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(dynamically)f(changing)g(measures)h(or)h(de-)450 1430 y(scriptions)22 b(of)h(the)g(sensed)f(state)i(to)f(be)g(maintained)e (or)i(pre)n(v)o(ented,)d(and)j(the)g(type)f(of)h(correc-)450 1529 y(ti)n(v)o(e)17 b(action)f(required,)g(internally)g(or)g(e)o (xternally)-5 b(.)22 b(F)o(or)17 b(instance,)g(an)g(or)o(ganism)d(that) j(someho)n(w)450 1629 y(can)25 b(record)f(ho)n(w)h(frequently)f(food)g (sources)h(are)h(encountered)c(might)j(use)h(a)g(lo)n(wer)f(hunger)450 1729 y(threshold)20 b(to)h(trigger)f(searching)f(for)i(food.)26 b(If)20 b(sensiti)n(v)o(e)h(to)g(current)f(terrain)g(it)i(might)e (trigger)450 1828 y(dif)n(ferent)i(kinds)g(of)h(searches)g(in)g(dif)n (ferent)f(terrains.)33 b(Thus)23 b(while)h(the)f(records)f(of)h(food)f (fre-)450 1928 y(quenc)o(y)f(and)i(terrain)f(features)h(are)g(acquired) e(the)o(y)i(function)e(as)j(components)d(of)i(perceptual)450 2027 y(or)g(belief-lik)o(e)f(states,)j(whereas)e(when)f(the)o(y)h(are)g (used)g(to)h(modulate)d(decision)i(making)f(the)o(y)450 2127 y(function)c(as)j(components)d(of)i(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)f(states.) 600 2227 y(Af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)26 b(states)i(can)f(v)n(ary)f(in)i (cogniti)n(v)o(e)d(sophistication.)45 b(Simple)27 b(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e) f(mecha-)450 2326 y(nisms)h(can)g(be)g(implemented)f(within)g(a)i (purely)e(reacti)n(v)o(e)g(architecture,)h(lik)o(e)g(the)g (\223hunger\224)450 2426 y(e)o(xample.)58 b(More)30 b(sophisticated)h (af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)f(states)j(which)e(include)f(construction,)i(e)n(v) n(alua-)450 2526 y(tion)20 b(and)f(comparison)f(of)h(alternati)n(v)o (es,)g(or)g(which)g(require)g(high-le)n(v)o(el)f(perceptual)g(cate)o (gori-)450 2625 y(sations,)28 b(w)o(ould)e(require)f(the)h (representational)e(resources)i(of)g(a)g(deliberati)n(v)o(e)f (architecture.)450 2725 y(Ho)n(we)n(v)o(er)m(,)c(recorded)f (measurements)h(or)i(labels)f(directly)g(produced)e(by)i(sensors)g(in)h (reacti)n(v)o(e)450 2824 y(architectures)h(can)g(ha)n(v)o(e)h (desire-lik)o(e)f(functions,)g(and)h(for)f(that)h(reason)f(can)h(be)g (re)o(garded)d(as)450 2924 y(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)d(states)i(that)f(use)h (a)f(primiti)n(v)o(e)f(\223limiting)h(case\224)g(class)h(of)f (representations)2915 2894 y Fi(6)2950 2924 y Fj(.)600 3024 y(The)c(remainder)f(of)i(this)g(paper)f(describes)g(simulation)g (e)o(xperiments)f(where)h(agents)h(with)450 3123 y(slightly)f(dif)n (ferent)e(architectures)h(compete)g(for)g(resources)g(in)h(order)f(to)h (survi)n(v)o(e)f(in)h(a)g(carefully)450 3223 y(controlled)g(simulated)i (en)m(vironment.)j(Proportions)c(survi)n(ving)f(in)i(dif)n(ferent)f (conditions)g(help)450 3323 y(to)g(sho)n(w)f(the)g(usefulness)g(of)h (dif)n(ferent)e(architectural)g(features)g(in)i(dif)n(ferent)e(conte)o (xts.)23 b(It)16 b(turns)450 3422 y(out)k(that)g(simple)g(af)n(fecti)n (v)o(e)f(states)i(can)f(be)g(surprisingly)f(ef)n(fecti)n(v)o(e.)450 3660 y Fn(3)83 b(The)21 b(Simulation)f(En)m(vir)o(onment)450 3847 y Fj(The)27 b(simulated)g(en)m(vironment)e(consists)j(of)f(a)h (rectangular)e(surf)o(ace)h(of)g(\002x)o(ed)g(size)h(\(usually)450 3947 y(around)23 b(800)h(by)h(800)f(units\))h(populated)e(with)i(v)n (arious)f(kinds)h(of)g(agents)g(and)f(other)g(objects)450 4047 y(such)h(as)h(\223lethal\224)e(entities)i(of)f(v)n(arious)f (sizes,)j(some)e(static)h(and)e(some)h(mo)o(ving)e(at)j(dif)n(ferent) 450 4146 y(speeds)f(in)h(dif)n(ferent)d(directions,)i(and)g(\223food)f (items\224)i(\(i.e.,)f(ener)o(gy)f(sources)g(which)h(pop)g(up)450 4246 y(at)c(random)f(locations)g(and)g(disappear)g(after)h(a)g (pre-determined)d(period)h(of)i(time)g(unless)g(con-)450 4345 y(sumed)e(by)h(agents\).)k(Agents)19 b(use)i(up)e(ener)o(gy)f(at)i (a)h(\002x)o(ed)e(rate,)h(when)f(stationary)-5 b(,)18 b(and)h(require)450 4445 y(additional)h(ener)o(gy)f(proportional)g(to)i (their)g(speed,)g(when)g(mo)o(ving.)26 b(Hence,)21 b(the)o(y)g(are)g (in)h(per)n(-)p 450 4742 2846 4 v 450 4866 4 125 v 478 4824 a Fg(iat01:)i(submitted)c(to)g Fn(W)-6 b(orld)20 b(Scienti\002c)h Fg(on)f(J)m(uly)g(3,)g(2001)995 b Fn(3)p 3293 4866 V 450 4869 2846 4 v eop %%Page: 4 4 4 3 bop 450 533 a Fj(manent)24 b(need)h(of)g(food,)h(which)f(the)o(y)g (can)g(consume)f(sitting)i(on)f(top)g(of)g(a)h(food)e(source)h(in)h(a) 450 633 y(time)18 b(proportional)c(to)k(the)g(ener)o(gy)d(stored)i(in)h (the)g(food)e(source)h(depending)e(on)i(the)h(maximum)450 732 y(amount)e(of)i(ener)o(gy)d(an)j(agent)f(can)g(tak)o(e)h(in)f(at)i (an)o(y)d(gi)n(v)o(en)h(time.)24 b(Agents)17 b(die)h(and)f(are)h(remo)o (v)o(ed)450 832 y(from)g(the)h(simulation)g(if)g(the)o(y)f(run)h(out)g (of)f(ener)o(gy)-5 b(,)17 b(or)i(if)g(the)o(y)g(come)f(into)h(contact)g (with)g(lethal)450 932 y(entities)i(or)f(other)f(agents.)600 1031 y(All)i(agents)e(are)h(equipped)e(with)i(a)h(\223sonar\224)e (sensor)g(to)i(detect)e(lethal)h(entities,)h(a)f(\223smell\224)450 1131 y(sensor)e(to)h(detect)f(food,)f(a)i(\223touch\224)e(sensor)h(to)g (detect)h(impending)d(collisions)i(and)g(an)g(internal)450 1230 y(sensor)31 b(to)g(measure)f(their)g(ener)o(gy-le)n(v)o(el.)54 b(F)o(or)30 b(both)g(sonar)h(and)f(smell)h(sensors,)i(gradient)450 1330 y(v)o(ectors)23 b(are)h(computed)d(and)j(mapped)e(onto)h(the)h(ef) n(fector)e(space)i(\(see)g(belo)n(w\),)g(yielding)e(the)450 1430 y(direction)j(in)h(which)f(the)h(agent)f(will)i(mo)o(v)o(e.)41 b(The)25 b(touch)g(sensor)h(is)h(connected)d(to)i(a)g(global)450 1529 y(alarm)19 b(system,)h(which)e(triggers)h(a)h(re\003e)o(x)f(to)g (mo)o(v)o(e)f(a)o(w)o(ay)h(from)g(an)o(ything)e(touched,)h(unless)h(it) 450 1629 y(is)f(food.)k(These)17 b(mo)o(v)o(ements)e(are)i(initiated)f (automatically)g(and)g(cannot)g(be)h(controlled)e(by)h(the)450 1729 y(agent.)24 b(The)o(y)19 b(are)h(some)n(what)f(erratic)h(and)f (will)i(slightly)f(reorient)f(the)h(agent)f(\(thus)h(helping)e(it)450 1828 y(to)i(get)h(out)e(of)h(\223local)g(minima\224\).)600 1928 y(On)15 