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Papers by Fatima Rhorchi

Manchester University Press eBooks, Jun 25, 2024

In general, the wife of a reigning king is usually called a queen or queen consort. She normally ... more In general, the wife of a reigning king is usually called a queen or queen consort. She normally shares her husband’s rank and holds the feminine equivalent of the king’s monarchical titles. If we consult the forms of queenship practices around the Mediterranean region, we discover that in both European and North African banks of the basin there are some common features that bring these women together, and some differences that make queenship in each country a special case. For instance, there had been notable queens consort and regent in both the northern and southern sides of the Mediterranean but while some of them occupied prominent and powerful offices, others were excluded from such official political roles and were less publicly visible. The purpose of this paper is not to draw direct comparisons between these queens but to shed light on some aspects of queenship as practiced by a wife of a sultan as a unique type of governance of the realm in the Mediterranean area, prompting a re-examination of long-held assumptions about women and the exercise of power in early modern Morocco.

Palgrave Macmillan eBooks, Jan 3, 2014

The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, ... more The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, is the longest of any sultan of Morocco. He had inherited a country weakened by internal tribal wars and royal succession struggles. Nevertheless, he rejected these forms of political discourse and imposed his authority and consolidated his legitimacy through different means. In particular, Moulay Ismail relied on 'Sharifism', the legitimisation ideology based on the status of being a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed, as a crucial element of religious, political and cultural capital. This prophetic descent and respect for kinship networks earned him strong alliances with both Arab and Berber tribes. This chapter will demonstrate that Moulay Ismail's most effective instrument for his success was a combination of this strategy and the recruitment of the Abid Alboukhari army, composed of foreigners from sub-Saharan tribes whose sole allegiance was to him alone. In the end, however, the fragile balance between these two forces was not maintained by the Sultan's successors, and the Alawi dynasty had to search for a different means of legitimisation and political control.

Routledge eBooks, Jul 14, 2021

Dynastic change, 2019

The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, ... more The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, is the longest of any sultan of Morocco. He had inherited a country weakened by internal tribal wars and royal succession struggles. Nevertheless, he rejected these forms of political discourse and imposed his authority and consolidated his legitimacy through different means. In particular, Moulay Ismail relied on 'Sharifism', the legitimisation ideology based on the status of being a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed, as a crucial element of religious, political and cultural capital. This prophetic descent and respect for kinship networks earned him strong alliances with both Arab and Berber tribes. This chapter will demonstrate that Moulay Ismail's most effective instrument for his success was a combination of this strategy and the recruitment of the Abid Alboukhari army, composed of foreigners from sub-Saharan tribes whose sole allegiance was to him alone. In the end, however, the fragile balance between these two forces was not maintained by the Sultan's successors, and the Alawi dynasty had to search for a different means of legitimisation and political control.

Queenship in the Mediterranean, 2013

Queenship in the Mediterranean, 2013

Dynastic Change: Legitimacy and Gender in Medieval and Early Modern Monarchy, 2019

The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, ... more The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, is the longest of any sultan of Morocco. He had inherited a country weakened by internal tribal wars and royal succession struggles. Nevertheless, he rejected these forms of political discourse and imposed his authority and consolidated his legitimacy through different means. In particular, Moulay Ismail relied on 'Sharifism', the legitimisation ideology based on the status of being a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed, as a crucial element of religious, political and cultural capital. This prophetic descent and respect for kinship networks earned him strong alliances with both Arab and Berber tribes. This chapter will demonstrate that Moulay Ismail's most effective instrument for his success was a combination of this strategy and the recruitment of the Abid Alboukhari army, composed of foreigners from sub-Saharan tribes whose sole allegiance was to him alone. In the end, however, the fragile balance between these two forces was not maintained by the Sultan's successors, and the Alawi dynasty had to search for a different means of legitimisation and political control.

Queenship in the Mediterranean, 2013

Conference Presentations by Fatima Rhorchi

The Role of The Munya as a Backdrop for Drinking Parties and Romantic Trysts.

