)h(giv)m(en)g(task)h(on)e(the)i(In)m(ternet.)60 b(Unlik)m(e)38 b(most)1782 5871 y(43)p eop %%Page: 44 44 44 43 bop 118 407 a Ft(other)36 b(brok)m(ers,)j Fq(ib)d Ft(is)g(not)g(based)h(on)f Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(.)56 b(The)37 b(approac)m(h)f(assumes)i(the)e(a)m(v)-5 b(ailabilit)m(y)118 587 y(of)48 b(an)f(on)m(tology)g(of)h Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(whic)m(h)g(is)g (used)h(for)e(the)i(description)e(of)h Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(and)g(whic)m(h) 118 768 y(the)h(brok)m(er)h(can)f(use)g(for)f(its)h(searc)m(h.)93 b(The)49 b(on)m(tology)f(of)g Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(they)g(en)m(visage)h(do)s (es)118 949 y(not)33 b(y)m(et)h(exist)f(but)g(migh)m(t)e(w)m(ell)h(b)s (e)h(based)h(on)f(the)g(taxonom)m(y)g(of)f Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(describ)s (ed)h(in)e(the)118 1129 y Fq(kads)24 b Ft(library)f(of)g(exp)s(ertise)i (mo)s(dels)e([Breuk)m(er)34 b(and)f(V)-8 b(an)32 b(de)i(V)-8 b(elde,)32 b(1994)o(,)26 b(page)e(59].)40 b(The)118 1310 y(language)30 b(in)g(whic)m(h)h(they)h(in)m(tend)f(to)g(describ)s(e)g Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(and)g(on)g(whic)m(h)g(their)g(on)m(tology)f(will)118 1490 y(b)s(e)38 b(based)g(is)e(not)i(\014nished)f(y)m(et.)59 b(This)37 b(language)f(will)f(b)s(e)j(called)e(the)h(Uni\014ed)h (Problem-)118 1671 y(solving)22 b(Metho)s(d)i(description)f(Language)g (\()p Fq(upml)p Ft(\),)i(but)e(only)g(a)g(draft)g(sp)s(eci\014cation)f (exists)118 1851 y([F)-8 b(ensel)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998a)o(,)27 b(F)-8 b(ensel)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998b)o(].)42 b(Another)27 b(task)h(en)m(visaged)g(for)f(this)f(brok)m(er)118 2032 y(is)40 b(the)g(adaption)f(of)h(the)h(selected)g Fq(psm)f Ft(to)f(the)i(actual)e(task)i(whic)m(h)g(requires)g(mapping) 118 2213 y(en)m(tities)32 b(in)g(the)h(giv)m(en)g(problem)e(to)h(the)h (roles)g(of)f(the)h Fq(psm)p Ft(.)264 2419 y(Another)51 b(pro)5 b(ject)51 b(that)f(is)g(closely)g(related)g(to)g(the)h(w)m(ork) g(on)f Fq(ib)g Ft(is)g(the)h Fq(esprit)p Ft(-)118 2599 y(funded)h(pro)5 b(ject)51 b Fq(ibr)n(o)n(w)1100 2563 y Fn(3)1190 2599 y Ft(that)f(started)h(in)f(Jan)m(uary)h(1998)f ([Benjamins)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998)o(,)118 2780 y(Armengol)f Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998].)42 b(The)32 b(aim)d(here,)i(to)s(o,)f(is)h(to)f(dev)m(elop)h(a)f(brok)m(er)i(that)e (can)h(select,)118 2961 y(con\014gure,)i(and)f(adapt)f(kno)m(wledge)i (comp)s(onen)m(ts)f(from)e(large)h(libraries)e(on)j(the)g(In)m(ternet.) 118 3141 y(F)-8 b(or)44 b(selecting)g(a)g(problem-solving)e(metho)s(d)i (from)g(a)g(library)-8 b(,)46 b(the)f(brok)m(er)h(will)c(reason)118 3322 y(ab)s(out)e(c)m(haracteristics)g(of)g(the)h Fq(psm)p Ft(,)h(in)d(particular)g(ab)s(out)g(their)h(comp)s(etence)h(and)f(re-) 118 3502 y(quiremen)m(ts.)57 b(F)-8 b(or)36 b(this)g(purp)s(ose)i Fq(psm)p Ft(s)e(will)f(ha)m(v)m(e)j(to)e(b)s(e)h(describ)s(ed)h(in)e (some)g(language.)118 3683 y(Although)43 b(no)h(suc)m(h)h(language)e (has)h(b)s(een)h(selected)g(or)e(prop)s(osed)h(y)m(et,)k(it)43 b(is)g(en)m(visaged)118 3863 y(that)27 b(an)h(on)m(tology)e(will)f(b)s (e)j(at)f(the)h(heart)g(of)f(the)h(approac)m(h.)42 b(F)-8 b(urthermore,)28 b(as)g(the)g(p)s(eople)118 4044 y(in)m(v)m(olv)m(ed)35 b(with)e Fq(ibr)n(o)n(w)1015 4008 y Fn(3)1089 4044 y Ft(are)h(largely)e(the)j(same)f(as)g(for)f Fq(ib)h Ft(it)f(is)h(quite)g (p)s(ossible)f(that)h(the)118 4225 y(t)m(w)m(o)f(systems)h(and)f Fq(psm)f Ft(description)g(languages)g(will)e(b)s(e)j(similar.)118 4539 y Fp(5.2)135 b Fa(Pr)m(ot)729 4529 y(\023)729 4539 y(eg)873 4529 y(\023)873 4539 y(e)118 4810 y Ft(The)39 b Fq(Pr)n(ot)578 4802 y(\023)578 4810 y(eg)698 4802 y(\023)698 4810 y(e)d Ft(system)i([Musen,)d(1989)o(,)i(Eriksson)d Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1995)o(])38 b(addresses)h(a)e(problem)118 4990 y(v)m(ery)44 b(similar)c(to)i(the)h(problem)f(addressed)i(in)e Fq(kads)h Ft(and)g(th)m(us,)j(w)m(e)e(are)e(in)m(terested)i(in)118 5171 y Fq(Pr)n(ot)372 5163 y(\023)372 5171 y(eg)492 5163 y(\023)492 5171 y(e)32 b Ft(for)g(v)m(ery)i(similar)29 b(reasons.)264 5377 y Fq(Pr)n(ot)518 5369 y(\023)518 5377 y(eg)638 5369 y(\023)638 5377 y(e)24 b Ft(pro)m(vides)h(a)f(kno)m (wledge)h(engineering)e(en)m(vironmen)m(t)i(in)f(whic)m(h)h(a)f(dev)m (elop)s(er)118 5558 y(can)k(sp)s(ecify)h(tasks)g(and)f(select)g Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(from)f(a)g(library)f(of)i(re-usable)g Fr(metho)-5 b(ds)p Ft(.)41 b(Dev)m(elop)s(ers)1782 5871 y(44)p eop %%Page: 45 45 45 44 bop 118 407 a Ft(m)m(ust)33 b(iden)m(tify)-8 b(,)32 b(at)g(least)g(partially)-8 b(,)30 b(the)j(task)g(of)f(the)h(system)h (they)f(are)g(designing)e(b)s(efore)118 587 y(they)37 b(can)e(select)i(and)e(custom)h(tailor)d(preexisting)i(metho)s(ds.)53 b(This)35 b(task-analysis)g(leads)118 768 y(to)e(a)f(system-role)h (description)f(in)g(terms)h(of)f(the)i(domain)d(for)h(the)i(system,)g (whic)m(h)f(serv)m(es)118 949 y(as)j(the)h(basis)f(for)g(the)g (selection)g(of)g Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(that)g(accomplish)f(the)h(task)h(and) f(for)g(the)g(con-)118 1129 y(\014guration)e(of)g(the)h(selected)h (metho)s(ds)f(for)f(the)h(task)h(instance.)50 b(In)35 b Fq(Pr)n(ot)2945 1121 y(\023)2945 1129 y(eg)3065 1121 y(\023)3065 1129 y(e)p Ft(,)f(metho)s(ds)118 1310 y(are)39 b(actions)f(that)h(accomplish)f(tasks.)63 b(Metho)s(ds)40 b(can)f(delegate)g(problems)f(as)h(subtasks)118 1490 y(to)47 b(b)s(e)g(solv)m(ed)g(b)m(y)h(other)f(metho)s(ds.)87 b(They)48 b(use)g(the)g(term)e(mec)m(hanism)g(for)h(primitiv)m(e)118 1671 y(metho)s(ds)29 b(that)g(cannot)g(b)s(e)g(decomp)s(osed.)43 b(In)29 b(addition)e(to)i(supp)s(orting)f(the)h(dev)m(elopmen)m(t)118 1851 y(of)44 b(problem)g(solv)m(ers)i(for)e(kno)m(wledge-based)i (systems,)k Fq(Pr)n(ot)2536 1843 y(\023)2536 1851 y(eg)2656 1843 y(\023)2656 1851 y(e)44 b Ft(generates)h(domain-)118 2032 y(sp)s(eci\014c)29 b(kno)m(wledge)h(acquisition)d(to)s(ols)h(that) g(elicit)f(the)i(exp)s(ertise)g(required)h(b)m(y)f(the)g Fq(psm)p Ft(s)118 2213 y(to)j(p)s(erform)g(the)h(latter's)f(task.)264 2419 y(F)-8 b(or)23 b Fq(psm)f Fr(sele)-5 b(ction)p Ft(,)24 b(they)g(b)s(eliev)m(e)f(that)f(it)g(will)f(b)s(e)i(di\016cult)f(to)g (mak)m(e)h(a)g(comprehensiv)m(e)118 2599 y(list)h(of)h(factors)h(to)f (consider.)42 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)29 b(they)d(do)g(iden)m(tify)f(a)g (set)i(of)e(recurring)g(factors)g(that)118 2780 y(are)32 b(applicable)e(to)i(most)f(tasks.)45 b(This)32 b(list)f(of)g(common)g (factors)h(includes)g(the)h(input)e(and)118 2961 y(output)c(of)f(the)g (task,)j(the)d(domain)f(kno)m(wledge)i(a)m(v)-5 b(ailable,)25 b(the)i(solution)e(qualit)m(y)h(required,)118 3141 y(the)34 b(computational)c(time)i(and)i(space)g(complexit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(and)g(the)h(\015exibilit)m(y)d(of)i(the)h(metho)s(d.)118 3322 y(Once)43 b(a)g(metho)s(d)f(has)h(b)s(een)g(selected)h(it)d(needs) j(to)e(b)s(e)h(con\014gured.)75 b(This)42 b(is)g(largely)g(a)118 3502 y(matter)30 b(of)f(selecting)h(mec)m(hanisms)g(or)g(metho)s(ds)g (for)g(a)g(metho)s(d's)g(subtasks)i(and)e(de\014ning)118 3683 y(the)j(mapping)e(b)s(et)m(w)m(een)k(metho)s(d)d(terms)g(and)h (domain)e(terms.)264 3889 y(An)j(essen)m(tial)f(part)h(of)f(the)g Fr(metho)-5 b(d)35 b(description)g(language)d Ft(dev)m(elop)s(ed)j(in)d Fq(Pr)n(ot)3368 3881 y(\023)3368 3889 y(eg)3488 3881 y(\023)3488 3889 y(e)118 4070 y Ft(is)26 b(the)g Fr(metho)-5 b(d)28 b(ontolo)-5 b(gy)26 b Ft(whic)m(h)g(includes)g(de\014nitions)g (of)f(all)f(the)i(ob)5 b(jects)27 b(required)g(b)m(y)g(the)118 4250 y Fq(psm)p Ft(.)41 b(Ideally)-8 b(,)27 b(dev)m(elop)s(ers)h(of)e Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(w)m(ould)f(share)i(a)e(framew)m(ork)h(for)f(de\014ning) g(inputs)h(and)118 4431 y(outputs.)68 b([Gennari)31 b Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)e(1998)o(])40 b(ha)m(v)m(e)i(b)s(egun)e(to)g(dev)m (elop)h(a)f(\\foundation)f(on)m(tology")118 4611 y(for)33 b(dev)m(elop)s(ers)h(of)f Fq(psm)p Ft(s.)45 b(In)33 b(this)g(on)m (tology)-8 b(,)33 b(a)f Fq(psm)h Ft(m)m(ust)g(ha)m(v)m(e)i(a)e(name)f (and)i(a)f(textual)118 4792 y(description.)70 b(F)-8 b(urthermore,)44 b(it)d(con)m(tains)g(on)m(tology)g(frames)g(for)g (input)h(and)f(output,)k(a)118 4973 y(list)38 b(of)i(subtasks,)j(and)d (a)g(list)e(of)i(constrain)m(ts)g(across)g(the)h(inputs)e(and)h(output) g(but)g(not)118 5153 y(among)e(inputs)i(or)f(outputs.)66 b(The)40 b(latter)f(are)h(lo)s(cated)e(inside)h(the)h(on)m(tology)f (frame)g(for)118 5334 y(inputs)h(and)f(outputs,)j(together)e(with)f(k)m (ey)i(classes)f(and)g(functions)f(in)g(this)g(frame,)h(and)118 5514 y(the)27 b(API)h(used)g(whic)m(h)f(con)m(tains)g(information)c(ab) s(out)j(the)i(w)m(a)m(ys)g(in)e(whic)m(h)h(the)g Fq(psm)g Ft(mak)m(es)1782 5871 y(45)p eop %%Page: 46 46 46 45 bop 118 407 a Ft(run-time)31 b(queries)i(for)e(additional)e (information.)41 b(Subtasks)33 b(again)e(come)h(with)g(a)g(textual)118 587 y(description,)46 b(inputs,)g(outputs,)h(constrain)m(ts)c(b)s(et)m (w)m(een)j(those,)h(and)c(information)d(as)k(to)118 768 y(whether)e(this)f(subtask)h(is)e(required)h(and)g(whether)h(it)e(has)h (a)f(default)g(implemen)m(tation.)118 949 y(The)g(lo)m(w)m(est)g(lev)m (el)f(of)f(detail)g(in)g(their)h(metho)s(d)f(description)h(language)f (is)h(the)g(c)m(hoice)h(of)118 1129 y(a)e(formal)d(language)i(for)g (expressing)i(the)f(axioms)f(that)g(represen)m(t)j(the)e(requiremen)m (ts)h(of)118 1310 y(the)f(metho)s(d.)58 b(The)39 b(curren)m(t)f (suggestion)g(is)f(that)h(this)f(language)f(will)g(b)s(e)h(based)i(on)f Fq(kif)118 1490 y Ft([Genesereth,)d(1991)o(,)d(Genesereth)i Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)c(1992)o(].)264 1697 y(T)-8 b(o)35 b(summarise,)f(not)h(only)f(are)h(the)g(problems)f(addressed)j(b)m(y)f Fq(kads)f Ft(and)f Fq(Pr)n(ot)3368 1689 y(\023)3368 1697 y(eg)3488 1689 y(\023)3488 1697 y(e)118 1877 y Ft(v)m(ery)44 b(similar,)e(but)h(so)g(are)g(the)g(approac)m(hes.)76 b(Metho)s(ds)43 b(in)f Fq(Pr)n(ot)2732 1869 y(\023)2732 1877 y(eg)2852 1869 y(\023)2852 1877 y(e)g Ft(corresp)s(ond)i(to)118 2058 y(mo)s(dels)26 b(of)h(exp)s(ertise)h(in)f Fq(kads)p Ft(.)42 b(Both)27 b(approac)m(hes)h(are)g(based)g(on)f(a)g(library)f (of)h Fq(psm)p Ft(s)g(and)118 2238 y(the)40 b(description)f(languages)h (they)g(use)h(are)e(essen)m(tially)h(informal.)62 b(F)-8 b(urthermore,)40 b(b)s(oth)118 2419 y(approac)m(hes)h(address)g(the)f (indexing)e(problem)h(and)g(suggest)i(that)e(an)g(on)m(tology)g(will)e (b)s(e)118 2599 y(the)d(k)m(ey)g(to)f(the)g(solution.)43 b(Th)m(us,)35 b(virtually)c(all)g(of)i(our)g(commen)m(ts)f(on)h Fq(kads)g Ft(also)g(apply)118 2780 y(to)f Fq(Pr)n(ot)491 2772 y(\023)491 2780 y(eg)611 2772 y(\023)611 2780 y(e)p Ft(.)118 3095 y Fp(5.3)135 b(The)45 b Fa(hpkb)g Fp(Program)118 3365 y Ft(The)d(D)m(ARP)-8 b(A-funded)42 b Fr(High)h(Performanc)-5 b(e)41 b(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)42 b(Bases)f(\()p Fq(hpkb)p Fr(\))h(pr)-5 b(o)g(gr)g(am)41 b Ft(is)g(a)118 3546 y(researc)m(h)29 b(programme)c(to)i(adv)-5 b(ance)28 b(the)g(tec)m(hnology)f(of)g(ho)m (w)g(computers)h(acquire,)h(repres-)118 3726 y(en)m(t)k(and)e (manipulate)f(kno)m(wledge.)1445 3690 y Fn(8)1528 3726 y Ft(The)j(approac)m(h)f(tak)m(en)h(in)e Fq(hpkb)g Ft(is)g(quite)h (similar)d(to)118 3907 y(the)35 b(approac)m(h)h(in)e Fq(kads)h Ft(again.)49 b(One)35 b(of)g(its)f(aims)f(is)i(to)f(sp)s(eed) j(up)e(the)g(dev)m(elopmen)m(t)h(of)118 4088 