b(the)g(ef)n(fector)f(side,)j(agents)e(ha)n(v)o(e)f (motors)h(for)f(locomotion)f(\(forw)o(ard)h(and)g(backw)o(ard\),)450 2027 y(motors)19 b(for)h(turning)f(\(left)h(and)f(right)h(in)g(de)o (grees\))f(and)h(a)g(mechanism)f(for)h(consuming)e(food.)600 2127 y(After)i(a)h(certain)g(number)d(of)j(simulation)f(c)o(ycles,)g (agents)g(reach)g(maturity)g(and)g(can)g(pro-)450 2227 y(create)d(ase)o(xually)-5 b(,)16 b(in)h(which)g(case)g(depending)e(on) h(their)h(current)f(ener)o(gy)f(le)n(v)o(el)i(the)o(y)f(will)i(ha)n(v)o (e)450 2326 y(a)h(v)n(ariable)e(number)f(of)i(of)n(fspring)e(which)h (pop)g(up)h(in)g(the)g(vicinity)g(of)g(the)g(agent)f(one)h(at)g(a)h (time)450 2426 y(\(the)f(ener)o(gy)e(for)h(creating)g(a)h(ne)n(w)g (agent)f(is)i(subtracted)e(from)g(the)h(parent,)f(occasionally)f(caus-) 450 2526 y(ing)21 b(the)g(parent)g(to)g(starv)o(e\).)28 b(While)21 b(dif)n(ferent)f(agents)h(may)g(ha)n(v)o(e)g(dif)n(ferent)e (short)i(term)g(goals)450 2625 y(at)d(an)o(y)f(gi)n(v)o(en)g(time)h (\(e.g.,)f(getting)g(around)f(lethal)h(entities)h(or)g(consuming)e (food\),)g(common)g(to)450 2725 y(all)23 b(of)e(them)h(are)g(the)g(tw)o (o)g(implicit)g(goals)g(of)f Fg(survival)h Fj(\(i.e.,)g(to)g(get)g (enough)e(food)h(and)g(a)n(v)n(oid)450 2824 y(running)d(into/getting)h (run)h(o)o(v)o(er)e(by)i(lethal)h(entities)g(or)f(other)f(agents\))h (and)g Fg(pr)l(ocr)m(eation)f Fj(\(i.e.,)450 2924 y(to)h(li)n(v)o(e)g (long)g(enough)e(to)i(ha)n(v)o(e)g(of)n(fspring\).)600 3024 y(F)o(or)i(e)n(v)n(olutionary)e(studies,)j(a)g(simple)f(mutation)f (mechanism)g(modi\002es)h(with)h(a)g(certain)450 3123 y(probability)16 b(some)h(of)g(the)h(agent')-5 b(s)17 b(architectural)f(parameters)h(\(e.g.,)g(the)g(parameters)g(respon-)450 3223 y(sible)j(for)f(inte)o(grating)e(smell)j(and)f(sonar)f (information\).)k(Some)d(of)n(fspring)f(will)i(then)f(start)g(out)450 3323 y(with)24 b(the)f(modi\002ed)g(parameters)f(instead)i(of)f(being)f (e)o(xact)i(copies)f(of)g(the)h(parent.)34 b(This)24 b(mu-)450 3422 y(tation)i(rate)h(as)h(well)f(as)g(v)n(arious)f(other)g (parameters)f(need)h(to)h(be)g(\002x)o(ed)f(before)f(each)h(run)g(of) 450 3522 y(the)c(simulation)g(\(a)g(more)f(detailed)h(description)f(of) h(the)g(simulation)f(and)h(its)h(v)n(arious)e(control)450 3621 y(parameters)e(is)i(pro)o(vided)d(else)n(where\))1585 3591 y Fi(7)1620 3621 y Fj(.)600 3721 y(In)e(is)h(w)o(orth)e(pointing)f (out)i(that)g(our)f(setup)h(dif)n(fers)f(in)h(at)h(least)f(tw)o(o)h(w)o (ays)f(from)f(other)g(sim-)450 3821 y(ulated)j(en)m(vironments)e(that)j (ha)n(v)o(e)f(been)g(used)g(to)h(study)f(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)g(states.) 