Hasdai Ibn Shaprut: The first dignitary to serve the Arab Caliphs in Cordoba (Circa 4675-4735; 91... more Hasdai Ibn Shaprut: The first dignitary to serve the Arab Caliphs in Cordoba (Circa 4675-4735; 915-975) By approximately 930, the Jewish family of Hasdai son of Joseph ibn Shaprut had moved from their hometown of Jaen to the Muslim capital of Cordoba, and before many years had passed the relatively young Hasdai began attracting the attention of the courtiers in the royal palace for his unusual intellectual and sentient qualities. Hasdai's great scholarship, and especially his fame as a physician, attracted the attention of Caliph Abarrahman III, in Cordova. The Caliph appointed Hasdai his court physician. By approximately 935 he was himself serving as a royal courtier, and Abd-al-Rahman himself soon began to recognize Hasdai's highly unusual gifts; the latter was fluent in Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin. In fact, it was his knowledge of Latin that helped launch his phenomenal career. Abdurrahman III eventually appointed him major-domo over virtually all affairs of state. Therefore, Hasdai became Inspector General of Customs, and his chief diplomatic adviser. In this capacity, Hasdai continued to serve under the Caliph as well as under his successor, Hakam II, who took over the Caliphate in the year 4721. Several Muslim writers of the Middle Ages have known about Hasdai and as a rule praised him in their Arabic writings-but Hebrew texts of that period offer more detailed descriptions of his remarkable activities while serving Abd-al-Rahman III. Hasdai rendered great service to his land by establishing good diplomatic and commercial relations between the Arab Caliphate and the Christian kingdoms, as far as Byzantium. The foreign diplomats who had occasions to meet Hasdai, thought very highly of him, and praised him to their courts. Emperor Romanus II of Byzantium sent Hasdai a medical text book written in Greek, which Hasdai with the aid of other scholars translated into Arabic. Owing to his great wealth, wisdom, and high rank, Hasdai was in a position to offer great help to his brethren. He was the Nassi (head) of all the Jews of Spain, and did all he could to improve their economic and cultural position. A great Talmudist himself, Hasdai built schools and academies to spread the knowledge of the Torah, and invited Talmud scholars of renown to teach there, supporting both the schools and the scholars from his own means. Hasdai also supported the great Babylonian academies in Sura and Pumbaditha, and kept up a regular correspondence with the Gaonim (leading Talmud Authorities) in Babylon and North Africa, (notably Kairwan). Hence, the purpose of the present paper is to shed more light on the role and importance of this historical figure as the first dignitary to serve the Arab Caliphs in Cordova who managed to become very close to the caliph, play an influential role in the caliphate and facilitated in a significant way the interaction of the latter with the outside world.

The Muslim Sultanian harem is generally regarded as the most prestigious but also the most firmly... more The Muslim Sultanian harem is generally regarded as the most prestigious but also the most firmly concealed spheres of the kingdom. This prestige and mystery has attracted historians' attention to this object of study at an early stage. However, the Sultanian harems in the Maghreb are on the contrary much less studied than the generic institution of the harem. Historians have tended to take for granted a principle of opacity concerning the life of the harem, the idea that there was a world by definition private, inaccessible to knowledge.1
According to Nicolas Michel's otherwise well-researched study of pre-colonial Morocco, ‘the desire to absolutely conceal the private life of the Sultan from outsiders was consistent with the customs of good society, and gave the palace a very different image of the European courts, founded on the contrary on the public character of all acts, including family of the sovereign.’2
In Morocco, marriage ceremonies within the Alawi Dynasty have always constituted one of the occasions in which the meticulously safeguarded ancestral heritage is and thoroughly carried out and proudly displayed as a symbol of continuity and legitimacy. 3

It is a legacy that usually dates back to five centuries, the first of which was under the reign of Sultan Moulay Ismail (1672- 1727) the founding father of the current royal dynasty in Morocco.
Late King Hassan II (1961- 1999) is considered the monarch who was keen on reviving many of the rituals and customs of great significance and symbolism

The Constant and the Changed in the Traditions of Royal Marriage in Morocco: The Alawi... more The Constant and the Changed in the Traditions of Royal Marriage in Morocco: The Alawi Dynasty, 1672- to Present.