y(kno)m(wledge-based)29 b(systems)f(signi\014can)m(tly)-8 b(.)41 b(One)28 b(w)m(a)m(y)g(to)f (ac)m(hiev)m(e)h(suc)m(h)h(a)e(goal)f(is)g(through)118 4268 y(the)35 b(enablemen)m(t)g(of)f(kno)m(wledge)h(reuse,)i(including) 32 b(the)j(reuse)h(of)e Fq(psm)p Ft(s.)50 b(This)34 b(migh)m(t)f(ul-) 118 4449 y(timately)h(lead)i(to)g(the)h(fully)d(automated)i (con\014guration)f(of)h(kno)m(wledge-based)i(systems.)118 4629 y(F)-8 b(or)28 b(this)h(purp)s(ose)g(they)h(are)f(in)m(terested)h (in)e(dev)m(eloping)h(a)g(language)e(for)i(describing)f Fq(psm)p Ft(s)118 4810 y(and)i(a)g(n)m(um)m(b)s(er)g(of)g(groups)g(are) g(curren)m(tly)h(w)m(orking)e(on)h(a)g(prop)s(osal)f(for)g(suc)m(h)j(a) d(language.)118 4990 y(F)-8 b(or)26 b(example,)h(the)g(latest)e(w)m (ork)j(on)e Fq(Pr)n(ot)1728 4982 y(\023)1728 4990 y(eg)1848 4982 y(\023)1848 4990 y(e)f Ft(is)h(one)h(of)e(the)i(inputs)g(to)e(the) i Fq(hpkb)f Ft(e\013ort.)264 5197 y([Do)m(yle,)33 b(1997)o(]'s)k Fr(pr)-5 b(op)g(osal)36 b Ft(for)g(a)g Fq(psm)h Ft(description)f (language)f(w)m(as)j(one)f(of)f(the)i(earli-)118 5377 y(est)c(con)m(tributions)f(for)g(the)g Fq(hpkb)g Ft(program.)45 b(According)33 b(to)g(his)g(prop)s(osal,)f(a)h(capabilit)m(y)p 118 5465 1371 4 v 136 5526 a Fm(8)201 5556 y Fk(cf.)k Fj(http://www.teknow)o(le)o(dge)o(.c)o(om/)o(HP)o(KB/)1782 5871 y Ft(46)p eop %%Page: 47 47 47 46 bop 118 407 a Ft(description)31 b(should)h(include:)43 b(the)32 b(task)g(addressed)i(b)m(y)f(the)f(metho)s(d;)f(the)i(metho)s (d)e(on)m(to-)118 587 y(logy;)g(the)g(con)m(textual)g(prop)s(erties;)g (the)g(b)s(eha)m(vioural)f(prop)s(erties;)h(the)h(cognitiv)m(e)e(prop)s (er-)118 768 y(ties;)i(relationships)e(to)h(other)g(metho)s(ds;)h (relationships)e(to)h(implemen)m(tations;)f(and)h(other)118 949 y(annotations.)61 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)43 b(as)c(this)f(prop)s(osal) g(w)m(as)h(still)e(an)h(early)h(draft)f(w)m(e)i(shall)d(not)i(go)118 1129 y(in)m(to)32 b(detail)f(here.)264 1335 y(Another)39 b(in)m(teresting)e(input)h(to)f(this)h(part)g(of)f(the)h Fq(hpkb)g Ft(program)e(is)i(the)g Fr(language)118 1516 y(pr)-5 b(op)g(osal)21 b Ft(describ)s(ed)j(in)d([Aitk)m(en)34 b Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998)o(].)40 b(They)24 b(suggest)f(that)g(a)f Fq(psm)g Ft(can)g(b)s(e)h(view)m(ed)118 1697 y(as)i(a)g(pro)s(cess)i (or)d(action.)40 b(In)26 b(this)f(case)h(pro)s(cess)g(or)f(action)f (represen)m(tations)i(from)e(AI)i(plan-)118 1877 y(ning)33 b(migh)m(t)f(also)h(w)m(ork)h(for)f Fq(psm)p Ft(s.)46 b(W)-8 b(e)34 b(shall)f(review)h(pro)s(cess)g(mo)s(delling)d(tec)m (hniques)k(in)118 2058 y(section)44 b(4.3)f(and)g(w)m(e)i(ha)m(v)m(e)f (lo)s(ok)m(ed)f(at)h(action)e(represen)m(tations)j(in)d(section)i(4.1.) 76 b(As)44 b(a)118 2238 y(result)36 b(of)g(this)g(view,)i(the)f (language)e(they)j(prop)s(ose)e(c)m(haracterises)i(a)e Fq(psm)g Ft(or)g(capabilit)m(y)118 2419 y(in)g(three)i(parts.)57 b(Firstly)-8 b(,)37 b(there)h(is)e(the)h(comp)s(etence)h(of)f(the)g (capabilit)m(y)-8 b(.)55 b(This)37 b(includes)118 2599 y(the)29 b(goal)e(or)g(ob)5 b(jectiv)m(e,)31 b(the)d(problem)g(t)m(yp)s (e)h(the)f Fq(psm)g Ft(addresses,)k(a)c(generic)g(solution,)g(the)118 2780 y(solution)33 b(comp)s(onen)m(ts)h(\(conclusion,)g(argumen)m(t)g (structure,)i(and)e(case)h(mo)s(del\),)e(solution)118 2961 y(prop)s(erties,)c(and)f(the)h(rationale)d(whic)m(h)i(can)h(b)s(e) f(a)g(textual)f(description)h(of)g(when)h(and)f(wh)m(y)118 3141 y(the)42 b Fq(psm)f Ft(migh)m(t)f(b)s(e)i(used.)71 b(Secondly)-8 b(,)44 b(there)f(is)e(the)g(con\014guration)g(of)g(the)h (capabilit)m(y)-8 b(.)118 3322 y(This)37 b(includes)g(the)g(metho)s(d)g (on)m(tology)-8 b(,)36 b(the)i(domain)d(theory)i(consisting)g(of)f (\014eld,)i(on)m(to-)118 3502 y(logy/mapping,)26 b(and)h(represen)m (tation,)i(and)f(the)f(sub-metho)s(ds.)42 b(The)28 b(third)f(and)g (last)f(part)118 3683 y(is)32 b(the)g Fq(psm)g Ft(pro)s(cess)h(whic)m (h)f(includes)g(the)h(en)m(vironmen)m(t,)f(the)h(resource)g(constrain)m (ts,)g(the)118 3863 y(actor)f(constrain)m(ts,)h(v)-5 b(arious)32 b(w)m(orld)h(constrain)m(ts,)g(and)f(sub-activities.)264 4070 y(Compared)37 b(to)g Fq(kads)g Ft(or)f Fq(Pr)n(ot)1510 4062 y(\023)1510 4070 y(eg)1630 4062 y(\023)1630 4070 y(e)p Ft(,)h Fq(hpkb)g Ft(is)f(still)f(in)h(its)g(infancy)-8 b(.)57 b(The)37 b(language)118 4250 y(prop)s(osals)d(are)h(all)d(draft) j(and)f(indicate)g(t)m(yp)s(es)i(of)e(kno)m(wledge)i(to)e(b)s(e)h (represen)m(ted)i(rather)118 4431 y(than)i(de\014ning)g(actual)f (languages.)62 b(Th)m(us,)42 b(w)m(e)e(can)f(only)f(tak)m(e)i(these)g (initial)35 b(ideas)k(in)m(to)118 4611 y(accoun)m(t)34 b(when)f(designing)f(a)g(capabilit)m(y)f(description)h(language.)118 4926 y Fp(Most)45 b(Imp)t(ortan)l(t)h(Issues)f(Here)263 5197 y Fd(\017)k Ft(Kno)m(wledge)41 b(engineering)f(with)g(mo)s(dels)g (of)g(problem)g(solving)g(is)g(often)h(based)g(on)362 5377 y(a)e(library)f(of)h Fq(psm)p Ft(s.)65 b(This)39 b(library)f(con)m(tains)i(at)f(least)g(semi-formal)d(descriptions)362 5558 y(of)h Fq(psm)p Ft(s)h(and)g(it)f(is)g(the)h(description)g (languages)f(suggested)i(b)m(y)g(the)f(di\013eren)m(t)g(ap-)1782 5871 y(47)p eop 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V 388 w(no)p 1384 942 V 349 w(no)p 1798 942 V 428 w(y)m(es)p 2473 942 V 588 w(\(y)m(es\))p 3307 942 V 352 946 2957 4 v 350 1066 4 121 v 402 1030 a(formal)p 877 1066 V 894 1066 V 397 w(y)m(es)p 1384 1066 V 323 w(y)m(es)p 1798 1066 V 416 w(y)m(es)p 2473 1066 V 601 w(\(no\))p 3307 1066 V 352 1069 2957 4 v 350 1190 4 121 v 402 1154 a(seman)m(tics)p 877 1190 V 894 1190 V 225 w(\(y)m(es\))p 1384 1190 V 285 w(y)m(es)p 1798 1190 V 378 w(\(y)m(es\))p 2473 1190 V 601 w(no)p 3307 1190 V 352 1193 2957 4 v 919 1461 a(T)-8 b(able)32 b(3:)44 b(Prop)s(erties)32 b(of)g(di\013eren)m(t)h(approac)m(hes)118 1747 y(language)40 b(as)i(at)f(least)g(an)g(asp)s(ect)h(of)f(their)g (represen)m(tation)h(whic)m(h)g(accoun)m(ts)h(for)e(their)118 1927 y(high)34 b(expressiv)m(eness)39 b(\(cf.)d(section)f(5.1.2\).)50 b(Most)36 b(action)e(represen)m(tations)j(\(section)e(4.1\))118 2108 y(ha)m(v)m(e)42 b(only)d(restricted)i(expressiv)m(eness)j(as)c (they)h(w)m(ere)h(designed)e(to)g(b)s(e)h(used)g(in)e(forma-)118 2288 y(tion)31 b(of)g(plans)h(whic)m(h)g(in)g(itself)e(is)i(a)f(v)m (ery)j(complex)d(pro)s(cess.)45 b(There)33 b(are,)f(ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)i (some)118 2469 y(action)g(represen)m(tations)h(that)g(o\013er)f(more)g (expressiv)m(eness,)39 b(e.g.)c Fq(adl)g Ft([P)m(ednault,)e(1989)o(].) 118 2649 y(The)46 b(represen)m(tations)h(used)g(b)m(y)f(the)g(brok)m (ers)h(w)m(e)f(ha)m(v)m(e)h(describ)s(ed)f(in)f(section)g(2.3)g(are)118 2830 y(more)c(di\016cult)f(to)h(classify)g(as)g(they)h(are)f(v)-5 b(ague)42 b(on)f(what)g(exactly)h(the)f(represen)m(tation)118 3011 y(of)f(capabilities)f(they)i(use)h(will)c(lo)s(ok)i(lik)m(e.)67 b(Closer)41 b(insp)s(ection)f(rev)m(eals)i(that,)g(although)118 3191 y(they)34 b(mostly)e(allo)m(w)g Fq(kif)i Ft([Genesereth,)g(1991)o (,)f(Genesereth)i Fr(et)g(al.)p Ft(,)d(1992)o(])h(as)g(the)h(con)m(ten) m(t)118 3372 y(language,)e(the)h(restrictions)f(imp)s(osed)f(are)i (rather)g(sev)m(ere.)264 3578 y(The)j(highest)e Fr(\015exibility)g 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Ft(\(cf.)f(section)h(2.3\).)48 b(Most)35 b(action)e(represen)m(tations)i(\(section)g(4.1\))118 5023 y(ha)m(v)m(e)j(v)m(ery)g(little)33 b(\015exibilit)m(y)-8 b(,)36 b(but)g(there)h(are)g(a)f(few)h(notew)m(orth)m(y)h(exceptions,)g (e.g.)f Fq(sp)-7 b(ar)118 5203 y Ft([)p Fq(sp)g(ar)p Ft(,)32 b(1997,)40 b(T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1998)o(].)68 b(Lik)m(e)41 b Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(,)i(these)f(languages)e(allo)m(w)f(the)i(plugging)e (in)h(of)118 5384 y(di\013eren)m(t)34 b(con)m(ten)m(t)g(languages)f (whic)m(h)h(giv)m(es)g(them)f(their)g(\015exibilit)m(y)-8 b(.)44 b(Logics)33 b(\(section)g(3\),)118 5564 y(although)j(they)h(pro) m(vide)g(a)f(wide)g(range)h(of)f(formalisms)e(do)i(not)g(individually)e (ha)m(v)m(e)k(this)1782 5871 y(50)p eop %%Page: 51 51 51 50 bop 118 407 a Ft(\015exibilit)m(y)-8 b(.)50 b(Finally)-8 b(,)33 b(mo)s(dels)i(of)f(problem)h(solving)f(\(section)h(5\))g (usually)g(allo)m(w)f(for)g(some)118 587 y(parts)24 b(of)e(their)h 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y(represen)m(tations)34 b(nor)e(their)g(brok)m(ering)h(mec)m(hanisms)f (are)h(de\014ned)h(y)m(et.)264 3528 y(The)d(ob)m(vious)e(represen)m (tations)i(that)e(ha)m(v)m(e)i(b)s(een)f Fr(use)-5 b(d)31 b(for)h(r)-5 b(epr)g(esenting)31 b(and)g(r)-5 b(e)g(ason-)118 3709 y(ing)25 b(ab)-5 b(out)26 b(actions)c Ft(are,)j(of)d(course,)k (the)d(action)f(represen)m(tations)i(\(section)e(4.1\).)40 b(Mo)s(dels)23 b(of)118 3889 y(problem)j(solving)f(\(section)i(5\))f (ha)m(v)m(e)i(also)e(b)s(een)i(used)f(to)g(represen)m(t)h(and)f(reason) g(ab)s(out)g(ac-)118 4070 y(tions,)g(but)g(the)g(actions)f(are)h (usually)f(restricted)h(to)f(the)h(reasoning)f(actions)g(p)s(erformed)g (b)m(y)118 4250 y(some)33 b(exp)s(ert)h(system.)45 b(Still,)30 b(reasoning)j(ab)s(out)f(actions)g(is)h(what)g(these)h(represen)m (tations)118 4431 y(w)m(ere)i(designed)g(for.)50 b(Brok)m(ering)35 b(represen)m(tations)h(\(section)f(2.3\))f(and)h(logics)f(\(section)h (3\))118 4611 y(b)s(oth)g(ha)m(v)m(e)i(also)e(b)s(een)h(used)h(to)e (represen)m(t)j(and)d(reason)h(ab)s(out)f(actions,)h(but)g(this)f(is)g (not)118 4792 y(what)e(they)g(w)m(ere)h(sp)s(eci\014cally)e(designed)h (for.)264 4998 y(As)e(for)f(the)g Fr(formality)g Ft(of)g(the)g (represen)m(tation,)i(the)e(only)g(area)g(that)g(do)s(es)g(not)g (qualify)118 5179 y(here)45 b(are)f(mo)s(dels)f(of)h(problem)f(solving) g(\(section)h(5\))f(b)s(ecause)j(they)f(usually)e(allo)m(w)g(for)118 5359 y(natural)38 b(language)g(as)h(one)h(asp)s(ect)f(of)g(their)f (represen)m(tation.)64 b(As)40 b(usual,)g(there)g(are)f(ex-)118 5540 y(ceptions,)32 b(e.g.)g Fq(ml)827 5504 y Fn(2)899 5540 y Ft(\(cf.)g(section)f(5.1.2\).)43 b(Ho)m(w)m(ev)m(er,)34 b Fq(ml)2246 5504 y Fn(2)2318 5540 y Ft(is)d(so)h(hea)m(vily)f (logic-based)f(that)1782 5871 y(51)p eop %%Page: 52 52 52 51 bop 118 407 a Ft(one)36 b(could)f(w)m(ell)g(coun)m(t)h(it)e(in)m (to)h(this)g(area)g(an)m(yw)m(a)m(y)-8 b(.)55 b(Closely)35 b(related)g(is)g(the)h(question)g(of)118 587 y Fr(semantics)p Ft(.)k(The)26 b(area)f(that)g(has)g(b)s(een)h(most)e(concerned)j(with)d (formal)f(seman)m(tics)i(is)g(logics)118 768 y(\(section)32 b(3\))f(in)g(whic)m(h)i(almost)d(ev)m(ery)k(formalism)28 b(has)k(a)g(w)m(ell-de\014ned)g(formal)d(seman)m(tics,)118 949 y(otherwise)35 b(it)e(do)s(es)h(not)g(qualify)f(as)h(a)g(logic.)46 b(The)35 b(seman)m(tics)f(of)g(action)f(represen)m(tations)118 1129 y(\(section)27 b(4.1\))g(and)h Fq(k)n(qml)g Ft(\(section)f (2.2.3\))g(ha)m(v)m(e)h(also)f(b)s(een)h(de\014ned)h(to)e(some)g (degree,)i(but)118 1310 y(there)43 b(remain)d(questions)j([Kuokk)-5 b(a)33 b(and)g(Harada,)f(1995b)o(])42 b(and)g(descriptions)g(are)g (often)118 1490 y(informal.)50 b(Finally)-8 b(,)33 b(mo)s(dels)i(of)g (problem)f(solving)h(\(section)g(5\))h(b)s(eing)e(based)j(on)e(natural) 118 1671 y(language)d(fail)e(here.)264 1877 y(A)40 b(new)h(capabilit)m (y)e(description)g(language)g(should)h(retain)f(the)h(ideas)g(b)s (ehind)g(these)118 2058 y(approac)m(hes)31 b(that)f(made)g(them)f(p)s (erform)g(w)m(ell)g(in)h(certain)f(resp)s(ects.)44 b(In)31 b(summary)-8 b(,)30 b(a)f(new)118 2238 y(capabilit)m(y)i(represen)m (tation:)263 2553 y Fd(\017)49 b Ft(to)32 b(preserv)m(e)j(the)e (structure)h(found)f(in)e(action)h(represen)m(tations;)263 2816 y Fd(\017)49 b Ft(to)40 b(b)s(ene\014t)h(from)e(the)i(expressiv)m (eness)j(of)c(highly)f(p)s(o)m(w)m(erful)h(logics)f(and)h(the)g(w)m (ell-)362 2997 y(de\014ned)34 b(formal)c(seman)m(tics)j(that)f(comes)h (with)f(them;)263 3260 y Fd(\017)49 b Ft(to)35 b(retain)f(the)i (\015exibilit)m(y)d(of)i Fq(k)n(qml)h Ft(b)m(y)g(allo)m(wing)d(for)i (opaque)g(con)m(ten)m(t)i(languages)362 3441 y(and)c(to)f(use)h(the)g (comm)m(unication)e(approac)m(h)i(to)f(brok)m(ering;)263 3704 y Fd(\017)49 b Ft(to)32 b(b)s(e)h(formal)d(to)i(allo)m(w)f(for)h (autonomous)g(brok)m(ering.)118 4037 y Fs(References)118 4256 y Ft([Aamo)s(dt)g Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1993])48 b(Agnar)j(Aamo)s(dt,)k(Bart)c(Ben)m(us,)58 b(Cuno)52 b(Duursma,)k(Christine)221 4377 y(T)-8 b(omlinson,)41 b(Ronald)e(Sc)m(hro)s(oten,)44 b(and)c(W)-8 b(alter)40 b(V)-8 b(an)41 b(de)g(V)-8 b(elde.)67 b(T)-8 b(ask)42 b(features)f(and)221 4497 y(their)g(use)h(in)f(CommonKADS.)68 b(Deliv)m(erable)40 b(D)g(1.5,)k(F)-8 b(ree)41 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of) f(Brussels,)221 4617 y(Brussels,)34 b(Belgium,)c(Jan)m(uary)k(1993.)118 4821 y([Ab)s(en,)f(1995])48 b(Manfred)38 b(Ab)s(en.)59 b Fr(F)-7 b(ormal)38 b(Metho)-5 b(ds)39 b(in)h(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)37 b(Engine)-5 b(ering)p Ft(.)57 b(PhD)221 4941 y(thesis,)j(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)c(of)e(Amsterdam,)59 b(Amsterdam,)g(The)c(Netherlands,)61 b(F)-8 b(ebruary)221 5062 y(1995.)118 5265 y([Aitk)m(en)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)e(1998])47 b(Stuart)37 b(Aitk)m(en,)g(Ian)g(Filb)m(y)-8 b(,)35 b(John)i(Kingston,)f(and)h(Austin)f(T)-8 b(ate.)221 5385 y(Capabilit)m(y)32 b(descriptions)i(for)f(problem-solving)d(metho) s(ds.)47 b(AIAI,)34 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)g(of)f(Ed-)221 5506 y(in)m(burgh,)g(Edin)m(burgh,)g(Scotland,)f(Jan)m(uary)h(1998.) 1782 5871 y(52)p eop %%Page: 53 53 53 52 bop 118 407 a Ft([Allen)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990])48 b(James)29 b(Allen,)f(James)h(Hendler,)g(and)g(Austin)g(T)-8 b(ate,)30 b(editors.)37 b Fr(R)-5 b(e)g(ad-)221 527 y(ings)34 b(in)h(Planning)p Ft(.)42 b(Morgan)32 b(Kaufmann,)g(San)h(Mateo,)g(CA,) g(1990.)118 731 y([Am)m(bros-Ingerson)g(and)g(Steel,)f(1988])48 b(Jos)m(\023)-46 b(e)35 b(A.)e(Am)m(bros-Ingerson)h(and)g(Sam)e(Steel.) 46 b(In-)221 851 y(tegrating)23 b(planning,)i(execution)g(and)g (monitoring.)i(In)e Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)27 b(7th)h(AAAI)p Ft(,)d(pages)g(83{88,)221 971 y(Sain)m(t)33 b(P)m(aul,)g(MN,)g(August)h (1988.)e(Morgan)h(Kaufmann.)44 b(Also)33 b(in)f([Allen)g Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990)o(,)221 1092 y(pages)h(135{740].)118 1295 y([Andrews,)i(1981])48 b(P)m(eter)60 b(B.)g(Andrews.)126 b(Theorem)59 b(pro)m(ving)h(via)f(general)g(matings.)221 1416 y Fr(Journal)35 b(of)f(the)h(A)n(CM)p Ft(,)e(28\(2\):193{214,)d (April)h(1981.)118 1619 y([Armengol)g Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)e(1998])48 b(Ev)-5 b(a)23 b(Armengol,)h(Ric)m(hard)f(Benjamins,)h(Stefan)f(Dec)m (k)m(er,)k(Dieter)221 1739 y(F)-8 b(ensel,)34 b(Enrico)g(Motta,)g(Rudi) f(Studer,)i(and)f(Bob)g(Wielinga.)44 b(State)34 b(of)g(the)g(art)g (deliv-)221 1860 y(erable.)47 b(Deliv)m(erable)33 b(D1.4,)g(Univ)m (ersit)m(y)i(of)e(Amsterdam,)h(Amsterdam,)g(The)h(Nether-)221 1980 y(lands,)d(Ma)m(y)i(1998.)118 2183 y([A)m(ttardi)e(and)h(Simi,)d (1984])48 b(Giusepp)s(e)39 b(A)m(ttardi)f(and)h(Maria)f(Simi.)60 b(Metalanguage)38 b(and)221 2304 y(reasoning)j(across)h(viewp)s(oin)m (ts.)70 b(In)42 b(Tim)e(O'Shea,)k(editor,)f Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)43 b(6th)g(ECAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)221 2424 y(413{422,)31 b(Pisa,)h(Italy)-8 b(,)32 b(Septem)m(b)s(er)i(1984.)d(North-Holland.) 118 2628 y([Barr,)i(1979])48 b(Avron)41 b(Barr.)67 b(Meta-kno)m(wledge) 42 b(and)f(cognition.)66 b(In)41 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)42 b(6th)h(IJCAI)p Ft(,)221 2748 y(pages)33 b(31{33,)f(T)-8 b(oky)m(o,)33 b(Japan,)g(August)g(1979.)f(William)c(Kaufmann.)118 2951 y([Barrett)33 b(and)f(W)-8 b(eld,)33 b(1994])48 b(An)m(thon)m(y)h(Barrett)g(and)f(Daniel)e(S.)j(W)-8 b(eld.)89 b(P)m(artial-order)221 3072 y(planning:)60 b(Ev)-5 b(aluating)40 b(p)s(ossible)g(e\016ciency)j(gains.)70 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)42 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)42 b(67:71{)221 3192 y(112,)32 b(1994.)118 3396 y([Barrett)h Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1995])48 b(An)m(thon)m(y)72 b(Barrett,)80 b(Da)m(v)m(e)71 b(Christianson,)79 b(Marc)71 b(F)-8 b(riedman,)221 3516 y(Ch)m(ung)45 b(Kw)m(ok,)k(Keith)43 b(Golden,)k(Scott)d(P)m(en)m (b)s(erth)m(y)-8 b(,)50 b(Ying)44 b(Sun,)k(and)c(Daniel)e(W)-8 b(eld.)221 3636 y Fq(UCPOP)34 b Ft(user's)h(man)m(ual)d(\(v)m(ersion)i (4.0\).)45 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)34 b(Rep)s(ort)f(93-09-06d,)f(Univ)m (ersit)m(y)221 3757 y(of)g(W)-8 b(ashington,)32 b(Seattle,)h(W)-11 b(A,)33 b(No)m(v)m(em)m(b)s(er)g(1995.)118 3960 y([Barros)g Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1996])48 b(Leliane)56 b(Barros,)62 b(Andr)m(\023)-46 b(e)58 b(V)-8 b(alen)m(te,)63 b(and)57 b(Ric)m(hard)f(Benjamins.)221 4081 y(Mo)s(deling)42 b(planning)g (tasks.)77 b(In)44 b(Brian)e(Drabble,)k(editor,)f Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)45 b(3r)-5 b(d)44 b(International)221 4201 y(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)24 b(on)i(A)n(rti\014cial)f(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)24 b(Planning)h(Sytems)p Ft(,)g(pages)e(11{18,)h(Edin)m(burgh,)221 4321 y(Scotland,)32 b(Ma)m(y)i(1996.)d(AAAI)i(Press.)118 4525 y([Ba)m(y)m(ardo)g Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)e(1997])48 b(R.)32 b(Ba)m(y)m(ardo,)h(W.)g(Bohrer,)f(R.)g(Brice,)h(A.)f(Cic)m(ho)s (c)m(ki,)h(G.)f(F)-8 b(o)m(wler,)221 4645 y(A.)34 b(Helal,)f(V.)g(Kash) m(y)m(ap,)j(T.)e(Ksiezyk,)h(G.)f(Martin,)f(M.)h(No)s(dine,)g(M.)g (Rashid,)g(M.)g(Ru-)221 4765 y(sinkiewicz,)49 b(R.)c(Shea,)k(C.)d (Unnikrishnan,)j(A.)d(Unruh,)j(and)d(D.)f(W)-8 b(o)s(elk.)81 b(Seman)m(tic)221 4886 y(in)m(tegration)43 b(of)h(information)e(in)i (op)s(en)g(and)h(dynamic)f(en)m(vironmen)m(ts.)80 b(In)45 b(Joan)g(M.)221 5006 y(P)m(ec)m(kman,)36 b(editor,)e Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)36 b(A)n(CM)g(SIGMOD)f(International)g(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)35 b(on)h(Manage-)221 5127 y(ment)f(of)f(Data)p Ft(,)e(T)-8 b(ucson,)34 b(AZ,)f(Ma)m(y)g(1997.)f(A)m(CM)i(Press.)118 5330 y([Benjamins)e Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1997])48 b(Ric)m(hard)57 b(Benjamins,)63 b(Dieter)57 b(F)-8 b(ensel,)63 b(and)58 b(B.)f(Chandra-)221 5450 y(sek)-5 b(aran.)43 b(PSMs)34 b(do)e(IT!)43 b(In)32 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)34 b(IJCAI)g(Workshop)g(on)g (Pr)-5 b(oblem-Solving)32 b(Metho)-5 b(ds)221 5571 y(for)35 b(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge-Base)g(d)32 b(Systems)p Ft(,)g(Nago)m(y)m(a,)h (Japan,)g(August)g(1997.)1782 5871 y(53)p eop %%Page: 54 54 54 53 bop 118 407 a Ft([Benjamins)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998])48 b(Ric)m(hard)39 b(Benjamins,)i(Enric)e(Plaza,)i(Enrico) e(Motta,)i(Dieter)221 527 y(F)-8 b(ensel,)55 b(Rudi)50 b(Studer,)56 b(Bob)51 b(Wielinga,)i(Guus)e(Sc)m(hreib)s(er,)56 b(and)51 b(Zdenek)h(Zdrahal.)221 648 y(IBR)m(O)m(W)567 611 y Fn(3)652 648 y Ft(|)44 b(an)g(in)m(telligen)m(t)e(brok)m(ering)j (service)g(for)f(kno)m(wledge-comp)s(onen)m(t)h(reuse)221 768 y(on)d(the)g(w)m(orld-wide)f(w)m(eb.)72 b(In)42 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)43 b(11th)g(Workshop)g(on)g(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)41 b(A)-5 b(c)g(quisition,)221 888 y(Mo)g(deling)34 b(and)g(Management)p Ft(,)e(Ban\013,)h(Canada,)g(April)e(1998.)118 1092 y([Blum)g(and)i(F)-8 b(urst,)33 b(1995])48 b(Avrim)f(L.)h(Blum)e (and)j(Merric)m(k)f(L.)g(F)-8 b(urst.)90 b(F)-8 b(ast)48 b(planning)221 1212 y(through)53 b(planning)e(graph)h(analysis.)102 b(In)53 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)53 b(14th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)f(pages)h (1636{1642,)221 1333 y(Mon)m(tr)m(\023)-46 b(eal,)32 b(Canada,)h(August)g(1995.)f(Morgan)h(Kaufmann.)118 1536 y([Bond)g(and)g(Gasser,)g(1988])48 b(Alan)e(H.)h(Bond)h(and)f(Les)h (Gasser,)j(editors.)86 b Fr(R)-5 b(e)g(adings)48 b(in)221 1656 y(Distribute)-5 b(d)35 b(A)n(rti\014cial)f(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(.)42 b(Morgan)32 b(Kaufmann,)g(San)h(Mateo,)f(CA,) i(1988.)118 1860 y([Brac)m(hman)f(and)f(Lev)m(esque,)k(1985])48 b(Ronald)d(J.)i(Brac)m(hman)g(and)f(Hector)h(J.)g(Lev)m(esque,)221 1980 y(editors.)33 b Fr(R)-5 b(e)g(adings)28 b(in)h(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)28 b(R)-5 b(epr)g(esentation)p Ft(.)32 b(Morgan)27 b(Kaufmann,)f(Los)h(Altos,)221 2100 y(CA,)33 b(1985.)118 2304 y([Brac)m(hman)g(and)f(Sc)m(hmolze,)h(1985])48 b(Ronald)42 b(J.)h(Brac)m(hman)g(and)g(James)g(G.)f(Sc)m(hmolze.)221 2424 y(An)33 b(o)m(v)m(erview)h(of)e(the)h(KL-ONE)f(kno)m(wledge)h (represen)m(tation)h(system.)44 b Fr(Co)-5 b(gnitive)34 b(Sci-)221 2545 y(enc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)32 b(9\(2\):171{216,)f(April)g (1985.)118 2748 y([Brac)m(hman,)i(1979])48 b(Ronald)f(J.)h(Brac)m (hman.)91 b(On)48 b(the)h(epistemological)c(status)k(of)f(se-)221 2868 y(man)m(tic)35 b(net)m(w)m(orks.)56 b(In)36 b(Nic)m(holas)f(V.)h (Findler,)f(editor,)i Fr(Asso)-5 b(ciative)37 b(Networks)p Ft(,)g(pages)221 2989 y(3{50.)32 b(Academic)g(Press,)i(New)g(Y)-8 b(ork,)32 b(NY,)h(1979.)118 3192 y([Bradsha)m(w,)h(1997])48 b(Je\013rey)40 b(M.)g(Bradsha)m(w,)i(editor.)62 b Fr(Softwar)-5 b(e)40 b(A)-5 b(gents)p Ft(.)63 b(AAAI)40 b(Press/)221 3313 y(The)34 b(MIT)f(Press,)h(Menlo)f(P)m(ark,)g(CA/Cam)m(bridge)f (MA,)i(1997.)118 3516 y([Brazier)e Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1995])48 b(F)-8 b(rances)45 b(M.)h(T.)g(Brazier,)i(Jan)d(T)-8 b(reur,)49 b(and)c(Niek)g(J.)h(E.)f(Wijn-)221 3636 y(gaards.)52 b(Mo)s(delling)33 b(in)m(teraction)i(with)g(exp)s(erts:)51 b(The)36 b(role)f(of)g(a)g(shared)i(task)f(mo)s(del.)221 3757 y(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)49 b(Rep)s(ort)f(IR-382,)k(F)-8 b(ree)48 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)i(of)e(Amsterdam,)k(Amsterdam,)g(The)221 3877 y(Netherlands,)33 b(1995.)118 4081 y([Breuk)m(er)h(and)f(V)-8 b(an)33 b(de)g(V)-8 b(elde,)32 b(1994])48 b(Jo)s(ost)23 b(A.)g(Breuk)m(er)i(and)e(W)-8 b(alter)22 b(V)-8 b(an)23 b(de)g(V)-8 b(elde,)25 b(ed-)221 4201 y(itors.)35 b Fr(CommonKADS)28 b(Libr)-5 b(ary)30 b(for)h(Exp)-5 b(ertise)29 b(Mo)-5 b(del)5 b(ling)p Ft(.)35 b(IOS)28 b(Press,)i(Amsterdam,)221 4321 y(The)k(Netherlands,)f(1994.)118 4525 y([Breuk)m(er)h(and)f (Wielinga,)d(1989])48 b(Jo)s(ost)43 b(Breuk)m(er)h(and)f(Bob)g (Wielinga.)71 b(Mo)s(dels)43 b(of)f(ex-)221 4645 y(p)s(ertise)32 b(in)g(kno)m(wledge)h(acquisition.)41 b(In)33 b(Gio)m(v)-5 b(anni)30 b(Guida)h(and)h(Carlo)f(T)-8 b(asso,)33 b(editors,)221 4765 y Fr(T)-7 b(opics)42 b(in)i(Exp)-5 b(ert)44 b(System)g(Design)p Ft(,)f(c)m(hapter)h(5,)g(pages)f(265{295.)e(Elsevier)h(Science)221 4886 y(Publishers,)33 b(Amsterdam,)f(The)i(Netherlands,)f(1989.)118 5089 y([Breuk)m(er)h Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)e(1987])48 b(Jo)s(ost)67 b(Breuk)m(er,)77 b(Bob)67 b(Wielinga,)74 b(Maarten)67 b(v)-5 b(an)67 b(Someren,)221 5210 y(Rob)s(ert)39 b(de)g(Ho)s(og,)h (Guus)f(Sc)m(hreib)s(er,)i(P)m(aul)d(de)i(Greef,)g(Bert)f(Bredew)m(eg,) k(Jan)c(Wiele-)221 5330 y(mak)m(er,)50 b(Jean-P)m(aul)c(Billault,)g (Massoud)i(Da)m(v)m(o)s(o)s(di,)h(and)d(Simon)f(Ha)m(yw)m(ard.)86 b(Mo)s(del)221 5450 y(driv)m(en)34 b(kno)m(wledge)h(acquisition:)43 b(In)m(terpretation)34 b(mo)s(dels.)45 b(KADS)33 b(Deliv)m(erable)f(T) -8 b(ask)221 5571 y(A1,)33 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)g(of)f(Amsterdam,)g (Amsterdam,)g(The)i(Netherlands,)f(1987.)1782 5871 y(54)p eop %%Page: 55 55 55 54 bop 118 407 a Ft([Breuk)m(er,)34 b(1997])48 b(Jo)s(ost)37 b(Breuk)m(er.)59 b(Problems)36 b(in)h(indexing)f(problem-solving)e (metho)s(ds.)221 527 y(In)39 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)41 b(IJCAI)f(Workshop) g(on)h(Pr)-5 b(oblem-Solving)39 b(Metho)-5 b(ds)40 b(for)h(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge-Base)g(d)221 648 y(Systems)p Ft(,)32 b(Nago)m(y)m(a,)h (Japan,)g(August)g(1997.)118 851 y([Brewk)-5 b(a,)33 b(1991])48 b(Gerhard)28 b(Brewk)-5 b(a.)35 b Fr(Nonmonotonic)29 b(R)-5 b(e)g(asoning:)41 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)g(al)29 b(F)-7 b(oundations)221 971 y(of)35 b(Commonsense)p Ft(.)41 b(Cam)m(bridge)32 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(Press,)h(Cam)m(bridge,)e(UK,)h (1991.)118 1175 y([Bro)s(oks,)g(1986])48 b(R.)27 b(A.)h(Bro)s(oks.)36 b(A)27 b(robust)h(la)m(y)m(ered)h(con)m(trol)e(system)h(for)f(a)h (mobile)d(rob)s(ot.)221 1295 y Fr(IEEE)35 b(Journal)g(of)f(R)-5 b(ob)g(otics)34 b(and)h(A)n(utomation)p Ft(,)d(2\(1\):14{23,)f(1986.) 