2597 3791 y Fi(8)p Fh(;)p Fi(9)p Fh(;)p Fi(10)p Fh(;)p Fi(11)p Fh(;)p Fi(12)2964 3821 y Fj(First,)i(by)450 3920 y(allo)n(wing)j(agents)g(to)h(procreate)e(\(i.e.,)j(ha)n(v)o(e)e(e)o (xact)g(copies)g(of)h(themselv)o(es)f(as)h(of)n(fspring\))e(we)450 4020 y(can)f(study)g(trajectories)g(of)g(agent)f(populations)g(and)g (can)i(thus)f(identify)f(properties)g(of)h(archi-)450 4120 y(tectures)16 b(that)g(are)g(related)g(to)g(and)g(possibly)f (in\003uence)g(the)h(interaction)f(of)h(agent)f(populations.)450 4219 y(And)26 b(second,)h(by)f(adding)f(mutation,)i(we)g(can)f(e)o (xamine)f(the)i(potential)e(of)i(architectures)e(to)450 4319 y(be)h(modi\002ed)g(and)f(e)o(xtended)g(o)o(v)o(er)g(generations)g (of)h(agents.)43 b(In)26 b(particular)m(,)g(by)g(controlling)450 4418 y(which)d(components)e(of)i(an)h(architecture)e(can)h(change)f (while)i(allo)n(wing)e(for)h(randomness)f(in)p 450 4742 2846 4 v 450 4866 4 125 v 478 4824 a Fg(iat01:)i(submitted)c(to)g Fn(W)-6 b(orld)20 b(Scienti\002c)h Fg(on)f(J)m(uly)g(3,)g(2001)995 b Fn(4)p 3293 4866 V 450 4869 2846 4 v eop %%Page: 5 5 5 4 bop 450 533 a Fj(the)22 b(w)o(ay)h(the)o(y)e(can)h(change,)f(we)i (are)f(able)h(to)f(study)g(e)n(v)n(olutionary)d(tradeof)n(fs)i(of)h (such)g(e)o(xten-)450 633 y(sions/modi\002cations.)h(From)d(these)g(e)o (xplorations)e(of)i(\223design)f(space\224)h(and)g(\223niche)f (space\224)3170 603 y Fi(13)450 732 y Fj(we)29 b(cannot)f(only)f(deri)n (v)o(e)h(adv)n(antages)f(and)h(disadv)n(antages)f(of)h(architectural)g (components,)450 832 y(b)n(ut)21 b(also)g(the)h(lik)o(elihood)d(that)i (such)g(components)e(w)o(ould)h(ha)n(v)o(e)h(e)n(v)n(olv)o(ed)e(in)i (natural)g(systems)450 932 y(using)f(natural)f(selection.)450 1173 y Fn(4)83 b(The)21 b(Agents)f(and)g(their)h(Ar)o(chitectur)o(es) 450 1361 y Fj(In)28 b(the)h(follo)n(wing)e(we)i(consider)e(tw)o(o)i (kinds)f(of)g(agents:)42 b Fg(r)m(eactive)28 b(a)o(g)o(ents)g Fj(\(R-agents\))g(and)450 1460 y Fg(simple)h(af)o(fective)f(a)o(g)o (ents)g Fj(\(A-agents\))g(\(other)f(studies)i(ha)n(v)o(e)f(compared)f (dif)n(ferent)g(kinds)3155 1430 y Fi(7)3191 1460 y Fj(\).)450 1560 y(R-agents)35 b(process)g(sensor)g(information)e(and)i(produce)f (beha)n(vioural)f(responses)i(using)g(a)450 1660 y(schema-based)15 b(approach,)g(which)i(ob)o(viates)f(the)g(need)h(for)f(a)h(special)g (action)f(selection)h(mech-)450 1759 y(anism:)39 b(both)27 b(smell)h(and)e(sonar)h(sensors)g(pro)o(vide)f(the)h(agent)g(with)g (directional)f(and)h(inten-)450 1859 y(sity)33 b(information)c(of)j (the)g(objects)g(surrounding)d(the)j(agent)f(within)h(sensor)g(reach,)i (where)450 1958 y Ff(intensity)c Fe(=)e(1)p Ff(=distance)1304 1928 y Fi(2)1363 1958 y Fj(\(i.e.,)23 b(the)g(distance)g(of)g(the)g (object)g(from)f(the)h(current)f(position)450 2058 y(of)i(the)g (agent\).)35 b(The)23 b(sum)h(of)g(these)g(v)o(ectors)f(\(call)h(them)f Ff(S)29 b Fj(and)24 b Ff(F)36 b Fj(for)23 b(sonar)h(and)f(food,)g(re-) 450 2158 y(specti)n(v)o(ely\))16 b(is)i(then)e(computed)f(as)j(a)g (measure)e(of)h(the)g(distrib)n(ution)f(of)g(the)h(respecti)n(v)o(e)f (objects)450 2257 y(in)i(the)g(en)m(vironment)d(and)i(passed)h(on)f(to) h(the)g(motor)f(schema,)h(which)f(maps)h(perceptual)e(space)450 2357 y(into)j(motor)g(space)g(yielding)f(the)i(direction,)e(in)h(which) g(to)h(go:)25 b Ff(\016)s(S)20 b Fe(+)15 b Ff(\015)5 b(F)32 b Fj(\(where)19 b Ff(\016)k Fj(and)c Ff(\015)24 b Fj(are)450 2457 y(the)c(respecti)n(v)o(e)f(gain)h(v)n(alues\).)1350 