The Muslim Sultanian harem is generally regarded as the most prestigious but also the most firmly concealed spheres of the kingdom. This prestige and mystery has attracted historians' attention to this object of study at an early stage. However, the Sultanian harems in the Maghreb are on the contrary much less studied than the generic institution of the harem. Historians have tended to take for granted a principle of opacity concerning the life of the harem, the idea that there was a world by definition private, inaccessible to knowledge.1
According to Nicolas Michel's otherwise well-researched study of pre-colonial Morocco, ‘the desire to absolutely conceal the private life of the Sultan from outsiders was consistent with the customs of good society, and gave the palace a very different image of the European courts, founded on the contrary on the public character of all acts, including family of the sovereign.’2
In Morocco, marriage ceremonies within the Alawi Dynasty have always constituted one of the occasions in which the meticulously safeguarded ancestral heritage is and thoroughly carried out and proudly displayed as a symbol of continuity and legitimacy. 3

It is a legacy that usually dates back to five centuries, the first of which was under the reign of Sultan Moulay Ismail (1672- 1727) the founding father of the current royal dynasty in Morocco.
Late King Hassan II (1961- 1999) is considered the monarch who was keen on reviving many of the rituals and customs of great significance and symbolism.

As P. G. Rogers describes it: "the course of Anglo-Moroccan relations, like true love, never ran... more As P. G. Rogers describes it: "the course of Anglo-Moroccan relations, like true love, never ran consistently smooth." According to historians, it took many centuries for the two countries to know one another and to trust one another. British-Moroccan relations were always vigorously dynamic and were never characterized by indifference or lack of concern. However, these relations witnessed periods of tension but there were much of the time long periods of mutual respect, friendship, alliances and cooperation. Britain has been a political and an economic partner for Morocco since the 16 th Century and for the whole of the 19 th Century it was the first ally and partner of the country during a key period of its history. Despite occasional disagreements and misunderstandings, mutual interests and alliances against their common enemies brought the two countries to close cooperation and the signing of many peace and trade treaties. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were characterized by an increasing interest in the barbary as a trading partner and a potential threat to European maritime activities. With the development of British imperial projects, Morocco has become a popular commercial, diplomatic, and tourist destination for many British citizens. In addition to its appeal as an English market, Morocco was a potential supplier of gold and sugar, most of which were a useful resource for Gibraltar. " Throughout the common history of Morocco and Britain, many peace treaties have been signed and British ambassadors have encouraged Morocco to undertake deep reforms of its old administration and trade policies, particularly by opening its borders to European trade and modernizing its administrative methods. In the 19th Century, a remarkably close British-Moroccan relationship developed under two successive British Consuls-General, Edward Drummond-Hay (1829-45) and his son Sir John Drummond-Hay (1845-86).On his retirement in 1886, Sir John Drummond-Hay wrote that he would never forget the kindness of Moroccans, and went on to list a number of the Sultan's officials whom he counted as personal friends. Sultan Moulay Hassan replied that he regarded Hay as a sincere friend and said that his departure caused great sorrow. However, this British-Moroccan cooperation is seen in a different light with his Son Sir John Drummond-Hay who did not hesitate to press the sultans and force them to take many initiatives that do not necessarily serve the interests of Morocco. For instance, the signing of a general agreement in 1856, which will open the door wide in the face of European intervention and it has finally put an end to the sovereignty of the Sultan and has deprived him of any possibility of exercising his rights to maritime trade. Hence, the purpose of the present paper is to highlight the ups and downs of the Anglo-Moroccan diplomatic relations.