118 1499 y([Bro)s(oks,)i(1991])48 b(R.)37 b(A.)g(Bro)s(oks.)56 b(In)m(telligence)36 b(without)g(represen)m(tation.)57 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)38 b(In-)221 1619 y(tel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)32 b(47:139{159,)e(1991.)118 1822 y([Bundy)k(and)f(W)-8 b(elham,)31 b(1981])48 b(Alan)31 b(Bundy)j(and)e(Bob)h(W)-8 b(elham.)42 b(Using)32 b(meta-lev)m(el)e(in-)221 1943 y(ference)39 b(for)f(selectiv)m(e)g(application)d(of)j(m)m(ultiple)d (rewrite)j(rule)f(sets)i(in)f(algebraic)e(ma-)221 2063 y(nipulation.)41 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)34 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(16\(2\):189{212,)g(1981.)118 2267 y([Bundy)j Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1979])48 b(Alan)36 b(Bundy)-8 b(,)38 b(La)m(wrence)g(Byrd,)g(George)e(Luger,)i(Chris)f(Mellish,)221 2387 y(and)i(Martha)f(P)m(almer.)60 b(Solving)38 b(mec)m(hanics)g (problems)g(using)h(meta-lev)m(el)e(inference.)221 2507 y(In)44 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)45 b(6th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)h (1017{1027,)g(T)-8 b(oky)m(o,)47 b(Japan,)g(August)d(1979.)f(William) 221 2628 y(Kaufmann.)118 2831 y([Bylander,)33 b(1994])48 b(T)-8 b(om)31 b(Bylander.)41 b(The)32 b(computational)d(complexit)m(y) h(of)h(prop)s(ositional)221 2951 y(STRIPS)j(planning.)42 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)34 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(69\(1{2\):165{204,)f(Septem)m(b)s(er)j(1994.)118 3155 y([Chagro)m(v)g(and)g(Zakhary)m(asc)m(hev,)i(1997])48 b(Alexander)39 b(Chagro)m(v)f(and)g(Mic)m(hael)f(Zakhary)m(a-)221 3275 y(sc)m(hev.)46 b Fr(Mo)-5 b(dal)34 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)p Ft(.)43 b(Clarendon)33 b(Press,)h(Oxford,)e(UK,)h(1997.)118 3479 y([Chaib-Draa)e Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1992])48 b(B.)c(Chaib-Draa,)g (B.)g(Moulin,)h(R.)e(Mandiau,)j(and)d(P)-8 b(.)44 b(Mil-)221 3599 y(lot.)j(T)-8 b(rends)36 b(in)d(distributed)h(arti\014cial)e(in)m (telligence.)46 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)36 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)35 b(R)-5 b(eview)p Ft(,)221 3719 y(6\(1\):35{66,)31 b(1992.)118 3923 y([Chang)i(and)g(Lee,)g(1973])48 b(Chin-Liang)d(Chang) i(and)g(Ric)m(hard)g(Char-T)-8 b(ung)47 b(Lee.)87 b Fr(Sym-)221 4043 y(b)-5 b(olic)36 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)36 b(and)g(Me)-5 b(chanic)g(al)36 b(The)-5 b(or)g(em)36 b(Pr)-5 b(oving)p Ft(.)48 b(Computer)35 b(Science)g(and)g(Applied)221 4164 y(Mathematics)d(Series.)h(Academic)f(Press,)j(New)e(Y)-8 b(ork,)33 b(NY,)g(1973.)118 4367 y([Chase)h Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1989])48 b(Melissa)24 b(P)-8 b(.)25 b(Chase,)i(Mon)m(te)e(Zw)m (eb)s(en,)i(Ric)m(hard)d(L.)g(Piazza,)i(John)f(D.)221 4487 y(Burger,)g(P)m(aul)d(P)-8 b(.)22 b(Maglio,)h(and)f(Ha)m(ym)g (Hirsh.)27 b(Appro)m(ximating)20 b(learned)i(searc)m(h)i(con)m(trol)221 4608 y(kno)m(wledge.)48 b(In)35 b(Alb)s(erto)e(Maria)f(Segre,)j (editor,)f Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)36 b(6th)g(International)f(Workshop)221 4728 y(on)g(Machine)g(L)-5 b(e)g(arning)p Ft(,)33 b(pages)h(218{220,)d (Ithaca,)j(NY,)g(June)g(1989.)e(Cornell)g(Univ)m(er-)221 4848 y(sit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Morgan)f(Kaufmann.)118 5052 y([Chellas,)g(1980])48 b(Brian)g(F.)g(Chellas.)90 b Fr(Mo)-5 b(dal)50 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic:)73 b(A)n(n)50 b(Intr)-5 b(o)g(duction)p Ft(.)90 b(Cam)m(bridge)221 5172 y(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)33 b(Press,)i(Cam)m(bridge,)d(UK,)g(1980.)118 5376 y([Chi)g Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)c(1981])48 b(Mic)m(helene)g(T.)f(H.)h(Chi,)j(P)m (aul)c(J.)g(F)-8 b(elto)m(vic)m(h,)51 b(and)c(Rob)s(ert)g(Glaser.)221 5496 y(Categorization)28 b(and)i(represen)m(tation)h(of)e(ph)m(ysics)i (problems)e(b)m(y)i(exp)s(erts)g(and)f(no)m(vices.)221 5616 y Fr(Co)-5 b(gnitive)34 b(Scienc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(5\(2\):121{152,)g(April)g(1981.)1782 5871 y(55)p eop %%Page: 56 56 56 55 bop 118 407 a Ft([Cohen)34 b(and)e(Lev)m(esque,)k(1990])48 b(P)m(aul)29 b(R.)g(Cohen)i(and)e(Hector)h(J.)g(Lev)m(esque.)41 b(In)m(ten)m(tion)30 b(is)221 527 y(c)m(hoice)j(with)f(commitmen)m(t.) 41 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)35 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(42:213{261,)f(1990.)118 731 y([Cohen)k Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1989])48 b(P)m(aul)c(R.)f(Cohen,)48 b(M.)d(L.)f(Green)m(b)s (erg,)j(D.)d(M.)g(Hart,)j(and)d(A.)g(E.)221 851 y(Ho)m(w)m(e.)92 b(T)-8 b(rial)47 b(b)m(y)i(\014re:)76 b(Understanding)49 b(the)g(design)f(requiremen)m(ts)i(for)e(agen)m(ts)h(in)221 971 y(complex)32 b(en)m(vironmen)m(ts.)44 b Fr(AI)35 b(Magazine)p Ft(,)d(10\(3\):32{48,)f(Autumn)h(1989.)118 1175 y([Croft,)h(1985])48 b(D.)40 b(Croft.)68 b(Choice)40 b(making)g(in)g(planning)f(systems.)69 b(In)41 b(Martin)f(Merry)-8 b(,)221 1295 y(editor,)46 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)45 b(5th)g(Exp)-5 b(ert)45 b(Systems)f(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)p Ft(,)45 b(pages)f(125{141,)h (W)-8 b(arwic)m(k,)47 b(UK,)221 1416 y(Decem)m(b)s(er)33 b(1985.)f(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)f(W)-8 b(arwic)m(k,)33 b(Cam)m(bridge)f(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(Press.)118 1619 y([Currie)g(and)f (T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1991])48 b(Ken)24 b(Currie)f(and)g(Austin)g(T)-8 b(ate.)28 b(O-Plan:)38 b(The)24 b(op)s(en)f(planning)221 1739 y(arc)m(hitecture.)44 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)35 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(52\(1\):49{86,)f(1991.)118 1943 y([Da)m(vis)i(and)h(Buc)m(hanan,)h(1977])48 b(Randall)55 b(Da)m(vis)h(and)i(Bruce)g(G.)f(Buc)m(hanan.)117 b(Meta-)221 2063 y(lev)m(el)56 b(kno)m(wledge:)92 b(Ov)m(erview)58 b(and)f(applications.)112 b(In)57 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)57 b(5th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)f(pages)221 2183 y(920{927,)43 b(Cam)m(bridge,)h (MA,)f(August)g(1977.)e(MIT,)i(William)38 b(Kaufmann.)71 b(Also)42 b(in:)221 2304 y([Brac)m(hman)33 b(and)f(Lev)m(esque,)k(1985) o(,)d(pages)g(389{396].)118 2507 y([Da)m(vis)f(and)h(Smith,)e(1983])48 b(Randall)d(Da)m(vis)h(and)h(Reid)f(G.)h(Smith.)84 b(Negotiation)45 b(as)i(a)221 2628 y(metaphor)27 b(for)h(distributed)f(problem)g (solving.)34 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)c(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)27 b(20\(1\):63{109,)221 2748 y(1983.)43 b(Also)32 b(in:)42 b([Bond)33 b(and)g(Gasser,)g(1988)o(,)g(pages)g(333{356].)118 2951 y([Da)m(vis,)f(1980])48 b(Randall)c(Da)m(vis.)82 b(Meta-rules:)70 b(Reasoning)45 b(ab)s(out)g(con)m(trol.)82 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)221 3072 y(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(15\(3\):179{222,)f(1980.)118 3275 y([Da)m(vis,)i(1990])48 b(Ernest)36 b(Da)m(vis.)48 b Fr(R)-5 b(epr)g(esentations)35 b(of)i(Commonsense)d(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)p Ft(.)47 b(Mor-)221 3396 y(gan)32 b(Kaufmann,)g(San)h(Mateo,)g(CA,)g(1990.)118 3599 y([Dec)m(k)m(er)h Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)e(1997])48 b(Keith)30 b(Dec)m(k)m(er,)i(Katia)d(Sycara,)j(and)f(Mik)m(e)g (Williamson.)36 b(Middle-)221 3719 y(agen)m(ts)h(for)f(the)h(in)m (ternet.)56 b(In)37 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)38 b(15th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)h(578{583,)f(Nago)m(y)m(a,)i(Japan,)221 3840 y(August)33 b(1997.)f(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 4043 y([Dec)m(k)m(er)i Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)e(1998])48 b(Setfan)38 b(Dec)m(k)m(er,)k(Mic)m(hael)c(Erdmann,)i(Dieter)d(F)-8 b(ensel,)40 b(and)f(Rudi)221 4164 y(Studer.)32 b(Reasoning)24 b(with)h(metadata:)38 b(On)m(tobrok)m(er.)32 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)26 b(of)e(Karlsruhe,)j(Karls-)221 4284 y(ruhe,)33 b(German)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(1998.)118 4487 y([Do)m(yle,)f(1997])48 b(Jon)24 b(Do)m(yle.)k(Problem-solving)21 b(metho)s(d)i(language)g(prop)s(osal.) 28 b(MIT,)c(Cam-)221 4608 y(bridge,)32 b(MA,)h(Octob)s(er)g(1997.)118 4811 y([Eriksson)h Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1995])48 b(Henrik)34 b(Eriksson,)g(Y)-8 b(uv)j(al)33 b(Shahar,)h(Samson)g(W.)g(T)-8 b(u,)34 b(Angel)f(R.)221 4932 y(Puerta,)46 b(and)c(Mark)h(A.)g(Musen.) 74 b(T)-8 b(ask)43 b(mo)s(deling)d(with)i(reusable)h(problem-solving) 221 5052 y(metho)s(ds.)g Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)35 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(79\(2\):293{326,)f(Decem)m(b)s(er)j(1995.) 