2426 y Fh(a)600 2556 y Fj(A-agents)c(are)h Fg(e)n(xtensions)g Fj(of)f(R-agents.)24 b(The)o(y)16 b(ha)n(v)o(e)g(an)h(additional)f (component,)f(which)450 2656 y(can)23 b(in\003uence)e(the)i(w)o(ay)g (sensory)f(v)o(ector)g(\002elds)h(are)g(combined)e(by)h(altering)g(the) h(gain)f(v)n(alue)450 2755 y Ff(\015)30 b Fj(based)24 b(on)g(the)h(le)n(v)o(el)f(of)h(ener)o(gy)-5 b(.)36 b(In)24 b(accordance)e(with)j(our)f(earlier)g(analysis)h(of)g(af)n(fecti)n(v)o (e)450 2855 y(states)e(as)f(modulators)f(of)g(beha)n(viours)f(and/or)h (processes,)g(this)i(component)c(implements)i(an)450 2955 y(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)e(state,)h(which)g(we)h(call)f (\223hunger\224.)600 3054 y(The)f(dif)n(ference)f(in)i(the)g (architecture)e(gi)n(v)o(es)h(rise)h(to)g(dif)n(ferent)e(beha)n(viour:) 23 b(R-agents)c(are)450 3154 y(al)o(w)o(ays)j(\223interested\224)e(in)i (food)e(and)h(go)g(for)g(whiche)n(v)o(er)e(food)h(source)h(the)o(y)g (can)g(get)g(to,)h(while)450 3254 y(A-agents)28 b(are)h(only)f (interested)g(in)h(food)e(when)h(their)h(ener)o(gy)e(le)n(v)o(els)h (are)h(lo)n(w)-5 b(.)50 b(Otherwise)450 3353 y(the)o(y)17 b(tend)h(to)g(a)n(v)n(oid)g(food)f(and)g(thus)h(competition)e(for)i (it,)h(reducing)d(the)i(lik)o(elihood)e(of)i(getting)450 3453 y(killed)i(because)f(of)h(colliding)f(with)i(other)e(competing)f (agents)i(or)g(lethal)g(entities.)450 3694 y Fn(5)83 b(The)21 b(Beha)n(vioural)e(P)n(otential)g(of)h(a)g(Simple)i(Affecti)o (v)o(e)d(State)450 3882 y Fj(W)-7 b(e)22 b(start)f(our)g(series)g(of)g (e)o(xperiments)e(by)h(checking)f(whether)h(each)g(agent)h(kind)f(can)g (survi)n(v)o(e)450 3982 y(in)f(v)n(arious)f(kinds)g(of)h(en)m (vironments)d(on)j(its)h(o)n(wn.)k(Fi)n(v)o(e)18 b(agents)h(of)g(the)g (same)g(kind)f(are)h(placed)450 4081 y(in)j(v)n(arious)e(en)m (vironments)e(\(from)j(en)m(vironments)d(with)k(no)f(lethal)g(entities) h(to)g(v)o(ery)e(\223danger)n(-)450 4181 y(ous\224)25 b(en)m(vironments)d(with)j(both)f(static)i(and)e(mo)o(ving)f(lethal)i (entities\))g(at)h(random)d(locations)450 4280 y(to)c(\223a)n(v)o (erage)f(out\224)g(possible)h(adv)n(antages)e(due)h(to)h(their)g (initial)g(location)f(o)o(v)o(er)g(a)h(lar)o(ge)f(number)p 450 4368 1116 4 v 450 4422 a Fd(a)488 4445 y Fk(Note)f(that)i(this)e (formula)h(lea)o(v)o(es)g(out)g(the)g(details)h(for)e(the)h(touch)g (sensor)f(for)g(ease)h(of)f(presentation.)p 450 4742 2846 4 v 450 4866 4 125 v 478 4824 a Fg(iat01:)24 b(submitted)c(to)g Fn(W)-6 b(orld)20 b(Scienti\002c)h Fg(on)f(J)m(uly)g(3,)g(2001)995 b Fn(5)p 3293 4866 V 450 4869 2846 4 v eop %%Page: 6 6 6 5 bop 483 584 a Fk(T)-5 b(able)18 b(1.)33 b Fm(Survi)n(ving)19 b(agents)h(in)f(an)g Fc(n)p Fm(-en)m(vironment)h(when)g(started)f(with) f(5)h(agents)h(of)f(only)g(one)h(kind.)p 982 662 1708 4 v 980 753 4 92 v 1197 753 V 1214 753 V 1447 726 a(R-agents)p 1942 753 V 1959 753 V 478 w(A-agents)p 2687 753 V 982 756 1708 4 v 980 848 4 92 v 1032 820 a(En)m(v)p 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1693 2598 V 101 w(0.00)p 1924 2598 