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Papers by Josephine Munch Rasmussen

How do recently crafted objects of dubious provenance become ancient manuscripts of serious scien... more How do recently crafted objects of dubious provenance become ancient manuscripts of serious scientific interest? In this article, we will explore the curious case of Hazon Gabriel. We will demonstrate how this unprovenanced stone inscription was turned into an “authentic” artifact with an ideal provenance, and we will discuss the role of the owner and the scholarly community in this process.

Heritage, 2020

In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that me... more In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that merit concern: the decimation of the cultural heritage of war-torn countries, proliferation of corruption, ideological connotations of orientalism, financial support of terrorism, and participation in networks involved in money laundering, weapon sales, human trafficking and drugs. Moreover, trafficking and trading also have a harmful effect on the fabric of academia itself. This study uses open sources to track the history of the private Schøyen Collection, and the researchers and public institutions that have worked with and supported the collector. Focussing on the public debates that evolved around the Buddhist manuscripts and other looted or illicitly obtained material from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq, this article unravels strategies to whitewash Schøyen’s and his research groups’ activities. Numerous elements are familiar from the field of antiquities trafficking research and as ...

Open Archaeology, 2016

Metal detecting has become a popular hobby in Norway. The use of metal detectors is legal, as lon... more Metal detecting has become a popular hobby in Norway. The use of metal detectors is legal, as long as one has the landowner‘s permission, and complies with the Norwegian Cultural Heritage Act. As in other countries, the relationship between private metal detecting and archaeology is complex. The perspectives and experiences of archaeologists and heritage management representatives in regard to what challenges and positive effects that arise from private metal detecting varies greatly. With this article we wish to address various sides of the relationship openly.

Norwegian Archaeological Review, 2014

Private metal detecting is frequently suggested as a favourable recipe for saving objects that wo... more Private metal detecting is frequently suggested as a favourable recipe for saving objects that would otherwise perish in agricultural fields in Norway. Metal detector communities portray themselves as heritage rescuers. For this they receive considerable praise from sympathetic archaeologists and museum staff. By contrast, finders who keep objects for themselves are portrayed as so-called nighthawks. However, accounts from informants who collect, trade or search for archaeological objects reflect more ambivalent attitudes than the idealized image of heritage rescuers and the hostile image of nighthawks indicate. In this article, the issue of private metal detecting is approached through recorded interviews, official correspondence in public archives and informal accounts in online forums. Norwegian cultural heritage law forms a background to the analysis, while certain legal concepts are employed more actively. The relation between museums and detectorists is deconstructed and explored through the legal provisions on receiving and laundering the proceeds of criminal acts in Norway’s General Civil Penal Code. It is argued here that, while it might seem practical from the point-of-view of museums to assume that finds that are handed in according to law also have been legally procured, such acceptance might also be understood as unlawful legitimation.

Critical Arts, 2021

While the history of Norwegian museum acquisitions and collection formation has long been a topic... more While the history of Norwegian museum acquisitions and collection formation has long been a topic of research, the extent to which colonial structures are still embedded in various Norwegian collecting institutions is seldom addressed. In this paper, we discuss the legacy of colonial collections in Norway through two case studies; Inge Heiberg’s collection of Congo ethnographica in various exhibitions at the University of Oslo’s Museum of Cultural History from the early 1900s to the present; and the Norwegian Kon-Tiki Museum’s initiative to repatriate human remains and other material excavated by Thor Heyerdahl on Rapa Nui in the 1950s. Presenting two cases that have been promoted as attempts at decolonisation – apparent “best practice” scenarios – we ask how the collections of Heiberg and Heyerdahl are used in current research and representations, and discuss whether the exhibiting and repatriation of the collections represent a continuation of, rather than break from colonial museum practice. We argue that attempts to revise current exhibition practices and research agendas prove consistently difficult. We conclude that in their very different ways, the cases illustrate that museums are effectively trapped in their collections. Heyerdahl and Heiberg still have the privilege of being curators of their collections.

Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 00293652 2014 957236, Oct 31, 2014

First of all I wish to thank the discussants for the many insightful comments to the article ‘Sec... more First of all I wish to thank the discussants for the many insightful comments to the article ‘Securing cultural heritage and fencing stolen goods?’ (Rasmussen 2014). The commentary format offers limited space and my response is focused on what I find to be the central issues raised by the other discussants. Hopefully, this will not serve to close or finalize the debate, but as a continuation of the discussion. (...)

Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia

Academic research on newly discovered ancient Buddhist manuscripts is largely based on objects th... more Academic research on newly discovered ancient Buddhist manuscripts is largely based on objects that come from the antiquities market and to a much lesser degree on objects coming from documented and controlled archaeological excavations. Despite their being unprovenanced, collectors and scholars often present such objects with narratives mimicking provenance. The use of the label "Dead Sea Scrolls" attached to archaeological material without connections to Judaism or early Christianity is a prevalent example of this scholarly praxis. In this article, we deconstruct provenance narratives associated with the undocumented Buddhist manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection and discuss their implications for research on these manuscripts and beyond. On cover:ANNIBALE CARRACCI (BOLOGNA 1560 - ROME 1609), An Allegory of Truth and Time c. 1584-1585.Oil on canvas | 130,0 x 169,6 cm. (support, canvas/panel/str external) | RCIN 404770Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabe...

Dead Sea Discoveries

In the course of the last eighteen years more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments have surfa... more In the course of the last eighteen years more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments have surfaced on the antiquities market. These are commonly referred to as post-2002 Dead Sea Scrolls-like fragments. A growing number of scholars regard a substantial part of them as forgeries. In this article, we will discuss four more dubious fragments, but this time from the 20th Century—or at least from pre-2002. Two of the fragments have been known since the late nineties and are published in the DJD series. One was published in Revue de Qumran (2003), and one in Gleanings from the Caves (2016). All four are today accepted as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls dataset even though they are unprovenanced and have made-up—or at least very adaptable—lists of previous owners. In this article, we will critically review their provenance and discuss the lack of proper interest in provenance on the part of the collector who owns them and the scholars who published them.

Morgenbladet, 2020

I forrige utgave av Morgenbladet kommenterer Martin Schøyen vår artikkel i Heritage om manuskript... more I forrige utgave av Morgenbladet kommenterer Martin Schøyen vår artikkel i Heritage om manuskriptsamlingen hans. På bakgrunn av et stort antall kilder mener vi at Schøyen gikk langt i å konstruere en misvisende historie til et gjenstandsmateriale i samlingen som trolig ble plyndret og ulovlig fjernet fra Pakistan og Afghanistan.
I stedet for å svare på spørsmål som reises i artikkelen, beskylder Schøyen oss for slett forskningsarbeid. Han innvender at vi har basert oss på «ukritisk bruk av internett». Kildene i artikkelen vår er forskningspublikasjoner fra Schøyens egen offisielle serie, i tillegg til andre åpne kilder, som enhver kan kontrollere. Når det gjelder nettbaserte kilder, så er Schøyens egen database en av disse. På bakgrunn av publisert forskning, offentlige dokumenter, brev og medieoppslag, har vi også vurdert opplysningene i Schøyens database. Vi har også tatt for oss den sjangeren av smigrende omtaler Schøyen gjerne henviser til. Schøyen er velkommen til å peke på mangler i kildene og i vår analyse, gjerne i form av en åpen redegjørelse med dokumentasjon på samlingens opphav og eierhistorie.
Det hadde tjent saken om Schøyen forteller hvem han har handlet buddhistiske manuskripter fra.

The Ancient Near East Today, 2019

Since 2002 more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments surfaced on the antiquities market. The ... more Since 2002 more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments surfaced on the antiquities market. The majority were bought for astronomical prices by wealthy collectors and, since 2009, by several American evangelical institutions. Most of the fragments seem to come from Bethlehem antiquities dealer William Kando, son of Khalil Iskander Shahin, or “Kando,” known among scholars and collectors as the first dealer in Dead Sea Scrolls and associated antiquities. But what are these post-2002 “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments and where did they come from?

Plyndring og forfalskning av kulturhistorisk materiale blir stadig mer utbredt. Forskere bidrar s... more Plyndring og forfalskning av kulturhistorisk materiale blir stadig mer utbredt. Forskere bidrar sterkt til dette markedet.

Innlegg på Kulturrikets tilstand. Litteraturhuset 29. 10.2015

Dissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor (PhD)

Stop heritage Crime: Good practices and recommendations. p. 117-120. National Heritage Board of Poland, Warshawa, 2011

Ramskjaer, L., A. Nyhamar, A. Chabiera, M. Aniszewski: Stop przestpczoci przeciwko dziedzictwu: dobre praktyki i Rekomendacje, 117- 120.