118 5255 y([Esk)m(ey)i(and)e(Zw)m(eb)s(en,)h(1990])48 b(Megan)f(Esk)m(ey)i(and)e(Mon)m(te)h(Zw)m(eb)s(en.)87 b(Learning)46 b(searc)m(h)221 5376 y(con)m(trol)c(for)g(constrain)m (t-based)h(sc)m(heduling.)73 b(In)43 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)44 b(8th)g(AAAI)p Ft(,)g(pages)f(908{915,)221 5496 y(Boston,)33 b(MA,)g(August)g(1990.)f(AAAI)h(Press/The)i(MIT)f(Press.)1782 5871 y(56)p eop %%Page: 57 57 57 56 bop 118 407 a Ft([Etzioni)32 b(and)g(Min)m(ton,)h(1992])48 b(Oren)23 b(Etzioni)e(and)i(Stev)m(en)i(Min)m(ton.)i(Wh)m(y)d(EBL)f (pro)s(duces)221 527 y(o)m(v)m(erly-sp)s(eci\014c)36 b(kno)m(wledge:)50 b(A)35 b(critique)g(of)f(the)i(PR)m(ODIGY)f(approac) m(hes.)52 b(In)36 b(Derek)221 648 y(Sleeman)47 b(and)g(P)m(eter)i(Edw)m (ards,)k(editors,)e Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)49 b(9th)f(International)g (Workshop)g(on)221 768 y(Machine)g(L)-5 b(e)g(arning)p Ft(,)51 b(pages)d(137{143,)j(Ab)s(erdeen,)i(Scotland,)e(July)d(1992.)e (Morgan)221 888 y(Kaufmann.)118 1092 y([Etzioni)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1992])48 b(Oren)d(Etzioni,)i(Stev)m(e)f(Hanks,)j (Daniel)43 b(W)-8 b(eld,)48 b(Denise)d(Drap)s(er,)221 1212 y(Neal)38 b(Lesh,)k(and)d(Mik)m(e)g(Williamson.)58 b(An)39 b(approac)m(h)g(to)g(planning)e(with)i(incomplete)221 1333 y(information.)63 b(In)40 b(Bernhard)h(Neb)s(el,)h(Charles)f(Ric)m (h,)h(and)e(William)c(Sw)m(artout,)42 b(edit-)221 1453 y(ors,)49 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)46 b(3r)-5 b(d)46 b(KR)p Ft(,)f(pages)h(115{125,)h(Cam)m(bridge,)g(MA,)f(Octob)s(er)f(1992.)f (Morgan)221 1573 y(Kaufmann.)118 1777 y([Etzioni)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1993])48 b(Oren)30 b(Etzioni,)f(Henry)i(M.)f(Levy) -8 b(,)32 b(Ric)m(hard)e(B.)g(Segal,)f(and)h(Chan-)221 1897 y(dramohan)45 b(A.)h(Thekk)-5 b(ath.)84 b(OS)46 b(agen)m(ts:)71 b(Using)45 b(AI)h(tec)m(hniques)i(in)d(the)i(op)s (erating)221 2017 y(system)e(en)m(vironmen)m(t.)79 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)44 b(Rep)s(ort)g(93-04-04,)h(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)g(of)f(W)-8 b(ashington,)221 2138 y(Seattle,)32 b(W)-11 b(A,)33 b(April)e(1993.)118 2341 y([Etzioni,)h(1997])48 b(Oren)60 b(Etzioni.)125 b(Mo)m(ving)60 b(up)h(the)g(information)c(fo)s(o)s(d)i(c)m(hain.)126 b Fr(AI)221 2462 y(Magazine)p Ft(,)32 b(18\(2\):11{18,)f(Summer)g (1997.)118 2665 y([F)-8 b(arquahar)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1996])48 b(A.)43 b(F)-8 b(arquahar,)45 b(R.)e(Fik)m(es,)i(and)e (J.)h(Rice.)73 b(The)44 b(On)m(tolingua)221 2785 y(serv)m(er:)50 b(A)35 b(to)s(ol)e(for)h(collab)s(orativ)m(e)e(on)m(tology)i (construction.)50 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)35 b(Rep)s(ort)f(KSL)221 2906 y(96-26,)d(Stanford)i(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Stanford,)f(CA,)i(Septem)m(b)s(er)f(1996.)118 3109 y([F)-8 b(ensel)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998a])48 b(Dieter)d(F)-8 b(ensel,)48 b(Ric)m(hard)e(Benjamins,)i(Stefan)e(Dec)m(k)m(er,)k(Mauro) 221 3230 y(Gaspari,)42 b(Rix)d(Gro)s(en)m(b)s(o)s(om,)i(Enrico)g (Motta,)h(Enric)f(Plaza,)h(Guus)f(Sc)m(hreib)s(er,)i(Rudi)221 3350 y(Studer,)28 b(and)f(Bob)f(Wielinga.)31 b Fq(umpl)p Ft(:)40 b(The)27 b(v)m(ery)h(high)d(idea.)33 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)27 b(of)e(Karlsruhe,)221 3470 y(Karlsruhe,)32 b(German)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(1998.)118 3674 y([F)-8 b(ensel)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998b])48 b(Dieter)c(F)-8 b(ensel,)48 b(Ric)m(hard)d(Benjamins,) i(Stefan)e(Dec)m(k)m(er,)k(Mauro)221 3794 y(Gaspari,)42 b(Rix)d(Gro)s(en)m(b)s(o)s(om,)i(Enrico)g(Motta,)h(Enric)f(Plaza,)h (Guus)f(Sc)m(hreib)s(er,)i(Rudi)221 3914 y(Studer,)h(and)e(Bob)f (Wielinga.)67 b(The)43 b(uni\014ed)e(problem-solving)e(metho)s(d)i (description)221 4035 y(language)33 b Fq(umpl)i Ft(\(v)m(ersion)g (1.0.7\).)47 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)35 b(of)f(Karlsruhe,)h(Karlsruhe,)f (German)m(y)-8 b(,)221 4155 y(July)32 b(1998.)118 4359 y([F)-8 b(ensel,)33 b(1997])48 b(Dieter)28 b(F)-8 b(ensel.)39 b(An)29 b(on)m(tology-based)g(brok)m(er:)43 b(Making)29 b(problem-solving)221 4479 y(metho)s(d)41 b(reuse)i(w)m(ork.)70 b(In)42 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)43 b(IJCAI)f(Workshop)h(on)f(Pr)-5 b(oblem-Solving)41 b(Metho)-5 b(ds)221 4599 y(for)35 b(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge-Base)g(d)32 b(Systems)p Ft(,)g(Nago)m(y)m(a,)h (Japan,)g(August)g(1997.)118 4803 y([F)-8 b(ern\023)-49 b(andez)34 b Fr(et)h(al.)p Ft(,)d(1997])48 b(M.)86 b(F)-8 b(ern\023)-49 b(andez,)99 b(A.)86 b(G\023)-49 b(omez-P)m(\023)j(erez,) 99 b(and)85 b(N.)h(Juristo.)221 4923 y(METHONTOLOGY:)31 b(F)-8 b(rom)29 b(on)m(tological)e(art)j(to)m(w)m(ards)h(on)m (tological)c(engineering.)39 b(In)221 5044 y Fr(Working)44 b(Notes)g(of)g(the)g(AAAI)h(Spring)f(Symp)-5 b(osium)43 b(on)h(Ontolo)-5 b(gic)g(al)43 b(Engine)-5 b(ering)p Ft(,)221 5164 y(Stanford,)33 b(CA,)g(Marc)m(h)g(1997.)f(Stanford)g (Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(AAAI)h(Press.)118 5367 y([Fik)m(es)f(and)g(Nilsson,)f(1971])48 b(Ric)m(hard)33 b(E.)g(Fik)m(es)h(and)g(Nils)e(J.)h(Nilsson.)45 b(STRIPS:)35 b(A)e(new)221 5488 y(approac)m(h)i(to)g(the)g(application)d(of)i (theorem)h(pro)m(ving)f(to)h(problem)e(solving.)49 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)221 5608 y(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(2\(3/4\):189{208,)f(1971.)43 b(Also)32 b(in:)42 b([Allen)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990)o(,)h(pages)g(88{97].)1782 5871 y(57)p eop %%Page: 58 58 58 57 bop 118 407 a Ft([Fik)m(es)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1972])48 b(Ric)m(hard)26 b(E.)g(Fik)m(es,)h(P)m(eter)g(E.)f(Hart,)h(and)f(Nils)f (J.)h(Nilsson.)31 b(Learning)221 527 y(and)45 b(executing)g (generalized)g(rob)s(ot)f(plans.)79 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)46 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)46 b(3\(4\):251{288,)221 648 y(1972.)118 848 y([Fik)m(es)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1991])48 b(Ric)m(hard)29 b(Fik)m(es,)g(Mark)h(Cutk)m(osky)-8 b(,)32 b(T)-8 b(om)28 b(Grub)s(er,)h(and)g(Je\013rey)g(V)-8 b(an)221 968 y(Baalen.)63 b(Kno)m(wledge)40 b(sharing)e(tec)m (hnology|pro)5 b(ject)40 b(o)m(v)m(erview.)65 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)40 b(Rep)s(ort)221 1089 y(KSL)33 b(91-71,)e(Stanford)h (Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Stanford,)g(CA,)g(No)m(v)m(em)m(b)s(er)h (1991.)118 1289 y([Filman)c Fr(et)35 b(al.)p Ft(,)d(1983])48 b(Rob)s(ert)33 b(E.)h(Filman,)d(John)i(Lamping,)f(and)i(F)-8 b(an)m(y)m(a)34 b(S.)f(Mon)m(talv)m(o.)221 1410 y(Meta-language)27 b(and)h(meta-reasoning.)34 b(In)28 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)31 b(8th)f(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)g(365{369,)g(Karls-)221 1530 y(ruhe,)33 b(German)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(August)g(1983.)f(William)c (Kaufmann.)118 1731 y([Finin)j Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1992])48 b(Tim)g(Finin,)j(Don)d(McKa)m(y)-8 b(,)54 b(and)49 b(Ric)m(h)f(F)-8 b(ritzson.)91 b(An)49 b(o)m(v)m(erview)221 1851 y(of)40 b Fq(k)n(qml)p Ft(:)59 b(A)40 b(kno)m(wledge)h(query)g(and)f (manipulation)d(language.)64 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)40 b(rep)s(ort,)221 1971 y(UMBC,)34 b(Baltimore,)c(MD,)i(Marc)m(h)i(1992.) 118 2172 y([Finin)d Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1993])48 b(Tim)29 b(Finin,)g(Ja)m(y)h(W)-8 b(eb)s(er,)32 b(Gio)c(Wiederhold,)i(Mic)m (hael)g(Genesereth,)221 2292 y(Ric)m(hard)56 b(F)-8 b(ritzson,)61 b(Donald)54 b(McKa)m(y)-8 b(,)63 b(James)56 b(McGuire,)61 b(Ric)m(hard)56 b(P)m(ela)m(vin,)61 b(Stu-)221 2413 y(art)66 b(Shapiro,)75 b(and)66 b(Chris)h(Bec)m(k)-5 b(author.)146 b(Sp)s(eci\014cation)66 b(of)g(the)h Fq(k)n(qml)g Ft(agen)m(t-)221 2533 y(comm)m(unication)35 b(language.)55 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)36 b(rep)s(ort,)i(The)g(D)m(ARP)-8 b(A)37 b(Kno)m(wledge)g(Sharing)221 2653 y(Initiativ)m(e)31 b(External)i(In)m(terfaces)h(W)-8 b(orking)32 b(Group,)g(June)h(1993.)118 2854 y([Finin)e Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1997])48 b(Tim)43 b(Finin,)i(Y)-8 b(annis)44 b(Labrou,)j(and)d(James)g(Ma)m(y\014eld.)78 b Fq(k)n(qml)45 b Ft(as)221 2974 y(an)53 b(agen)m(t)f(comm)m(unication) e(language.)102 b(In)53 b(Je\013rey)h(M.)e(Bredsha)m(w,)60 b(editor,)d Fr(Soft-)221 3095 y(war)-5 b(e)32 b(A)-5 b(gents)p Ft(,)31 b(c)m(hapter)g(14,)g(pages)f(291{316.)f(AAAI)i (Press/MIT)h(Press,)g(Menlo)e(P)m(ark,)221 3215 y(CA/Cam)m(bridge,)i (MA,)i(1997.)118 3416 y([Fisher,)f(1994])48 b(M.)38 b(Fisher.)60 b(A)38 b(surv)m(ey)i(of)e(concurren)m(t)h Fq(met)-7 b(a)g(tem)p Ft(|the)39 b(language)e(and)221 3536 y(its)31 b(applications.)39 b(In)32 b(D.)f(M.)h(Gabba)m(y)f(and)g(H.)h(J.)g(Ohlbac)m(h,)f(editors,) h Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)33 b(1st)h(Inter-)221 3656 y(national)g(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)33 b(on)h(T)-7 b(emp)i(or)g(al)33 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)p Ft(,)32 b(pages)h(480{505.)e(Springer,)h(1994.)42 b(LNAI)221 3777 y(827.)118 3977 y([F)-8 b(orbus,)33 b(1984])48 b(Kenneth)34 b(D.)e(F)-8 b(orbus.)44 b(Qualitativ)m(e)31 b(pro)s(cess)j(theory)-8 b(.)45 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)34 b(Intel)5 b(li-)221 4098 y(genc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)32 b(24:85{168,)f(1984.)118 4298 y([F)-8 b(o)m(x)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1989])48 b(Mark)f(S.)g(F)-8 b(o)m(x,)50 b(Norman)45 b(Sadeh,)51 b(and)46 b(Can)h(Ba)m(yk)-5 b(an.)85 b(Constraied)221 4419 y(heuristic)44 b(searc)m(h.)79 b(In)45 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)45 b(11th)h(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)g (309{315,)i(Detroit,)g(MI,)f(August)221 4539 y(1989.)32 b(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 4740 y([Gallier,)e(1986])48 b(Jean)38 b(H.)h(Gallier.)58 b Fr(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)39 b(for)i(Computer)e (Scienc)-5 b(e)p Ft(.)60 b(Harp)s(er)38 b(and)h(Ro)m(w,)221 4860 y(New)34 b(Y)-8 b(ork,)32 b(NY,)h(1986.)118 5060 y([Genesereth)h(and)f(Ketc)m(hp)s(el,)g(1994])48 b(Mic)m(hael)26 b(R.)h(Genesereth)h(and)f(Stev)m(en)i(P)-8 b(.)27 b(Ketc)m(hp)s(el.)221 5181 y(Soft)m(w)m(are)33 b(agen)m(ts.)45 b Fr(Communic)-5 b(ations)33 b(of)h(the)h(A)n(CM)p Ft(,)e(37\(7\):48{53,)e(147,)h(July)g (1994.)118 5381 y([Genesereth)i(and)f(Singh,)f(1993])48 b(Mic)m(hael)j(R.)h(Genesereth)i(and)e(Narinder)f(Singh.)100 b(A)221 5502 y(kno)m(wledge)41 b(sharing)f(approac)m(h)h(to)f(soft)m(w) m(are)h(in)m(terop)s(eration.)65 b(Rep)s(ort)40 b(Logic-93-12,)221 5622 y(Stanford)32 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)34 b(Stanford,)e(CA,)h(F) -8 b(ebruary)33 b(1993.)1782 5871 y(58)p eop %%Page: 59 59 59 58 bop 118 407 a Ft([Genesereth)34 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)c(1992])48 b(Mic)m(hael)36 b(R.)h(Genesereth,)j(Ric)m(hard)c(E.)h (Fik)m(es,)i(Daniel)c(Bob-)221 527 y(ro)m(w,)f(Ronald)e(Brac)m(hman,)i (Thomas)f(Grub)s(er,)g(P)m(atric)m(k)h(Ha)m(y)m(es,)h(Reed)f (Letsinger,)g(Vla-)221 648 y(dimir)43 b(Lifsc)m(hitz,)48 b(Rob)s(ert)d(MacGregor,)j(John)d(McCarth)m(y)-8 b(,)50 b(P)m(eter)d(Norvig,)g(Ramesh)221 768 y(P)m(atil,)35 b(and)g(Len)h(Sc)m(h)m(ub)s(ert.)54 b(Kno)m(wledge)36 b(in)m(terc)m(hange)g(format)e(v)m(ersion)i(3.0)f(reference)221 888 y(man)m(ual.)42 b(Rep)s(ort)32 b(Logic-92-1,)e(Stanford)j(Univ)m (ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Stanford,)f(CA,)h(June)h(1992.)118 1092 y([Genesereth,)h(1991])47 b(Mic)m(hael)42 b(R.)g(Genesereth.)74 b(Kno)m(wledge)43 b(in)m(terc)m(hange)g(format.)71 b(In)221 1212 y Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)35 b(2nd)f(KR)p Ft(,)f(pages)g(599{600,)e(Cam) m(bridge,)h(MA,)h(1991.)f(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 1416 y([Gennari)g Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998])48 b(John)63 b(H.)g(Gennari,)69 b(William)58 b(Grosso,)71 b(and)62 b(Mark)i(Musen.)221 1536 y(A)d(metho)s(d-description)e(language:)99 b(An)62 b(initial)57 b(on)m(tology)j(with)g(examples.)128 b(In)221 1656 y Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)41 b(11th)g(Workshop)g(on)g(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)39 b(A)-5 b(c)g(quisition,)43 b(Mo)-5 b(deling)40 b(and)h(Management)p Ft(,)221 1777 y(Ban\013,)33 b(Canada,)f(April)f (1998.)118 1980 y([George\013,)h(1982])48 b(Mic)m(hael)34 b(P)-8 b(.)34 b(George\013.)48 b(Pro)s(cedural)34 b(con)m(trol)f(in)g (pro)s(duction)h(systems.)221 2100 y Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)g(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)31 b(18\(2\):175{201,)g(Marc)m(h)i(1982.)118 2304 y([George\013,)f(1987])48 b(Mic)m(hael)38 b(P)-8 b(.)39 b(George\013.)59 b(Planning.)g Fr(A)n(nnual)39 b(R)-5 b(eviews)39 b(in)h(Computing)221 2424 y(Scienc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)32 b(2:359{400,)e(1987.)43 b(Also)32 b(in:)43 b([Allen)31 b Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990,)g(pages)h(5{25].)118 2628 y([Ghallab)d Fr(et)35 b(al.)p Ft(,)e(1998])48 b(Malik)43 b(Ghallab,)i(Adele)g(Ho)m(w)m(e,)k(Craig)43 b(Knoblo)s(c)m(k,)k(Drew)e (Mc-)221 2748 y(Dermott,)51 b(Ash)m(win)d(Ram,)j(Man)m(uela)d(V)-8 b(eloso,)51 b(Daniel)46 b(W)-8 b(eld,)51 b(and)d(Da)m(vid)g(Wilkins.) 