V 1940 2598 V 117 w(10.00)p 2208 2598 V 100 w(3.16)p 2438 2598 V 101 w(1.96)p 2669 2598 V 1000 2602 1670 4 v 450 2951 a Fj(of)24 b(trials.)36 b(The)24 b(\223food)e(rate\224)i(is)h(\002x)o(ed)e(at)h(0.25)f(and)h(the)f (procreation)f(age)i(at)g(250)f(update)g(c)o(y-)450 3050 y(cles.)31 b(T)-7 b(able)22 b(1)g(sho)n(ws)g(for)g(each)g(agent)f(kind) g(the)h(a)n(v)o(erage)f(number)f(\()p Ff(\026)p Fj(\))i(of)g(survi)n (ving)e(agents)450 3150 y(as)k(well)g(as)h(standard)d(de)n(viation)g (\()p Ff(\033)s Fj(\))i(and)f(con\002dence)f(interv)n(al)g(\(Con\))h (for)g Ff(\013)30 b Fe(=)f(0)p Ff(:)p Fe(05)23 b Fj(tak)o(en)450 3250 y(o)o(v)o(er)h(10)g(dif)n(ferent)g(runs)h(of)f(the)i(simulation,)f (each)g(for)f(10000)f(en)m(vironmental)f(updates)j(for)450 3349 y(a)31 b(gi)n(v)o(en)e(en)m(vironment)e(\(where)i(\223)p Ff(n)p Fj(-en)m(vironment\224)d(is)32 b(intended)c(to)j(indicate)e (that)i Ff(n)f Fj(static)450 3449 y(and)24 b Ff(n)g Fj(mo)o(ving)e (lethal)j(entities)f(were)g(placed)g(at)g(random)f(in)h(the)g(en)m (vironment\).)34 b(Note)24 b(that)450 3548 y(A-agents)i(do)g (signi\002cantly)g(better)g(than)g(R-agents)g(if)h(measured)e(in)i (terms)f(of)h(the)f(a)n(v)o(erage)450 3648 y(number)18 b(of)i(agents)g(in)h(each)e(en)m(vironment)e(at)k(an)o(y)f(gi)n(v)o(en) e(time.)600 3748 y(Gi)n(v)o(en)27 b(that)h(each)f(agent)h(kind)f(can)g (survi)n(v)o(e)g(on)g(its)i(o)n(wn,)g(we)f(no)n(w)f(compare)g(the)h (per)n(-)450 3847 y(formance)d(of)i(mix)o(ed)g(groups)e(of)i(R-)h(and)f (A-agents.)46 b(It)27 b(turns)g(out)g(that)g(A-agents)g(reliably)450 3947 y(outperform)17 b(R-agents)j(in)h(all)f(considered)f(en)m (vironments)e(\(see)k(T)-7 b(able)20 b(2\).)600 4047 y(The)d(results)h(depend)e(neither)g(on)h(the)h(initial)f(number)f(of)h (agents)g(nor)g(on)g(the)g(distrib)n(ution)450 4146 y(of)29 b(mo)o(ving)e(and)i(static)h(lethal)f(entities:)43 b(e)o(xperiments)28 b(with)h(dif)n(ferent)e(numbers)h(of)h(initial)450 4246 y(agents)e(of)g(each)g(kind)g(as)h(well)g(as)g(e)o(xperiments)e(with)h (dif)n(ferent)f(numbers)g(of)h(mo)o(ving)f(and)450 4345 y(static)16 b(lethal)g(entities)g(\(that)f(added)g(up)g(to)g(the)h (same)g(total\))f(yield)g(v)o(ery)g(similar)g(results.)24 b(Higher)450 4445 y(food)19 b(rates)i(\(e.g.,)f(of)g(0.5\))f(do)h(not)h (change)e(the)h(picture)g(either)m(,)g(rather)f(the)o(y)h(sho)n(w)g(e)n (v)o(en)g(more)p 450 4742 2846 4 v 450 4866 4 125 v 478 4824 a Fg(iat01:)k(submitted)c(to)g Fn(W)-6 b(orld)20 b(Scienti\002c)h Fg(on)f(J)m(uly)g(3,)g(2001)995 b Fn(6)p 3293 4866 V 450 4869 2846 4 v eop %%Page: 7 7 7 6 bop 450 533 a Fj(clearly)16 b(the)h(ability)g(of)f(af)n(fecti)n(v)o (e)g(agents)g(to)h(coe)o(xist)g(in)g(lar)o(ge)e(groups.)23 b(W)m(ith)17 b(lo)n(wer)f(food)g(rates)450 633 y(the)24 b(adv)n(antage)f(of)h(A-agents)f(o)o(v)o(er)g(R-agents)h(slo)n(wly)g (decreases)g(as)h(w)o(aiting)f(for)g(hunger)e(to)450 732 y(gro)n(w)j(before)f(mo)o(ving)g(to)n(w)o(ards)h(food)g(is)i(not)e (a)h(good)f(strate)o(gy)-5 b(.)40 b(Ev)o(entually)-5 b(,)25 b(at)h(food)f(rates)450 832 