The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. It... more The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. Its beginning was not sharply marked by any one event but rather by the constellation of several historical developments. Despite the general thinness of sources for the period, it is considered by historians as the formative period that shaped much of Morocco's prevailing religious and political style for the following centuries. During the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad Al-Mansur (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a golden age The maraboutic crisis was a crisis of the state, the Sa'dian state, rather than a crisis of maraboutism. In so far as there was a crisis in regard to the marabouts, this must be understood in political terms as a reference to their prominence in the politics of Morocco during the prolonged interregnum following the collapse of the state after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603. No sooner had al-Mansur died (1603) than his three sons Zidan, Abu Faris, and Muhammad al-Shaikh engaged in a bloody and ruinous power struggle. The ensuing civil war (1603-1609) ended with the victory of Zidan, whose writ hardly extended beyond the southern capital city of Marrakech. The aftermath of the war was the demise of the state, and the dismemberment of the fragile political structure. This "feudalization" or fragmentation of authority in Morocco was epitomized by the expansion of the jurisdictions of the marabouts to fill the political vacuum occasioned by the eclipse of the Sa'dian state. The zawiya, the center of activity of the marabouts, has been likened to the monastery in medieval Europe. Each zawiya is founded on a particular mystic or sufi doctrine, namely a corpus of ideas and rites constituting a theosophical system, a way (tariqa). Ironically, however, it was from a quarter much less known in Moroccan politics, namely the sharifan house of Sijilmasa in the Tafilalet, that a new dynasty was to emerge in Morocco to resolve the political impasse. Hence, as a process of "progress-Crisis-Restoration" the purpose of the present paper is to shed light on this critical period in the history of Morocco in order to show how the state after several years of prosperity sank in a prolonged interregnum which only a fresh new dynasty, namely the Alawi dynasty could stabilize.

In the eleventh century, a dynasty generated in Morocco from a religious and political movement f... more In the eleventh century, a dynasty generated in Morocco from a religious and political movement founded by the Berber tribes of the southern

Drafts by Fatima Rhorchi

Conference Presentation Lancaster University, 2020

The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. It... more The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. Its beginning was not sharply marked by any one event but rather by the constellation of several historical developments. Despite the general thinness of sources for the period, it is considered by historians as the formative period that shaped much of Morocco's prevailing religious and political style for the following centuries. During the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad Al-Mansur (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a golden age The maraboutic crisis was a crisis of the state, the Sa'dian state, rather than a crisis of maraboutism. In so far as there was a crisis in regard to the marabouts, this must be understood in political terms as a reference to their prominence in the politics of Morocco during the prolonged interregnum following the collapse of the state after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603. No sooner had al-Mansur died (1603) than his three sons Zidan, Abu Faris, and Muhammad al-Shaikh engaged in a bloody and ruinous power struggle. The ensuing civil war (1603-1609) ended with the victory of Zidan, whose writ hardly extended beyond the southern capital city of Marrakech. The aftermath of the war was the demise of the state, and the dismemberment of the fragile political structure. This "feudalization" or fragmentation of authority in Morocco was epitomized by the expansion of the jurisdictions of the marabouts to fill the political vacuum occasioned by the eclipse of the Sa'dian state. The zawiya, the center of activity of the marabouts, has been likened to the monastery in medieval Europe. Each zawiya is founded on a particular mystic or sufi doctrine, namely a corpus of ideas and rites constituting a theosophical system, a way (tariqa). Ironically, however, it was from a quarter much less known in Moroccan politics, namely the sharifan house of Sijilmasa in the Tafilalet, that a new dynasty was to emerge in Morocco to resolve the political impasse. Hence, as a process of "progress-Crisis-Restoration" the purpose of the present paper is to shed light on this critical period in the history of Morocco in order to show how the state after several years of prosperity sank in a prolonged interregnum which only a fresh new dynasty, namely the Alawi dynasty could stabilize.