221 2868 y Fr(PDDL|The)g(Planning)h(Domain)f(De\014nition)g(L)-5 b(anguage)p Ft(.)90 b(Y)-8 b(ale)48 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)53 b(New)221 2989 y(Ha)m(v)m(en,)34 b(CT,)g(Marc)m(h)f(1998.)43 b(Draft)31 b(1.0.)118 3192 y([Ginsb)s(erg,)h(1986])48 b(Allen)32 b(Ginsb)s(erg.)44 b(A)33 b(metalinguistic)d(approac)m(h)k (to)f(the)g(construction)221 3313 y(of)45 b(kno)m(wledge)h(base)g (re\014nemen)m(t)g(systems.)82 b(In)46 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)46 b(5th)g(AAAI)p Ft(,)g(pages)g(436{441,)221 3433 y(Philadelphia,)30 b(P)-8 b(A,)33 b(August)g(1986.)f(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 3636 y([Ginsb)s(erg,)g(1987])48 b(Matthew)29 b(L.)g(Ginsb)s(erg,)f (editor.)36 b Fr(R)-5 b(e)g(adings)29 b(in)i(Nonmonotonic)f(R)-5 b(e)g(as-)221 3757 y(oning)p Ft(.)43 b(Morgan)32 b(Kaufmann,)g(Los)g (Altos,)g(CA,)i(1987.)118 3960 y([Ginsb)s(erg,)e(1996a])48 b(Matthew)33 b(L.)e(Ginsb)s(erg.)42 b(Do)31 b(computers)h(need)h (common)e(sense?)55 b(In)221 4081 y(Luigia)32 b(Carlucci)i(Aiello,)f (Jon)h(Do)m(yle,)g(and)h(Stuart)f(Shapiro,)h(editors,)f Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)37 b(5th)f(KR)p Ft(,)221 4201 y(pages)d(620{626,)e (Cam)m(bridge,)h(MA,)h(No)m(v)m(em)m(b)s(er)h(1996.)e(Morgan)g (Kaufmann.)118 4404 y([Ginsb)s(erg,)g(1996b])48 b(Matthew)40 b(L.)e(Ginsb)s(erg.)60 b(A)39 b(new)g(algorithm)d(for)i(generativ)m(e)h (plan-)221 4525 y(ning.)107 b(In)55 b(Luigia)d(Carlucci)h(Aiello,)k (Jon)d(Do)m(yle,)59 b(and)c(Stuart)f(Shapiro,)k(editors,)221 4645 y Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)58 b(5th)g(KR)p Ft(,)g(pages)h(186{197,)k(Cam) m(bridge,)h(MA,)58 b(No)m(v)m(em)m(b)s(er)h(1996.)e(Morgan)221 4765 y(Kaufmann.)118 4969 y([Golding)30 b Fr(et)35 b(al.)p Ft(,)e(1987])48 b(Andrew)32 b(Golding,)e(P)m(aul)h(S.)h(Rosen)m(blo)s (om,)e(and)i(John)f(E.)h(Laird.)221 5089 y(Learning)k(general)h(searc)m (h)h(con)m(trol)f(from)e(outside)i(guidance.)57 b(In)37 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)39 b(10th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)221 5210 y(pages)33 b(334{337,)e(Milan,)g(Italy)-8 b(,)32 b(August)i(1987.)d (Morgan)i(Kaufmann.)118 5413 y([G\023)-49 b(omez-P)m(\023)j(erez,)33 b(1998])48 b(A.)67 b(G\023)-49 b(omez-P)m(\023)j(erez.)145 b(Kno)m(wledge)67 b(sharing)f(and)h(reuse.)146 b(In)221 5533 y(Lieb)s(o)m(witz,)32 b(editor,)g Fr(Handb)-5 b(o)g(ok)34 b(of)g(Applie)-5 b(d)35 b(Exp)-5 b(ert)35 b(Systems)p Ft(.)d(CR)m(C,)i(1998.)1782 5871 y(59)p eop %%Page: 60 60 60 59 bop 118 407 a Ft([Green,)33 b(1969])48 b(Cordell)39 b(Green.)67 b(Application)38 b(of)i(theorem)g(pro)m(ving)g(to)g (problem)f(solv-)221 527 y(ing.)79 b(In)45 b(Donald)e(E.)j(W)-8 b(alk)m(er)44 b(and)h(Lewis)g(M.)g(Norton,)j(editors,)g Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)46 b(1st)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)221 648 y(pages)36 b(219{239,)e(W)-8 b(ashington,)36 b(D.C.,)g(August)g(1969.)f(Morgan)g (Kaufmann.)50 b(Also)35 b(in:)221 768 y([Allen)d Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990)o(,)h(pages)g(67{87].)118 971 y([Grub)s(er,)g(1992])48 b(Thomas)35 b(R.)g(Grub)s(er.)52 b(On)m(tolingua:)47 b(A)36 b(mec)m(hanism)e(to)h(supp)s(ort)h(p)s(ort-)221 1092 y(able)e(onotologies.)47 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)35 b(Rep)s(ort)f(KSL)h(91-66,)e(Stanford)i(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)35 b(Stanford,)221 1212 y(CA,)e(June)h(1992.)118 1416 y([Grub)s(er,)f(1993a])47 b(Thomas)i(R.)g(Grub)s(er.)91 b(T)-8 b(o)m(w)m(ard)50 b(principles)d(for)i(the)g(design)g(of)f(on-) 221 1536 y(tologies)40 b(used)k(for)d(kno)m(wledge)i(sharing.)71 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)43 b(Rep)s(ort)e(KSL)h(93-04,)h(Stanford)221 1656 y(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Stanford,)g(CA,)g(August)g(1993.) 118 1860 y([Grub)s(er,)g(1993b])48 b(Thomas)33 b(R.)f(Grub)s(er.)44 b(A)33 b(translation)e(approac)m(h)i(to)f(p)s(ortable)g(on)m(tolo-)221 1980 y(gies.)43 b Fr(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)33 b(A)-5 b(c)g(quisition)p Ft(,)33 b(5\(2\):199{220,)e(1993.)118 2183 y([Gruninger)h(and)h(F)-8 b(o)m(x,)32 b(1994])48 b(Mic)m(hael)31 b(Gruninger)g(and)h(Mark)g(S.)f (F)-8 b(o)m(x.)42 b(An)32 b(activit)m(y)f(on-)221 2304 y(tology)24 b(for)i(en)m(terprise)g(mo)s(delling.)j(In)d Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)28 b(Workshop)g(on)g(Enabling)f(T)-7 b(e)i(chnolo)g(gies|)221 2424 y(Infr)g(astructur)g(es)35 b(for)g(Col)5 b(lab)-5 b(or)g(ative)33 b(Enterprises)p Ft(.)f(W)-8 b(est)34 b(Virginia)29 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)34 b(1994.)118 2628 y([Gruninger)e Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1997])48 b(Mic)m(hael)22 b(Gruninger,)i(C.)f(Sc)m(hleno\013,)h (A.)f(Kn)m(utilla,)f(and)g(S.)h(Ra)m(y)-8 b(.)221 2748 y(Using)48 b(pro)s(cess)h(requiremen)m(ts)h(as)e(the)h(basis)f(for)g (the)g(creation)g(and)g(ev)-5 b(aluation)47 b(of)221 2868 y(pro)s(cess)33 b(on)m(tologies)d(for)h(en)m(terprise)i(mo)s (deling.)39 b Fr(A)n(CM)34 b(SIGGR)n(OUP)g(Bul)5 b(letin)33 b(Sp)-5 b(e)g(cial)221 2989 y(Issue)34 b(on)h(Enterprise)f(Mo)-5 b(del)5 b(ling)p Ft(,)32 b(18\(3\),)g(1997.)118 3192 y([Guha)g(and)h(Lenat,)g(1990])48 b(R.)43 b(V.)g(Guha)f(and)i(Douglas)d (B.)i(Lenat.)75 b(Cyc:)65 b(A)43 b(midterm)221 3313 y(rep)s(ort.)g Fr(AI)35 b(Magazine)p Ft(,)d(11\(3\):32{59,)f(F)-8 b(all)30 b(1990.)118 3516 y([Guha)i(and)h(Lenat,)g(1994])48 b(R.)35 b(V.)g(Guha)g(and)g(Douglas)f(B.)h(Lenat.)51 b(Enabling)34 b(agen)m(ts)i(to)221 3636 y(w)m(ork)e(together.)43 b Fr(Communic)-5 b(ations)33 b(of)i(the)g(A)n(CM)p Ft(,)d (37\(7\):127{142,)f(July)h(1994.)118 3840 y([Haggith,)g(1995])47 b(Mandy)36 b(Haggith.)47 b(A)35 b(meta-lev)m(el)d(framew)m(ork)j(for)f (exploring)f(con\015icts)221 3960 y(in)c(m)m(ultiple)e(kno)m(wledge)j (bases.)39 b(In)30 b(John)g(Hallam,)d(editor,)i Fr(Hybrid)j(Pr)-5 b(oblems,)32 b(Hybrid)221 4081 y(Solutions)p Ft(,)g(pages)h(87{98.)f (IOS)h(Press,)h(Amsterdam,)e(The)h(Netherlands,)h(1995.)118 4284 y([Harel)e Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1982])48 b(Da)m(vid)29 b(Harel,)h(Dexter)g(Kozen,)h(and)f(Rohit)e(P)m(arikh.)39 b(Pro)s(cess)31 b(logic:)221 4404 y(Expressiv)m(eness,)44 b(decidabilit)m(y)-8 b(,)38 b(completeness.)62 b Fr(Journal)40 b(of)g(Computer)g(and)f(System)221 4525 y(Scienc)-5 b(es)p Ft(,)31 b(25:144{170,)g(1982.)118 4728 y([Harel,)h(1984])48 b(Da)m(vid)c(Harel.)79 b(Dynamic)44 b(logic.)78 b(In)45 b(D.)f(Gabba)m(y)i(and)e(F.)h(Guen)m(thner,)221 4848 y(editors,)f Fr(Handb)-5 b(o)g(ok)43 b(of)g(Philosophic)-5 b(al)42 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)43 b(V)-7 b(ol.)43 b(II)p Ft(,)e(c)m(hapter)i (10,)g(pages)g(497{604.)221 4969 y(D.)32 b(Reidel)g(Publishing)f (Compan)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(1984.)118 5172 y([Ha)m(y)m(es,)i(1974])48 b(P)m(atric)m(k)36 b(J.)h(Ha)m(y)m(es.)57 b(Some)36 b(problems)f(and)i (non-problems)e(in)h(represen)m(t-)221 5293 y(ation)g(theory)-8 b(.)58 b(In)37 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)39 b(AISB)f(Summer)h(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)p Ft(,)37 b(pages)h(63{79,)f(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)221 5413 y(Sussex,)d(1974.)42 b(Also)32 b(in:)43 b([Brac)m(hman)33 b(and)f(Lev)m(esque,)k(1985)o(,)d(pages)g(4{22].)1782 5871 y(60)p eop %%Page: 61 61 61 60 bop 118 407 a Ft([Hendrix,)33 b(1973])48 b(Gary)57 b(G.)f(Hendrix.)117 b(Mo)s(deling)56 b(sim)m(ultaneous)g(actions)g(and) h(con-)221 527 y(tin)m(uous)76 b(pro)s(cesses.)174 b 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y([Ihrig)f(and)h(Kam)m(bhampati,) d(1997])48 b(Laurie)k(H.)g(Ihrig)g(and)g(Subbarao)h(Kam)m(bhampati.)221 2063 y(Storing)40 b(and)i(indexing)f(plan)f(deriv)-5 b(ations)41 b(through)g(explanation-based)g(analysis)g(of)221 2183 y(retriev)-5 b(al)22 b(failures.)27 b Fr(Journal)f(of)g(A)n (rti\014cial)g(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)24 b(R)-5 b(ese)g(ar)g(ch)p Ft(,)25 b(7:161{198,)e(No)m(v)m(em-)221 2304 y(b)s(er)33 b(1997.)118 2507 y([Jennings,)g(1996])48 b(Nic)m(holas)31 b(R.)g(Jennings,)i(editor.)41 b Fr(F)-7 b(oundations)32 b(of)i(Distribute)-5 b(d)33 b(A)n(rti\014-)221 2628 y(cial)h(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(.)42 b(Wiley)-8 b(,)32 b(New)h(Y)-8 b(ork,)33 b(NY,)g(1996.)118 2831 y([Joslin)e(and)i(P)m(ollac)m(k,)f (1996])48 b(Da)m(vid)40 b(Joslin)g(and)h(Martha)g(E.)g(P)m(ollac)m(k.) 68 b(Is)41 b(\\early)f(com-)221 2951 y(mitmen)m(t")i(in)i(plan)f (generation)h(ev)m(er)h(a)f(go)s(o)s(d)f(idea.)78 b(In)44 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)45 b(13th)h(AAAI)p Ft(,)f(pages)221 3072 y(1188{1193,)31 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b(Kurt)43 b(Konolige.)73 b Fr(A)46 b(De)-5 b(duction)44 b(Mo)-5 b(del)44 b(of)h(Belief)p Ft(.)74 b(Morgan)43 b(Kauf-)221 527 y(mann,)32 b(San)h(Mateo,)g(CA,)g(1986.)118 731 y([Kornfeld,)f (1979])48 b(William)41 b(A.)k(Kornfeld.)81 b Fq(ether)p Ft({a)44 b(parallel)e(problem)i(solving)g(sys-)221 851 y(tem.)c(In)31 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)33 b(6th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)g(490{492,)f(T)-8 b(oky)m(o,)32 b(Japan,)f(August)h(1979.) e(William)221 971 y(Kaufmann.)118 1175 y([Kornfeld,)i(1981])48 b(William)40 b(A.)k(Kornfeld.)78 b(The)45 b(use)h(of)e(parallelism)c (to)k(implemen)m(t)f(a)221 1295 y(heuristic)32 b(searc)m(h.)46 b(In)33 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)35 b(7th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)d(pages)i(575{580,) d(V)-8 b(ancouv)m(er,)34 b(Canada,)f(Au-)221 1416 y(gust)g(1981.)f (Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)f(British)f(Colum)m(bia,)g(William)d(Kaufmann.) 