y(of)f(0.125)e(and)i(belo)n(w)-5 b(,)23 b(survi)n(v)n(al)g(in)h(cro)n(wded)f(en)m(vironments)e(becomes)i (impossible)h(for)f(an)o(y)450 932 y(agent)d(kind\226there)d(are)k (simply)e(too)h(man)o(y)f(lethal)h(entities)h(obstructing)d(the)j (paths)f(to)g(food.)600 1031 y(The)30 b(superior)f(performance)e(of)j (A-agents)f(might)h(not)g(seem)g(v)o(ery)f(surprising,)i(since)450 1131 y(the)25 b(additional)f(information)e(about)i(the)h(current)f (ener)o(gy)e(le)n(v)o(el,)k(ignored)d(by)i(R-agents,)g(b)n(ut)450 1230 y(utilized)18 b(by)f(A-agents,)g(allo)n(ws)i(for)e(a)h(more)f (comple)o(x)f(mapping)g(between)h(sensory)h(input)f(and)450 1330 y(beha)n(vioural)f(output.)23 b(Ho)n(we)n(v)o(er)m(,)17 b(using)g(more)h(information)d(does)j(not)g(automatically)f(lead)h(to) 450 1430 y(better)k(performance,)e(as)j(can)f(be)g(seen)h(from)e(the)h (f)o(act)h(that)f(A-agents)g(may)g(lose)h(out)f(against)450 1529 y(R-agents)28 b(if)g(the)g(\223rules)f(of)h(the)g(game\224)f(are)g (slightly)h(modi\002ed:)39 b(in)28 b(a)h(simulation)e(without)450 1629 y(procreation,)21 b(where)i(either)g(the)g(numbers)e(of)i(survi)n (ving)f(agents)h(of)f(each)h(kind)g(are)g(counted)450 1729 y(after)i(a)i(predetermined)22 b(number)i(of)i(c)o(ycles)f(or)h (the)g(a)n(v)o(erage)e(lifespan)h(of)h(an)g(agent)f(is)h(used)450 1828 y(as)31 b(a)f(measure)f(of)h(\002tness,)i(R-agents)e(almost)g(al)o (w)o(ays)g(perform)e(\(slightly\))h(better)h(than)f(A-)450 1928 y(agents)24 b(\(in)g(all)h(of)f(the)g(abo)o(v)o(e)f(en)m (vironments\).)34 b(Only)24 b(in)h(combination)d(with)i(procreation)e (is)450 2027 y(the)e(tendenc)o(y)d(of)j(A-agents)e(to)i(distrib)n(ute)f (themselv)o(es)g(better)g(o)o(v)o(er)g(the)g(whole)g(en)m(vironment)450 2127 y(\(in)31 b(Seth')-5 b(s)31 b(terminology:)44 b(their)31 b(lo)n(wer)f(de)o(gree)g(of)g(\223clumpiness\224)2487 2097 y Fi(12)2556 2127 y Fj(\))h(by)f(virtue)g(of)h(being)450 2227 y(at)i(times)g(less)h(attracted)d(to)i(food)e(bene\002cial,)k(as)e (their)f(of)n(fspring)f(will)i(bene\002t)f(from)f(not)450 2326 y(ha)n(ving)g(to)h(compete)e(immediately)h(with)g(man)o(y)g(other) g(agents)g(in)h(their)g(vicinity)-5 b(.)58 b(In)32 b(this)450 2426 y(light,)f(the)e(answer)g(to)g(the)h(follo)n(wing)d(question)h (whether)g(A-agents)h(can)g(be)g(produced)e(by)450 2526 y(some)20 b(e)n(v)n(olutionary)e(process)h(is)j(not)d(ob)o(vious)g(at)i (all.)450 2780 y Fn(6)83 b(Simple)21 b(Affecti)o(v)o(e)e(States)h(Can)g (Be)h(Ev)o(olv)o(ed)450 2971 y Fj(T)-7 b(o)21 b(study)f(the)h(de)o (gree)f(to)h(which)f(simple)h(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)e(states)j(lik)o(e)f (\223hunger\224)e(can)i(be)g(e)n(v)n(olv)o(ed)e(in)450 3070 y(a)27 b(competiti)n(v)o(e)e(en)m(vironment,)g(we)i(allo)n(wed)f (for)g(mutation)g(of)g(the)h(link)f(between)g(the)h(com-)450 3170 y(ponent)21 b(connected)f(to)j(the)f(ener)o(gy)e(sensor)i(\(which) f(is)j(supposed)c(to)j(assume)f(the)g(role)g(of)g(the)450 3270 y(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)i(\223hunger\224)f(state\))j(and)f(the)h (component)c(encoding)i(the)h(food)g(gain)f(v)n(alue)h Ff(\015)30 b Fj(in)c(the)450 3369 y(mapping)g(from)h(perceptual)f(to)i (motor)f(space.)48 b(This)29 b(link,)g(e)o(xpressed)e(as)h(a)h (multiplicati)n(v)o(e)450 3469 y(f)o(actor)c(and)h(called)f (\223foodweight\224,)g(is)i(initialised)f(at)g(random)e(in)j(the)f (interv)n(al)f Fe(\()p Fb(\000)p Fe(0)p Ff(:)p Fe(2)p Ff(;)14 b Fe(0)p Ff(:)p Fe(2\))p Fj(.)450 3568 y(Whene)n(v)o(er)24 b(an)i(agent)g(has)g(of)n(fspring,)f(the)h(probability)e(for)h (\223genetic)g(modi\002cation\224)f(of)i(the)450 3668 y(foodweight)17 b(is)j(1/3)f(and)g(the)h(probability)d(for)i(weight)g (increase/decrease)e(\(by)i(the)g(gi)n(v)o(en)f(f)o(ac-)450 3768 y(tor)i Ff(\034)33 b Fe(=)22 b(0)p Ff(:)p Fe(05)p Fj(\))d(is)j(1/6,)d(respecti)n(v)o(ely)-5 b(.)23 b(Ev)o(erything)18 b(else)i(remains)g(the)g(same.)600 3867 y(Of)45 b(all)h(se)n(v)o(en)e 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y(sho)n(ws)i(for)f(each)g(en)m(vironment)d(mean,)j (standard)g(de)n(viation)f(and)h(con\002dence)f(interv)n(al)g(\(again) 450 3748 y(for)j Ff(\013)25 b Fe(=)e(0)p Ff(:)p Fe(05)p Fj(\))d(for)g(weights)g(for)g(all)i(those)e(runs)h(on)f(which)g(af)n (fecti)n(v)o(e)f(agents)i(survi)n(v)o(ed.)j(The)450 3847 y(abo)o(v)o(e)d(e)o(xperiment)f(also)j(w)o(orks)g(for)f(dif)n(ferent)e (mutation)i(rates)h(as)g(well)g(as)h(dif)n(ferent)c(v)n(alues)450 3947 y(of)h Ff(\034)9 b Fj(.)29 b(Note)21 b(that)g(while)g(in)g(5)g (out)g(of)g(10)g(runs)f(the)h(\223af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)f(use\224)h(of)g (the)g(state)h(w)o(as)g(e)n(v)n(olv)o(ed)450 4047 y(in)e(0-en)m (vironments,)c(only)k(in)g(2)g(out)g(of)f(10)h(runs)g(w)o(as)g(the)h (use)f(e)n(v)n(olv)o(ed)e(in)i(30-en)m(vironments.)600 4146 y(The)h(positi)n(v)o(e)f(v)n(alue)g(of)g(the)h(foodweight)e (indicates)i(that)g(the)f(hunger)f(state)j(deserv)o(es)e(its)450 4246 y(name.)45 b(Y)-8 b(et,)29 b(the)e(magnitudes)e(of)i(the)g(weight) 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y(ti)n(v)o(e)e(states)i(lik)o(e)f(hunger)d(ha)n(v)o(e)i(survi)n (vial)g(v)n(alue,)h(and)f(indicate)g(that)g(in)h(certain)f(competiti)n (v)o(e)450 3349 y(en)m(vironments,)h(if)i(there)g(is)g(an)g(option)e (to)i(de)n(v)o(elop)e(ne)n(w)h(architectural)g(resources)f(that)i(im-) 450 3449 y(plement)21 b(such)g(af)n(fecti)n(v)o(e)f(states,)j(then)e (these)g(resources)g(will)h(lik)o(ely)f(e)n(v)n(olv)o(e.)28 b(Especially)21 b(the)450 3548 y(last)28 b(result)e(is)i(not)e(ob)o (vious,)g(for)g(a)h(reason)f(that)h(mak)o(es)f(the)h(question)f(why)f (higher)h(species)450 3648 y(with)c(more)f(comple)o(x)f(and)h (sophisticated)g(control)f(architectures)h(e)n(v)n(olv)o(ed)f(in)i(the) g(\002rst)g(place)450 3748 y(so)27 b(f)o(ascinating:)38 b(e)n(v)o(ery)26 b(species)h(along)f(an)h(e)n(v)n(olutionary)e (trajectory)g(has)j(to)f(ha)n(v)o(e)f(a)i(viable)450 3847 y(control)18 b(architecture,)g(which)h(allo)n(ws)h(its)g(indi)n (viduals)e(to)i(survi)n(v)o(e)e(and)h(procreate,)f(otherwise)450 3947 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