Manchester University Press eBooks, Jun 25, 2024

In general, the wife of a reigning king is usually called a queen or queen consort. She normally ... more In general, the wife of a reigning king is usually called a queen or queen consort. She normally shares her husband’s rank and holds the feminine equivalent of the king’s monarchical titles. If we consult the forms of queenship practices around the Mediterranean region, we discover that in both European and North African banks of the basin there are some common features that bring these women together, and some differences that make queenship in each country a special case. For instance, there had been notable queens consort and regent in both the northern and southern sides of the Mediterranean but while some of them occupied prominent and powerful offices, others were excluded from such official political roles and were less publicly visible. The purpose of this paper is not to draw direct comparisons between these queens but to shed light on some aspects of queenship as practiced by a wife of a sultan as a unique type of governance of the realm in the Mediterranean area, prompting a re-examination of long-held assumptions about women and the exercise of power in early modern Morocco.

Palgrave Macmillan eBooks, Jan 3, 2014

The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, ... more The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, is the longest of any sultan of Morocco. He had inherited a country weakened by internal tribal wars and royal succession struggles. Nevertheless, he rejected these forms of political discourse and imposed his authority and consolidated his legitimacy through different means. In particular, Moulay Ismail relied on 'Sharifism', the legitimisation ideology based on the status of being a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed, as a crucial element of religious, political and cultural capital. This prophetic descent and respect for kinship networks earned him strong alliances with both Arab and Berber tribes. This chapter will demonstrate that Moulay Ismail's most effective instrument for his success was a combination of this strategy and the recruitment of the Abid Alboukhari army, composed of foreigners from sub-Saharan tribes whose sole allegiance was to him alone. In the end, however, the fragile balance between these two forces was not maintained by the Sultan's successors, and the Alawi dynasty had to search for a different means of legitimisation and political control.

Routledge eBooks, Jul 14, 2021

Dynastic change, 2019

The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, ... more The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, is the longest of any sultan of Morocco. He had inherited a country weakened by internal tribal wars and royal succession struggles. Nevertheless, he rejected these forms of political discourse and imposed his authority and consolidated his legitimacy through different means. In particular, Moulay Ismail relied on 'Sharifism', the legitimisation ideology based on the status of being a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed, as a crucial element of religious, political and cultural capital. This prophetic descent and respect for kinship networks earned him strong alliances with both Arab and Berber tribes. This chapter will demonstrate that Moulay Ismail's most effective instrument for his success was a combination of this strategy and the recruitment of the Abid Alboukhari army, composed of foreigners from sub-Saharan tribes whose sole allegiance was to him alone. In the end, however, the fragile balance between these two forces was not maintained by the Sultan's successors, and the Alawi dynasty had to search for a different means of legitimisation and political control.

Queenship in the Mediterranean, 2013

Queenship in the Mediterranean, 2013

Dynastic Change: Legitimacy and Gender in Medieval and Early Modern Monarchy, 2019

The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, ... more The fifty-five-year reign of Moulay Ismail, the founder of the Alawi dynasty, from 1672 to 1727, is the longest of any sultan of Morocco. He had inherited a country weakened by internal tribal wars and royal succession struggles. Nevertheless, he rejected these forms of political discourse and imposed his authority and consolidated his legitimacy through different means. In particular, Moulay Ismail relied on 'Sharifism', the legitimisation ideology based on the status of being a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed, as a crucial element of religious, political and cultural capital. This prophetic descent and respect for kinship networks earned him strong alliances with both Arab and Berber tribes. This chapter will demonstrate that Moulay Ismail's most effective instrument for his success was a combination of this strategy and the recruitment of the Abid Alboukhari army, composed of foreigners from sub-Saharan tribes whose sole allegiance was to him alone. In the end, however, the fragile balance between these two forces was not maintained by the Sultan's successors, and the Alawi dynasty had to search for a different means of legitimisation and political control.