118 1619 y([Kripk)m(e,)33 b(1963])48 b(S.)g(Kripk)m(e.)89 b(Seman)m(tical)46 b(analysis)h(of)h(mo)s(dal)e(logic.)86 b Fr(Zeitschrift)49 b(f)q(\177)-51 b(ur)221 1739 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b([Allen)31 b Fr(et)k(al.)p Ft(,)e(1990)o(,)f (pages)h(523{530].)118 3553 y([Lo)m(v)m(eland,)g(1978])48 b(Donald)35 b(W.)i(Lo)m(v)m(eland.)55 b Fr(A)n(utomate)-5 b(d)38 b(The)-5 b(or)g(em)37 b(Pr)-5 b(oving:)51 b(A)39 b(L)-5 b(o)g(gic)g(al)221 3674 y(Basis)p Ft(.)43 b(F)-8 b(undamen)m(tal)32 b(Studies)h(in)f(Computer)h(Science)h(V)-8 b(ol.)32 b(6.)h(North-Holland,)d(Am-)221 3794 y(sterdam,)j(The)g (Netherlands,)g(1978.)118 3998 y([Lydiard,)f(1996])48 b(T)-8 b(erri)26 b(Lydiard.)32 b(Using)26 b Fq(idef)p Ft(3)g(to)g(capture)g(the)h(air)d(campaign)h(planning)221 4118 y(pro)s(cess.)45 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)33 b(of)f(Edin)m(burgh,)h (Scotland,)f(Marc)m(h)i(1996.)118 4321 y([Maes)g(and)e(Nardi,)g(1988]) 48 b(P)m(attie)32 b(Maes)h(and)f(Daniele)e(Nardi,)h(editors.)42 b Fr(Meta-L)-5 b(evel)34 b(A)n(r-)221 4442 y(chite)-5 b(ctur)g(es)26 b(and)f(R)-5 b(e\015e)g(ction)p Ft(.)27 b(North-Holland,)c(Amsterdam,)h(The)g(Netherlands,)h(1988.)118 4645 y([Maes,)34 b(1986])48 b(P)m(attie)21 b(Maes.)27 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b(explanation-based)e(approac)m(h.)32 b(In)26 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)27 b(10th)221 2989 y(IJCAI)p Ft(,)32 b(pages)h(228{235,)e(Milan,)g(Italy)-8 b(,)32 b(August)i(1987.)d(Morgan)i(Kaufmann.)118 3192 y([Min)m(ton)g Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1985])48 b(Stev)m(en)37 b(Min)m(ton,)f(Philip)d (J.)j(Ha)m(y)m(es,)i(and)e(Jill)c(F)-8 b(ain.)51 b(Con)m(trolling)221 3313 y(searc)m(h)43 b(in)f(\015exible)f(parsing.)71 b(In)42 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)44 b(9th)f(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)i(785{787,)g(Los)f (Angeles,)221 3433 y(CA,)33 b(August)g(1985.)f(Morgan)h(Kaufmann.)118 3636 y([Min)m(ton)g Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1987])48 b(Stev)m(en)29 b(Min)m(ton,)f(Jaime)d(G.)i(Carb)s(onell,)g(Oren)g(Etzioni,)g(Craig)f (A.)221 3757 y(Knoblo)s(c)m(k,)50 b(and)c(Daniel)f(R.)h(Kuokk)-5 b(a.)85 b(Acquiring)46 b(e\013ectiv)m(e)i(searc)m(h)f(con)m(trol)f (rules:)221 3877 y(Explanation-based)33 b(learning)f(in)h(the)h(PR)m (ODIGY)f(system.)48 b(In)34 b(P)m(at)f(Langley)-8 b(,)34 b(editor,)221 3998 y Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)28 b(4th)g(International)f (Workshop)g(on)h(Machine)f(L)-5 b(e)g(arning)p Ft(,)26 b(pages)g(122{133,)f(Irvine,)221 4118 y(CA,)33 b(June)h(1987.)d(Univ)m (ersit)m(y)j(of)e(California,)d(Morgan)k(Kaufmann.)118 4321 y([Min)m(ton)g Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1989])48 b(Stev)m(en)57 b(Min)m(ton,)62 b(Craig)55 b(A.)g(Knoblo)s(c)m(k,)62 b(Daniel)53 b(R.)j(Kuokk)-5 b(a,)221 4442 y(Y)d(olanda)31 b(Gil,)f(Rob)s(ert)h(L.)h(Joseph,)i(and)e(Jaime)e(G.)i(Carb)s(onell.)41 b(PR)m(ODIGY)31 b(2.0:)43 b(The)221 4562 y(man)m(ual)27 b(and)h(tutorial.)33 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)28 b(Rep)s(ort)g (CMU-CS-89-146,)g(Carnegie)g(Mellon)e(Uni-)221 4682 y(v)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)34 b(Pittsburgh,)f(P)-8 b(A,)33 b(Ma)m(y)g(1989.)118 4886 y([Mo)s(ore,)g(1985])48 b(Rob)s(ert)38 b(C.)h(Mo)s(ore.)62 b(A)39 b(formal)d(theory)j(of)g(kno)m(wledge)g(and)g(action.)61 b(In)221 5006 y(Jerry)39 b(R.)e(Hobbs)i(and)e(Rob)s(ert)h(C.)g(Mo)s (ore,)h(editors,)g Fr(F)-7 b(ormal)38 b(The)-5 b(ories)38 b(of)i(the)f(Com-)221 5127 y(monsense)d(World)p 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y([Nec)m(hes)k Fr(et)g(al.)p Ft(,)d(1991])48 b(Rob)s(ert)31 b(Nec)m(hes,)i(Ric)m(hard)e(Fik)m(es,)g(Tim)f(Finin,)g(Thomas)g(Grub)s (er,)221 1295 y(Ramesh)35 b(P)m(atil,)g(T)-8 b(ed)37 b(Senator,)f(and)g(William)31 b(R.)36 b(Sw)m(artout.)52 b(Enabling)35 b(tec)m(hnologies)221 1416 y(for)d(kno)m(wledge)i (sharing.)42 b Fr(AI)35 b(Magazine)p Ft(,)d(12\(3\):36{56,)f(F)-8 b(all)30 b(1991.)118 1619 y([New)m(ell)i(and)h(Simon,)e(1963])48 b(Allen)33 b(New)m(ell)g(and)g(Herb)s(ert)h(A.)g(Simon.)45 b(GPS,)33 b(a)h(program)221 1739 y(that)e(sim)m(ulates)g(h)m(uman)g (though)m(t.)44 b(In)32 b(E.)h(A.)g(F)-8 b(eigen)m(baum)31 b(and)i(J.)f(F)-8 b(eldman,)31 b(editors,)221 1860 y Fr(Computers)38 b(and)f(Thought)p Ft(,)g(pages)g(279{293.)d(R.)i(Olden) m(b)s(ourgh)g(K)m(G,)g(1963.)53 b(Also)36 b(in:)221 1980 y([Allen)c Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990)o(,)h(pages)g(59{66].)118 2183 y([New)m(ell)f(and)h(Simon,)e(1976])48 b(Allen)27 b(New)m(ell)h(and)g(Herb)s(ert)g(Simon.)34 b(Computer)28 b(science)h(as)221 2304 y(empirical)h(enquiry)-8 b(.)44 b Fr(Communic)-5 b(ations)33 b(of)i(the)f(A)n(CM)p Ft(,)f(19:113{126,)e (1976.)118 2507 y([New)m(ell,)i(1982])48 b(Allen)63 b(New)m(ell.)141 b(The)66 b(kno)m(wledge)g(lev)m(el.)140 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)64 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)221 2628 y(18\(1\):87{127,)31 b(Jan)m(uary)i(1982.)118 2831 y([Nilsson,)f(1980])48 b(Nils)35 b(J.)h(Nilsson.)53 b Fr(Principles)37 b(of)h(A)n(rti\014cial) f(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(.)52 b(Tioga,)36 b(P)m(alo)221 2951 y(Alto,)c(CA,)h(1980.)118 3155 y([No)s(dine)f(and)h(Unruh,)g (1997])48 b(Marian)d(No)s(dine)g(and)h(Am)m(y)g(Unruh.)83 b(F)-8 b(acilitating)41 b(op)s(en)221 3275 y(comm)m(unication)32 b(in)h(agen)m(t)i(systems:)48 b(The)35 b(InfoSleuth)f(infrastructure.) 49 b(In)34 b(N.)h(Singh,)221 3396 y(A.)48 b(Rao,)j(and)e(m.)e(W)-8 b(o)s(oldridge,)50 b(editors,)i Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)48 b(4th)h(International)f(Workshop)h(on)221 3516 y(A)-5 b(gent)33 b(The)-5 b(ories,)31 b(A)n(r)-5 b(chite)g(ctur)g(es,)33 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y(resen)m(tation.)41 b(Armstrong)30 b(Lab)g(Rep)s(ort)h(AL/HR-TP-96-9631,)e(Armstrong)h(Lab) s(orat-)221 4969 y(ory)-8 b(,)33 b(US)g(Air)e(F)-8 b(orce,)33 b(Jan)m(uary)g(1997.)43 b(Ob)5 b(ject)33 b(Mo)s(deling)e(W)-8 b(orking)32 b(Group.)118 5172 y([P)m(ednault,)h(1989])48 b(Edwin)i(P)-8 b(.)50 b(D.)f(P)m(ednault.)95 b(ADL:)50 b(Exploring)e(the)i(middle)e(ground)221 5293 y(b)s(et)m(w)m(een)e (STRIPS)e(and)g(the)g(situation)e(calculus.)75 b(In)44 b(Ronald)e(J.)i(Brac)m(hman,)i(Hec-)221 5413 y(tor)37 b(J.)h(Lev)m(esque,)k(and)c(Ra)m(ymond)g(Reiter,)g(editors,)h Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)39 b(1st)h(KR)p Ft(,)e(pages)g(324{332,)221 5533 y(T)-8 b(oron)m(to,)33 b(Canada,)f(1989.)g(Morgan)h(Kaufmann.)1782 5871 y(65)p eop %%Page: 66 66 66 65 bop 118 407 a Ft([P)m(en)m(b)s(erth)m(y)35 b(and)e(W)-8 b(eld,)32 b(1992])48 b(J.)30 b(Scott)g(P)m(en)m(b)s(erth)m(y)i(and)d (Daniel)f(S.)h(W)-8 b(eld.)38 b(UCPOP:)31 b(A)221 527 y(sound,)38 b(complete,)f(partial)d(order)i(planner)g(for)g(ADL.)54 b(In)36 b(Bernhard)h(Neb)s(el,)g(Charles)221 648 y(Ric)m(h,)26 b(and)e(William)19 b(Sw)m(artout,)27 b(editors,)e Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)27 b(3r)-5 b(d)27 b(KR)p Ft(,)d(pages)h(103{114,)f(Cam)m (bridge,)221 768 y(MA,)33 b(Octob)s(er)g(1992.)f(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 971 y([P)m(eot)h(and)g(Smith,)e(1992])48 b(Mark)25 b(A.)f(P)m(eot)g (and)g(Da)m(vid)f(E.)i(Smith.)i(Conditional)22 b(nonlinear)221 1092 y(planning.)82 b(In)47 b(James)f(Hendler,)k(editor,)e Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)47 b(1st)h(International)e(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)46 b(on)221 1212 y(A)n(rti\014cial)26 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)24 b(Planning)h(Sytems)p Ft(,)g(pages)f(189{197,)g (College)d(P)m(ark,)26 b(MD,)d(June)221 1333 y(1992.)32 b(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 1536 y([Pry)m(or)i(and)e(Collins,)f(1996])48 b(Louise)36 b(Pry)m(or)i(and)e(Gregg)g(Collins.)54 b(Planning)35 b(for)h(con)m(tin-)221 1656 y(gencies:)41 b(A)26 b(decision-based)f (approac)m(h.)33 b Fr(Journal)c(of)f(A)n(rti\014cial)g(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)27 b(R)-5 b(ese)g(ar)g(ch)p Ft(,)221 1777 y(4:287{339,)31 b(Ma)m(y)i(1996.)118 1980 y([Pry)m(or,)h(1996])48 b(Louise)38 b(Pry)m(or.)64 b(Opp)s(ortunit)m(y)39 b(recognition)e(in)i (complex)f(en)m(vironmen)m(ts.)221 2100 y(In)48 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)49 b(13th)g(AAAI)p Ft(,)g(pages)g(1147{1152,)h(P)m(ortland,)h (OR,)d(August)h(1996.)e(AAAI)221 2221 y(Press/The)35 b(MIT)f(Press.)118 2424 y([Reiter,)e(1980])48 b(Ra)m(ymond)37 b(Reiter.)55 b(A)37 b(logic)e(for)h(default)g(reasoning.)56 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)38 b(Intel)5 b(li-)221 2545 y(genc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)32 b(13:81{132,)f(1980.)118 2748 y([Rosen)m(blum)h Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1993])48 b(P)m(aul)40 b(S.)g(Rosen)m(blum,)j(John) d(E.)h(Laird,)h(and)e(Allen)f(New)m(ell,)221 2868 y(editors.)59 b Fr(The)39 b Fq(so)n(ar)h Fr(Pap)-5 b(aers:)53 b(R)-5 b(e)g(adings)39 b(on)g(Inte)-5 b(gr)g(ate)g(d)40 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)37 b(v)m(olume)g(I)h(&)221 2989 y(I)s(I.)44 b(MIT)33 b(Press,)h(Cam)m(bridge,)e(MA,)h(1993.)118 3192 y([Russell)f(and)h(Norvig,)f(1995])48 b(Stuart)33 b(J.)g(Russell)f(and)h(P)m(eter)i(Norvig.)43 b Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)35 b(Intel)5 b(li-)221 3313 y(genc)-5 b(e:)44 b(A)35 b(Mo)-5 b(dern)35 b(Appr)-5 b(o)g(ach)p Ft(.)43 b(Pren)m(tice)33 b(Hall,)e(Upp)s(er)i(Saddle)f(Riv)m(er,)h(NJ,)g(1995.)118 3516 y([Sec)m(k)m(er,)i(1988])48 b(Judith)g(A.)g(Sec)m(k)m(er.)93 b(Use)49 b(of)f(O-Plan)f(for)h(oil)e(platform)g(construction)221 3636 y(pro)5 b(ject)46 b(planning.)80 b(AIAI-PR)45 b(22,)j(AIAI,)e (Univ)m(ersit)m(y)g(of)f(Edin)m(burgh,)k(Edin)m(burgh,)221 3757 y(Scotland,)32 b(June)i(1988.)118 3960 y([Seel,)f(1989])48 b(N.)33 b(Seel.)46 b Fr(A)-5 b(gent)36 b(The)-5 b(ories)35 b(and)g(A)n(r)-5 b(chite)g(ctur)g(es)p Ft(.)46 b(PhD)34 b(thesis,)g(Surrey)g(Uni-)221 4081 y(v)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)34 b(Guildford,)c(UK,)j(1989.)118 4284 y([Selman)f Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)d(1992])48 b(Bart)31 b(Selman,)f(Hector)i(Lev)m (esque,)i(and)d(Da)m(vid)f(Mitc)m(hell.)40 b(A)31 b(new)221 4404 y(metho)s(d)42 b(for)g(solving)f(hard)h(satis\014abilit)m(y)e (problems.)72 b(In)42 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)44 b(10th)g(AAAI)p Ft(,)f(pages)221 4525 y(440{446,)31 b(San)i(Jose,)g(CA,)g(July)g(1992.) e(AAAI)j(Press/The)g(MIT)g(Press.)118 4728 y([Selman,)e(1994])48 b(Bart)32 b(Selman.)44 b(Near-optimal)29 b(plans,)k(tractabilit)m(y)-8 b(,)31 b(and)i(reactivit)m(y)-8 b(.)44 b(In)221 4848 y(Jon)38 b(Do)m(yle,)g(Erik)f(Sandew)m(all,)h(and)f(Pietro)g(T)-8 b(orasso,)39 b(editors,)g Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)39 b(4th)g(KR)p Ft(,)f(pages)221 4969 y(521{529,)31 b(Bonn,)i(German)m(y)-8 b(,)32 b(Ma)m(y)i(1994.)d(Morgan)i(Kaufmann.)118 5172 y([Shanahan,)g(1997])48 b(Murra)m(y)c(Shanahan.)76 b Fr(Solving)44 b(the)g(F)-7 b(r)i(ame)44 b(Pr)-5 b(oblem)p Ft(.)74 b(MIT)45 b(Press,)221 5293 y(Cam)m(bridge,)32 b(MA,)h(1997.)118 5496 y([Shoham,)f(1993])48 b(Y.)26 b(Shoham.)31 b(Agen)m(t-orien)m(ted)25 b(programming.)k Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)f(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)221 5616 y(60\(1\):51{92,)31 b(1993.)1782 5871 y(66)p eop %%Page: 67 67 67 66 bop 118 407 a Ft([Singh,)32 b(1993a])48 b(Narinder)42 b(Singh.)73 b(A)43 b(Common)f(Lisp)g(API)h(and)g(facilitator)c(for)k Fq(absi)p Ft(.)221 527 y(Rep)s(ort)32 b(Logic-93-4,)e(Stanford)j(Univ)m (ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Stanford,)f(CA,)h(Jan)m(uary)h(1993.)118 731 y([Singh,)e(1993b])48 b(Narinder)30 b(P)-8 b(.)30 b(Singh.)38 b(Implemen)m(tation)27 b(details)i(for)g(the)h(new)g Fq(absi)g Ft(facil-)221 851 y(itator.)42 b(Stanford)32 b(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Stanford,)g(CA,)g(April)e(1993.)118 1054 y([Smith,)h(1977])48 b(Reid)30 b(G.)h(Smith.)41 b(The)32 b Fq(contra)n(ct)k(net)p Ft(:)43 b(A)31 b(formalism)d(for)j (the)h(con)m(trol)221 1175 y(of)27 b(distributed)h(problem)e(solving.) 