Queenship in the Mediterranean, 2013

The Role of The Munya as a Backdrop for Drinking Parties and Romantic Trysts.

Hasdai Ibn Shaprut: The first dignitary to serve the Arab Caliphs in Cordoba (Circa 4675-4735; 91... more Hasdai Ibn Shaprut: The first dignitary to serve the Arab Caliphs in Cordoba (Circa 4675-4735; 915-975) By approximately 930, the Jewish family of Hasdai son of Joseph ibn Shaprut had moved from their hometown of Jaen to the Muslim capital of Cordoba, and before many years had passed the relatively young Hasdai began attracting the attention of the courtiers in the royal palace for his unusual intellectual and sentient qualities. Hasdai's great scholarship, and especially his fame as a physician, attracted the attention of Caliph Abarrahman III, in Cordova. The Caliph appointed Hasdai his court physician. By approximately 935 he was himself serving as a royal courtier, and Abd-al-Rahman himself soon began to recognize Hasdai's highly unusual gifts; the latter was fluent in Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin. In fact, it was his knowledge of Latin that helped launch his phenomenal career. Abdurrahman III eventually appointed him major-domo over virtually all affairs of state. Therefore, Hasdai became Inspector General of Customs, and his chief diplomatic adviser. In this capacity, Hasdai continued to serve under the Caliph as well as under his successor, Hakam II, who took over the Caliphate in the year 4721. Several Muslim writers of the Middle Ages have known about Hasdai and as a rule praised him in their Arabic writings-but Hebrew texts of that period offer more detailed descriptions of his remarkable activities while serving Abd-al-Rahman III. Hasdai rendered great service to his land by establishing good diplomatic and commercial relations between the Arab Caliphate and the Christian kingdoms, as far as Byzantium. The foreign diplomats who had occasions to meet Hasdai, thought very highly of him, and praised him to their courts. Emperor Romanus II of Byzantium sent Hasdai a medical text book written in Greek, which Hasdai with the aid of other scholars translated into Arabic. Owing to his great wealth, wisdom, and high rank, Hasdai was in a position to offer great help to his brethren. He was the Nassi (head) of all the Jews of Spain, and did all he could to improve their economic and cultural position. A great Talmudist himself, Hasdai built schools and academies to spread the knowledge of the Torah, and invited Talmud scholars of renown to teach there, supporting both the schools and the scholars from his own means. Hasdai also supported the great Babylonian academies in Sura and Pumbaditha, and kept up a regular correspondence with the Gaonim (leading Talmud Authorities) in Babylon and North Africa, (notably Kairwan). Hence, the purpose of the present paper is to shed more light on the role and importance of this historical figure as the first dignitary to serve the Arab Caliphs in Cordova who managed to become very close to the caliph, play an influential role in the caliphate and facilitated in a significant way the interaction of the latter with the outside world.

The Muslim Sultanian harem is generally regarded as the most prestigious but also the most firmly... more The Muslim Sultanian harem is generally regarded as the most prestigious but also the most firmly concealed spheres of the kingdom. This prestige and mystery has attracted historians' attention to this object of study at an early stage. However, the Sultanian harems in the Maghreb are on the contrary much less studied than the generic institution of the harem. Historians have tended to take for granted a principle of opacity concerning the life of the harem, the idea that there was a world by definition private, inaccessible to knowledge.1
According to Nicolas Michel's otherwise well-researched study of pre-colonial Morocco, ‘the desire to absolutely conceal the private life of the Sultan from outsiders was consistent with the customs of good society, and gave the palace a very different image of the European courts, founded on the contrary on the public character of all acts, including family of the sovereign.’2
In Morocco, marriage ceremonies within the Alawi Dynasty have always constituted one of the occasions in which the meticulously safeguarded ancestral heritage is and thoroughly carried out and proudly displayed as a symbol of continuity and legitimacy. 3

It is a legacy that usually dates back to five centuries, the first of which was under the reign of Sultan Moulay Ismail (1672- 1727) the founding father of the current royal dynasty in Morocco.
Late King Hassan II (1961- 1999) is considered the monarch who was keen on reviving many of the rituals and customs of great significance and symbolism

The Constant and the Changed in the Traditions of Royal Marriage in Morocco: The Alawi... more The Constant and the Changed in the Traditions of Royal Marriage in Morocco: The Alawi Dynasty, 1672- to Present.

The Muslim Sultanian harem is generally regarded as the most prestigious but also the most firmly concealed spheres of the kingdom. This prestige and mystery has attracted historians' attention to this object of study at an early stage. However, the Sultanian harems in the Maghreb are on the contrary much less studied than the generic institution of the harem. Historians have tended to take for granted a principle of opacity concerning the life of the harem, the idea that there was a world by definition private, inaccessible to knowledge.1
According to Nicolas Michel's otherwise well-researched study of pre-colonial Morocco, ‘the desire to absolutely conceal the private life of the Sultan from outsiders was consistent with the customs of good society, and gave the palace a very different image of the European courts, founded on the contrary on the public character of all acts, including family of the sovereign.’2
In Morocco, marriage ceremonies within the Alawi Dynasty have always constituted one of the occasions in which the meticulously safeguarded ancestral heritage is and thoroughly carried out and proudly displayed as a symbol of continuity and legitimacy. 3

It is a legacy that usually dates back to five centuries, the first of which was under the reign of Sultan Moulay Ismail (1672- 1727) the founding father of the current royal dynasty in Morocco.
Late King Hassan II (1961- 1999) is considered the monarch who was keen on reviving many of the rituals and customs of great significance and symbolism.

As P. G. Rogers describes it: "the course of Anglo-Moroccan relations, like true love, never ran... more As P. G. Rogers describes it: "the course of Anglo-Moroccan relations, like true love, never ran consistently smooth." According to historians, it took many centuries for the two countries to know one another and to trust one another. British-Moroccan relations were always vigorously dynamic and were never characterized by indifference or lack of concern. However, these relations witnessed periods of tension but there were much of the time long periods of mutual respect, friendship, alliances and cooperation. Britain has been a political and an economic partner for Morocco since the 16 th Century and for the whole of the 19 th Century it was the first ally and partner of the country during a key period of its history. Despite occasional disagreements and misunderstandings, mutual interests and alliances against their common enemies brought the two countries to close cooperation and the signing of many peace and trade treaties. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were characterized by an increasing interest in the barbary as a trading partner and a potential threat to European maritime activities. With the development of British imperial projects, Morocco has become a popular commercial, diplomatic, and tourist destination for many British citizens. In addition to its appeal as an English market, Morocco was a potential supplier of gold and sugar, most of which were a useful resource for Gibraltar. " Throughout the common history of Morocco and Britain, many peace treaties have been signed and British ambassadors have encouraged Morocco to undertake deep reforms of its old administration and trade policies, particularly by opening its borders to European trade and modernizing its administrative methods. In the 19th Century, a remarkably close British-Moroccan relationship developed under two successive British Consuls-General, Edward Drummond-Hay (1829-45) and his son Sir John Drummond-Hay (1845-86).On his retirement in 1886, Sir John Drummond-Hay wrote that he would never forget the kindness of Moroccans, and went on to list a number of the Sultan's officials whom he counted as personal friends. Sultan Moulay Hassan replied that he regarded Hay as a sincere friend and said that his departure caused great sorrow. However, this British-Moroccan cooperation is seen in a different light with his Son Sir John Drummond-Hay who did not hesitate to press the sultans and force them to take many initiatives that do not necessarily serve the interests of Morocco. For instance, the signing of a general agreement in 1856, which will open the door wide in the face of European intervention and it has finally put an end to the sovereignty of the Sultan and has deprived him of any possibility of exercising his rights to maritime trade. Hence, the purpose of the present paper is to highlight the ups and downs of the Anglo-Moroccan diplomatic relations.