35 b(In)28 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)30 b(5th)g(IJCAI)p Ft(,)e(page)f(472,)i (Cam)m(bridge,)f(MA,)221 1295 y(August)33 b(1977.)f(MIT,)i(William)28 b(Kaufmann.)118 1499 y([)p Fq(sp)-7 b(ar)p Ft(,)32 b(1997])48 b(D)m(ARP)-8 b(A/Rome)48 b(Lab)s(oratory)-8 b(.)89 b Fr(Planning)48 b(Initiative)h(Shar)-5 b(e)g(d)48 b(Planning)221 1619 y(and)34 b(A)-5 b(ctivity)36 b(R)-5 b(epr)g(esentation{)p Fq(sp)e(ar)p Ft(,)31 b(Octob)s(er)i(1997.)43 b(V)-8 b(ersion)32 b(0.1.)118 1822 y([T)-8 b(ate)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1990])48 b(Austin)31 b(T)-8 b(ate,)31 b(James)g(Hendler,)g(and)g(Mark)g (Drummond.)38 b(A)31 b(review)221 1943 y(of)k(AI)h(planning)e(tec)m (hniques.)54 b(In)35 b(James)h(Allen,)f(James)g(Hendler,)i(and)e (Austin)h(T)-8 b(ate,)221 2063 y(editors,)43 b Fr(R)-5 b(e)g(adings)42 b(in)h(Planning)p Ft(,)g(pages)e(26{49.)g(Morgan)g (Kaufmann,)i(San)e(Mateo,)221 2183 y(CA,)33 b(1990.)118 2387 y([T)-8 b(ate)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1994])48 b(Austin)29 b(T)-8 b(ate,)31 b(Brian)d(Drabble,)h(and)g(Ric)m(hard)f (Kirb)m(y)-8 b(.)38 b(O-Plan2:)i(An)221 2507 y(op)s(en)35 b(arc)m(hitecture)h(for)e(command,)h(planning)f(and)h(con)m(trol.)50 b(In)35 b(Mon)m(te)h(Zw)m(eb)s(en)g(and)221 2628 y(Mark)29 b(S.)g(F)-8 b(o)m(x,)30 b(editors,)f Fr(Intel)5 b(ligent)30 b(Sche)-5 b(duling)p Ft(,)28 b(c)m(hapter)i(7,)f(pages)g(213{239.)e (Morgan)221 2748 y(Kaufmann,)32 b(San)g(F)-8 b(rancisco,)33 b(1994.)118 2951 y([T)-8 b(ate)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)d(1998])48 b(Austin)24 b(T)-8 b(ate,)25 b(Stephen)g(T.)f(P)m(oly)m(ak,)i(and)d(P)m (eter)i(Jarvis.)j(TF)c(metho)s(d:)221 3072 y(An)58 b(initial)53 b(framew)m(ork)k(for)g(mo)s(delling)d(and)j(analysing)f(planning)f (domains.)116 b(In)221 3192 y Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)39 b(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)37 b(Engine)-5 b(ering)37 b(and)i(A)-5 b(c)g(quisition)38 b(for)h(Planning:)51 b(Bridging)38 b(The)-5 b(ory)221 3313 y(and)41 b(Pr)-5 b(actic)g(e)p Ft(,)41 b(Pittsburgh,)h(P)-8 b(A,)40 b(June)g(1998.)f(Carnegie-Mellon)f (Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)42 b(AAAI)221 3433 y(Press.)118 3636 y([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1975])48 b(Austin)41 b(T)-8 b(ate.)68 b Fr(Using)42 b(Go)-5 b(al)43 b(Structur)-5 b(e)43 b(to)g(Dir)-5 b(e)g(ct)42 b(Se)-5 b(ar)g(ch)42 b(in)g(a)g(Pr)-5 b(oblem)221 3757 y(Solver)p Ft(.)43 b(PhD)32 b(thesis,)h(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)e(Edin)m(burgh,)h(Edin)m (burgh,)g(Scotland,)f(1975.)118 3960 y([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1995])48 b(Austin)26 b(T)-8 b(ate.)32 b(In)m(tegrating)25 b(constrain)m(t)h(managemen)m(t)e(in)m(to)h(an)h(AI)f(planner.)221 4081 y Fr(A)n(rti\014cial)34 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)34 b(in)g(Engine)-5 b(ering)p Ft(,)32 b(9:221{228,)e(1995.)118 4284 y([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1996a])48 b(Austin)24 b(T)-8 b(ate.)31 b(Represen)m(ting)25 b(plans)f(as)h(a)f(set)h(of)f(constrain) m(ts)g(|)g(the)h Fc(<)p Fq(i-n-)221 4404 y(o)n(v)-9 b(a)p Fc(>)31 b Ft(mo)s(del.)39 b(In)32 b(Brian)e(Drabble,)g(editor,)g Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)34 b(3r)-5 b(d)33 b(International)f(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)32 b(on)221 4525 y(A)n(rti\014cial)40 b(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)39 b(Planning)h(Sytems)p Ft(,)g(pages)g(221{228,)f (Edin)m(burgh,)i(Scotland,)221 4645 y(Ma)m(y)34 b(1996.)d(AAAI)i (Press.)118 4848 y([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1996b])48 b(Austin)33 b(T)-8 b(ate.)43 b(T)-8 b(o)m(w)m(ards)34 b(a)e(plan)f(on)m(tology)-8 b(.)42 b Fr(AI*IA)34 b(Notiziqe)h(\(Quarterly)221 4969 y(Public)-5 b(ation)33 b(of)f(the)h(Asso)-5 b(ciazione)32 b(Italiana)g(p)-5 b(er)32 b(l'Intel)5 b(ligenza)31 b(A)n (rti\014ciale\))p Ft(,)f(9\(1\):19{)221 5089 y(26,)i(Marc)m(h)i(1996.) 118 5293 y([T)-8 b(ate,)33 b(1998])48 b(Austin)33 b(T)-8 b(ate.)45 b(Ro)s(ots)33 b(of)g(SP)-8 b(AR|shared)33 b(planning)f(and)h (activit)m(y)g(repres-)221 5413 y(en)m(tation.)43 b Fr(The)34 b(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)34 b(Engine)-5 b(ering)33 b(R)-5 b(eview)p Ft(,)32 b(13\(1\):121{128,)e(Marc)m(h)k(1998.)1782 5871 y(67)p eop %%Page: 68 68 68 67 bop 118 407 a Ft([Usc)m(hold)33 b Fr(et)i(al.)p Ft(,)e(1996])48 b(Mik)m(e)42 b(Usc)m(hold,)j(Martin)c(King,)i(Stuart)f (Moralee,)i(and)e(Y)-8 b(annis)221 527 y(Zorgios.)45 b(The)35 b(en)m(terprise)f(on)m(tology)-8 b(.)46 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)34 b(Rep)s(ort)f(AIAI-TR-195,)g(AIAI,)h(Uni-)221 648 y(v)m(ersit)m(y)g(of)e(Edin)m(burgh,)h(Edin)m(burgh,)g(Scotland,)f (August)i(1996.)118 844 y([V)-8 b(alen)m(te,)33 b(1994])48 b(Andr)m(\023)-46 b(e)49 b(V)-8 b(alen)m(te.)91 b(Planning.)f(In)49 b(Jo)s(ost)f(Breuk)m(er)i(and)f(W)-8 b(alter)47 b(V)-8 b(an)221 964 y(de)32 b(V)-8 b(elde,)31 b(editors,)h Fr(CommonKADS)f (Libr)-5 b(ary)34 b(for)g(Exp)-5 b(ertise)33 b(Mo)-5 b(del)5 b(ling)p Ft(,)30 b(c)m(hapter)j(10,)221 1085 y(pages)g(213{229.)e(IOS)i(Press,)h(Amsterdam,)e(1994.)118 1281 y([V)-8 b(alen)m(te,)33 b(1995])48 b(Andr)m(\023)-46 b(e)47 b(V)-8 b(alen)m(te.)86 b(Kno)m(wledge-lev)m(el)47 b(analysis)f(of)g(planning)g(systems.)221 1402 y Fr(SIGAR)-7 b(T)34 b(Bul)5 b(letin)p Ft(,)33 b(6\(1\):33{41,)e(Jan)m(uary)i(1995.) 118 1598 y([v)-5 b(an)33 b(Harmelen)e(and)i(Balder,)f(1992])48 b(F)-8 b(rank)32 b(v)-5 b(an)32 b(Harmelen)f(and)h(J.)h(R.)f(Balder.)42 b(\(ML\))3477 1562 y Fn(2)3516 1598 y Ft(:)221 1719 y(A)31 b(formal)d(language)i(for)g Fq(kads)h Ft(mo)s(dels)f(of)g(exp)s (ertise.)41 b Fr(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)32 b(A)-5 b(c)g(quisition)p Ft(,)31 b(4\(1\),)221 1839 y(Marc)m(h)j(1992.)118 2035 y([v)-5 b(an)33 b(Harmelen)e(and)i(ten)g(T)-8 b(eije,)33 b(1998])48 b(F)-8 b(rank)34 b(v)-5 b(an)34 b(Harmelen)f(and)h(Annette)i (ten)e(T)-8 b(eije.)221 2156 y(Characterising)24 b(problem-solving)d (metho)s(ds)j(b)m(y)i(gradual)d(requiremen)m(ts:)40 b(Ov)m(ercoming)221 2276 y(the)48 b(y)m(es/no)g(distinction.)85 b(In)47 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)48 b(8th)g(Know)5 b(le)-5 b(dge)47 b(Engine)-5 b(ering:)70 b(Metho)-5 b(ds)48 b(and)221 2397 y(L)-5 b(anguages)p Ft(,)32 b(Karlsruhe,)g(German)m(y)-8 b(,)33 b(Jan)m(uary)g(1998.)f(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)f(Karlsruhe.)118 2593 y([V)-8 b(anLehn)33 b(and)g(Jones,)h(1991])48 b(Kurt)e(V)-8 b(anLehn)48 b(and)e(Randolph)g(M.)i(Jones.)86 b(Learning)221 2714 y(ph)m(ysics)51 b(via)d(explanation-based)h(learning)e(of)i (correctness)i(and)e(analogical)d(searc)m(h)221 2834 y(con)m(trol.)69 b(In)41 b(La)m(wrence)i(A.)f(Birn)m(baum)e(and)h (Gregg)g(C.)h(Collins,)f(editors,)j Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)42 b(8th)221 2954 y(International)f(Workshop)g(on)g(Machine)g(L)-5 b(e)g(arning)p Ft(,)41 b(pages)f(110{114,)g(Ev)-5 b(anston,)43 b(IL,)221 3075 y(June)33 b(1991.)f(North)m(w)m(estern)j(Univ)m(ersit)m (y)-8 b(,)33 b(Morgan)g(Kaufmann.)118 3271 y([V)-8 b(eloso)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1995])47 b(Man)m(uela)33 b(V)-8 b(eloso,)31 b(Jaime)g(Carb)s(onell,)g(Alicia)e(P)m(erez,)34 b(Daniel)c(Bor-)221 3392 y(ra)5 b(jo,)40 b(Eugene)g(Fink,)g(and)f(Jim)e (Blythe.)62 b(In)m(tegrating)39 b(planning)e(and)i(learning:)54 b(The)221 3512 y Fq(pr)n(odigy)35 b Ft(arc)m(hitecture.)51 b Fr(Journal)37 b(of)f(The)-5 b(or)g(etic)g(al)36 b(and)h(Exp)-5 b(erimental)36 b(A)n(rti\014cial)g(In-)221 3632 y(tel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)p Ft(,)32 b(7\(1\),)g(1995.)118 3829 y([V)-8 b(o\031)32 b Fr(et)j(al.)p Ft(,)e(1990])48 b(Angi)34 b(V)-8 b(o\031,)36 b(W)-8 b(erner)36 b(Karbac)m(h,)h(Uw)m(e)g(Drouv)m (en,)g(and)e(Darius)g(Lorek.)221 3949 y(Comp)s(etence)c(assessmen)m(t)h (in)d(con\014guration)g(tasks.)40 b(In)30 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)33 b(9th)f(ECAI)p Ft(,)e(pages)g(676{)221 4070 y(681,)i(Stokholm,)f(Sw)m(eden,)k(August)e(1990.)f(Pitman.)118 4266 y([W)-8 b(arren,)33 b(1976])48 b(Da)m(vid)25 b(H.)h(D.)f(W)-8 b(arren.)32 b(Generating)24 b(conditional)f(plans)i(and)h(programs.)221 4386 y(In)36 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)37 b(AISB)p Ft(,)e(pages)g(344{354,)g (Edin)m(burgh,)h(Scotland,)g(July)f(1976.)g(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)h(of)221 4507 y(Edin)m(burgh.)118 4703 y([W)-8 b(a)m(vish,)33 b(1992])48 b(P)-8 b(.)46 b(W)-8 b(a)m(vish.)83 b(Exploiting)43 b(emergen)m(t)k(b)s(eha)m(viour)e(in)g(m)m(ulti-agen)m(t)e(sys-)221 4824 y(tems.)k(In)34 b(E.)h(W)-8 b(erner)34 b(and)g(Y.)g(Demazeau,)g (editors,)g Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)36 b(3r)-5 b(d)35 b(Eur)-5 b(op)g(e)g(an)36 b(Workshop)221 4944 y(on)31 b(Mo)-5 b(del)5 b(ling)30 b(A)n(utonomous)h(A)-5 b(gents)31 b(and)g(Multi-A)-5 b(gent)32 b(Worlds)p Ft(,)d(pages)g(297{310.)e(El-)221 5064 y(sevier)33 b(Science)h(Publishers,)f(1992.)118 5261 y([W)-8 b(efald)32 b(and)h(Russell,)f(1989])48 b(Eric)26 b(H.)g(W)-8 b(efald)25 b(and)h(Stuart)g(J.)h(Russell.)32 b(Adaptiv)m(e)26 b(learn-)221 5381 y(ing)i(of)g(decision-theoretic)f (searc)m(h)j(con)m(trol)e(kno)m(wledge.)38 b(In)29 b(Alb)s(erto)f (Maria)f(Segre,)j(ed-)221 5502 y(itor,)37 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)38 b(6th)h(International)e(Workshop)h(on)h(Machine)f(L)-5 b(e)g(arning)p Ft(,)37 b(pages)g(408{411,)221 5622 y(Ithaca,)c(NY,)g (June)g(1989.)f(Cornell)f(Univ)m(ersit)m(y)-8 b(,)34 b(Morgan)e(Kaufmann.)1782 5871 y(68)p eop %%Page: 69 69 69 68 bop 118 407 a Ft([W)-8 b(eld)32 b(and)h(de)g(Kleer,)f(1990])48 b(Daniel)41 b(S.)i(W)-8 b(eld)43 b(and)g(Johan)g(de)h(Kleer,)h (editors.)74 b Fr(R)-5 b(e)g(ad-)221 527 y(ings)30 b(in)g(Qualitative)h (R)-5 b(e)g(asoning)29 b(ab)-5 b(out)31 b(Physic)-5 b(al)30 b(Systems)p Ft(.)35 b(Morgan)28 b(Kaufmann,)g(San)221 648 y(Mateo,)33 b(CA,)g(1990.)118 851 y([W)-8 b(eld,)33 b(1996])48 b(Daniel)24 b(S.)j(W)-8 b(eld.)33 b(Planning-based)26 b(con)m(trol)f(of)i(soft)m(w)m(are)g(agen)m(ts.)34 b(In)27 b(Brian)221 971 y(Drabble,)40 b(editor,)h Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)41 b(3r)-5 b(d)41 b(International)f(Confer)-5 b(enc)g(e)39 b(on)i(A)n(rti\014cial)g(Intel)5 b(ligenc)-5 b(e)221 1092 y(Planning)26 b(Sytems)p Ft(,)g(pages)f(268{274,)f(Edin)m(burgh,)j (Scotland,)e(Ma)m(y)g(1996.)f(AAAI)h(Press.)118 1295 y([Wic)m(kler)33 b(and)f(Pry)m(or,)i(1996])48 b(Gerhard)41 b(Wic)m(kler)g(and)g(Louise)g(Pry)m(or.)69 b(On)41 b(comp)s(etence)221 1416 y(and)51 b(meta-kno)m(wledge.)97 b(In)51 b(Milind)d(T)-8 b(am)m(b)s(e)51 b(and)f(Piotr)g(Gm)m(ytrasiewicz,)k(editors,)221 1536 y Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)38 b(AAAI)i(Workshop)e(on)g(A)-5 b(gent)39 b(Mo)-5 b(deling)p Ft(,)37 b(pages)g(98{104,)f(P)m(ortland,)h (OR,)f(Au-)221 1656 y(gust)d(1996.)f(AAAI)h(Press,)h(Menlo)e(P)m(ark,)i (CA.)118 1860 y([Wic)m(kler,)f(1999])48 b(Gerhard)35 b(Wic)m(kler.)53 b Fr(Using)37 b(Expr)-5 b(essive)37 b(and)g(Flexible)f(A)-5 b(ction)38 b(R)-5 b(epr)g(es-)221 1980 y(entations)31 b(to)g(Br)-5 b(oker)31 b(Cap)-5 b(abilities)30 b(for)h(Intel)5 b(ligent)30 b(A)-5 b(gent)31 b(Co)-5 b(op)g(er)g(ation)p Ft(.)36 b(PhD)29 b(thesis,)221 2100 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b(o)s(oldridge.)41 b(Coheren)m(t)34 b(so)s(cial)d(action.)42 b(In)33 b(A.)g(G.)f(Cohn,)221 527 y(editor,)25 b Fr(Pr)-5 b(o)g(c.)27 b(11th)g(ECAI)p Ft(,)d(pages)h(279{283,)f(Amsterdam,)h(The)g(Netherlands,)i(August)221 648 y(1994.)32 b(Wiley)-8 b(.)118 851 y([Zaniolo,)30 b(1991])48 b(C.)36 b(Zaniolo.)50 b(The)36 b(logical)d(data)i(language)g (\()p Fq(ldl)p Ft(\):)50 b(An)35 b(in)m(tegrated)h(ap-)221 971 y(proac)m(h)e(to)f(logic)e(and)i(databases.)46 b(T)-8 b(ec)m(hnical)33 b(Rep)s(ort)g(STP-LD-328-91,)e(MCC,)k(Aus-)221 1092 y(tin,)d(TX,)h(1991.)1782 5871 y(70)p eop %%Trailer end userdict /end-hook known{end-hook}if %%EOF