The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. It... more The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. Its beginning was not sharply marked by any one event but rather by the constellation of several historical developments. Despite the general thinness of sources for the period, it is considered by historians as the formative period that shaped much of Morocco's prevailing religious and political style for the following centuries. During the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad Al-Mansur (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a golden age The maraboutic crisis was a crisis of the state, the Sa'dian state, rather than a crisis of maraboutism. In so far as there was a crisis in regard to the marabouts, this must be understood in political terms as a reference to their prominence in the politics of Morocco during the prolonged interregnum following the collapse of the state after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603. No sooner had al-Mansur died (1603) than his three sons Zidan, Abu Faris, and Muhammad al-Shaikh engaged in a bloody and ruinous power struggle. The ensuing civil war (1603-1609) ended with the victory of Zidan, whose writ hardly extended beyond the southern capital city of Marrakech. The aftermath of the war was the demise of the state, and the dismemberment of the fragile political structure. This "feudalization" or fragmentation of authority in Morocco was epitomized by the expansion of the jurisdictions of the marabouts to fill the political vacuum occasioned by the eclipse of the Sa'dian state. The zawiya, the center of activity of the marabouts, has been likened to the monastery in medieval Europe. Each zawiya is founded on a particular mystic or sufi doctrine, namely a corpus of ideas and rites constituting a theosophical system, a way (tariqa). Ironically, however, it was from a quarter much less known in Moroccan politics, namely the sharifan house of Sijilmasa in the Tafilalet, that a new dynasty was to emerge in Morocco to resolve the political impasse. Hence, as a process of "progress-Crisis-Restoration" the purpose of the present paper is to shed light on this critical period in the history of Morocco in order to show how the state after several years of prosperity sank in a prolonged interregnum which only a fresh new dynasty, namely the Alawi dynasty could stabilize.

In the eleventh century, a dynasty generated in Morocco from a religious and political movement f... more In the eleventh century, a dynasty generated in Morocco from a religious and political movement founded by the Berber tribes of the southern

Conference Presentation Lancaster University, 2020

The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. It... more The Maraboutic crisis lasted from roughly the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century. Its beginning was not sharply marked by any one event but rather by the constellation of several historical developments. Despite the general thinness of sources for the period, it is considered by historians as the formative period that shaped much of Morocco's prevailing religious and political style for the following centuries. During the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad Al-Mansur (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a golden age The maraboutic crisis was a crisis of the state, the Sa'dian state, rather than a crisis of maraboutism. In so far as there was a crisis in regard to the marabouts, this must be understood in political terms as a reference to their prominence in the politics of Morocco during the prolonged interregnum following the collapse of the state after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603. No sooner had al-Mansur died (1603) than his three sons Zidan, Abu Faris, and Muhammad al-Shaikh engaged in a bloody and ruinous power struggle. The ensuing civil war (1603-1609) ended with the victory of Zidan, whose writ hardly extended beyond the southern capital city of Marrakech. The aftermath of the war was the demise of the state, and the dismemberment of the fragile political structure. This "feudalization" or fragmentation of authority in Morocco was epitomized by the expansion of the jurisdictions of the marabouts to fill the political vacuum occasioned by the eclipse of the Sa'dian state. The zawiya, the center of activity of the marabouts, has been likened to the monastery in medieval Europe. Each zawiya is founded on a particular mystic or sufi doctrine, namely a corpus of ideas and rites constituting a theosophical system, a way (tariqa). Ironically, however, it was from a quarter much less known in Moroccan politics, namely the sharifan house of Sijilmasa in the Tafilalet, that a new dynasty was to emerge in Morocco to resolve the political impasse. Hence, as a process of "progress-Crisis-Restoration" the purpose of the present paper is to shed light on this critical period in the history of Morocco in order to show how the state after several years of prosperity sank in a prolonged interregnum which only a fresh new dynasty, namely the Alawi dynasty could stabilize.