How do recently crafted objects of dubious provenance become ancient manuscripts of serious scien... more How do recently crafted objects of dubious provenance become ancient manuscripts of serious scientific interest? In this article, we will explore the curious case of Hazon Gabriel. We will demonstrate how this unprovenanced stone inscription was turned into an “authentic” artifact with an ideal provenance, and we will discuss the role of the owner and the scholarly community in this process.

Heritage, 2020

In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that me... more In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that merit concern: the decimation of the cultural heritage of war-torn countries, proliferation of corruption, ideological connotations of orientalism, financial support of terrorism, and participation in networks involved in money laundering, weapon sales, human trafficking and drugs. Moreover, trafficking and trading also have a harmful effect on the fabric of academia itself. This study uses open sources to track the history of the private Schøyen Collection, and the researchers and public institutions that have worked with and supported the collector. Focussing on the public debates that evolved around the Buddhist manuscripts and other looted or illicitly obtained material from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq, this article unravels strategies to whitewash Schøyen’s and his research groups’ activities. Numerous elements are familiar from the field of antiquities trafficking research and as ...

Open Archaeology, 2016

Metal detecting has become a popular hobby in Norway. The use of metal detectors is legal, as lon... more Metal detecting has become a popular hobby in Norway. The use of metal detectors is legal, as long as one has the landowner‘s permission, and complies with the Norwegian Cultural Heritage Act. As in other countries, the relationship between private metal detecting and archaeology is complex. The perspectives and experiences of archaeologists and heritage management representatives in regard to what challenges and positive effects that arise from private metal detecting varies greatly. With this article we wish to address various sides of the relationship openly.

Norwegian Archaeological Review, 2014

Private metal detecting is frequently suggested as a favourable recipe for saving objects that wo... more Private metal detecting is frequently suggested as a favourable recipe for saving objects that would otherwise perish in agricultural fields in Norway. Metal detector communities portray themselves as heritage rescuers. For this they receive considerable praise from sympathetic archaeologists and museum staff. By contrast, finders who keep objects for themselves are portrayed as so-called nighthawks. However, accounts from informants who collect, trade or search for archaeological objects reflect more ambivalent attitudes than the idealized image of heritage rescuers and the hostile image of nighthawks indicate. In this article, the issue of private metal detecting is approached through recorded interviews, official correspondence in public archives and informal accounts in online forums. Norwegian cultural heritage law forms a background to the analysis, while certain legal concepts are employed more actively. The relation between museums and detectorists is deconstructed and explored through the legal provisions on receiving and laundering the proceeds of criminal acts in Norway’s General Civil Penal Code. It is argued here that, while it might seem practical from the point-of-view of museums to assume that finds that are handed in according to law also have been legally procured, such acceptance might also be understood as unlawful legitimation.

Critical Arts, 2021

While the history of Norwegian museum acquisitions and collection formation has long been a topic... more While the history of Norwegian museum acquisitions and collection formation has long been a topic of research, the extent to which colonial structures are still embedded in various Norwegian collecting institutions is seldom addressed. In this paper, we discuss the legacy of colonial collections in Norway through two case studies; Inge Heiberg’s collection of Congo ethnographica in various exhibitions at the University of Oslo’s Museum of Cultural History from the early 1900s to the present; and the Norwegian Kon-Tiki Museum’s initiative to repatriate human remains and other material excavated by Thor Heyerdahl on Rapa Nui in the 1950s. Presenting two cases that have been promoted as attempts at decolonisation – apparent “best practice” scenarios – we ask how the collections of Heiberg and Heyerdahl are used in current research and representations, and discuss whether the exhibiting and repatriation of the collections represent a continuation of, rather than break from colonial museum practice. We argue that attempts to revise current exhibition practices and research agendas prove consistently difficult. We conclude that in their very different ways, the cases illustrate that museums are effectively trapped in their collections. Heyerdahl and Heiberg still have the privilege of being curators of their collections.

Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 00293652 2014 957236, Oct 31, 2014

First of all I wish to thank the discussants for the many insightful comments to the article ‘Sec... more First of all I wish to thank the discussants for the many insightful comments to the article ‘Securing cultural heritage and fencing stolen goods?’ (Rasmussen 2014). The commentary format offers limited space and my response is focused on what I find to be the central issues raised by the other discussants. Hopefully, this will not serve to close or finalize the debate, but as a continuation of the discussion. (...)

Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia

Academic research on newly discovered ancient Buddhist manuscripts is largely based on objects th... more Academic research on newly discovered ancient Buddhist manuscripts is largely based on objects that come from the antiquities market and to a much lesser degree on objects coming from documented and controlled archaeological excavations. Despite their being unprovenanced, collectors and scholars often present such objects with narratives mimicking provenance. The use of the label "Dead Sea Scrolls" attached to archaeological material without connections to Judaism or early Christianity is a prevalent example of this scholarly praxis. In this article, we deconstruct provenance narratives associated with the undocumented Buddhist manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection and discuss their implications for research on these manuscripts and beyond. On cover:ANNIBALE CARRACCI (BOLOGNA 1560 - ROME 1609), An Allegory of Truth and Time c. 1584-1585.Oil on canvas | 130,0 x 169,6 cm. (support, canvas/panel/str external) | RCIN 404770Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabe...

Dead Sea Discoveries

In the course of the last eighteen years more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments have surfa... more In the course of the last eighteen years more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments have surfaced on the antiquities market. These are commonly referred to as post-2002 Dead Sea Scrolls-like fragments. A growing number of scholars regard a substantial part of them as forgeries. In this article, we will discuss four more dubious fragments, but this time from the 20th Century—or at least from pre-2002. Two of the fragments have been known since the late nineties and are published in the DJD series. One was published in Revue de Qumran (2003), and one in Gleanings from the Caves (2016). All four are today accepted as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls dataset even though they are unprovenanced and have made-up—or at least very adaptable—lists of previous owners. In this article, we will critically review their provenance and discuss the lack of proper interest in provenance on the part of the collector who owns them and the scholars who published them.

Morgenbladet, 2020

I forrige utgave av Morgenbladet kommenterer Martin Schøyen vår artikkel i Heritage om manuskript... more I forrige utgave av Morgenbladet kommenterer Martin Schøyen vår artikkel i Heritage om manuskriptsamlingen hans. På bakgrunn av et stort antall kilder mener vi at Schøyen gikk langt i å konstruere en misvisende historie til et gjenstandsmateriale i samlingen som trolig ble plyndret og ulovlig fjernet fra Pakistan og Afghanistan.
I stedet for å svare på spørsmål som reises i artikkelen, beskylder Schøyen oss for slett forskningsarbeid. Han innvender at vi har basert oss på «ukritisk bruk av internett». Kildene i artikkelen vår er forskningspublikasjoner fra Schøyens egen offisielle serie, i tillegg til andre åpne kilder, som enhver kan kontrollere. Når det gjelder nettbaserte kilder, så er Schøyens egen database en av disse. På bakgrunn av publisert forskning, offentlige dokumenter, brev og medieoppslag, har vi også vurdert opplysningene i Schøyens database. Vi har også tatt for oss den sjangeren av smigrende omtaler Schøyen gjerne henviser til. Schøyen er velkommen til å peke på mangler i kildene og i vår analyse, gjerne i form av en åpen redegjørelse med dokumentasjon på samlingens opphav og eierhistorie.
Det hadde tjent saken om Schøyen forteller hvem han har handlet buddhistiske manuskripter fra.

The Ancient Near East Today, 2019

Since 2002 more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments surfaced on the antiquities market. The ... more Since 2002 more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments surfaced on the antiquities market. The majority were bought for astronomical prices by wealthy collectors and, since 2009, by several American evangelical institutions. Most of the fragments seem to come from Bethlehem antiquities dealer William Kando, son of Khalil Iskander Shahin, or “Kando,” known among scholars and collectors as the first dealer in Dead Sea Scrolls and associated antiquities. But what are these post-2002 “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments and where did they come from?

Plyndring og forfalskning av kulturhistorisk materiale blir stadig mer utbredt. Forskere bidrar s... more Plyndring og forfalskning av kulturhistorisk materiale blir stadig mer utbredt. Forskere bidrar sterkt til dette markedet.

Innlegg på Kulturrikets tilstand. Litteraturhuset 29. 10.2015

Dissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor (PhD)

Stop heritage Crime: Good practices and recommendations. p. 117-120. National Heritage Board of Poland, Warshawa, 2011

Ramskjaer, L., A. Nyhamar, A. Chabiera, M. Aniszewski: Stop przestpczoci przeciwko dziedzictwu: dobre praktyki i Rekomendacje, 117- 120.

Primitive tider, 2009

Summary: Looting and illicit trade in antiquities: legal meassures and international responsibili... more Summary: Looting and illicit trade in antiquities: legal meassures and international responsibilities.

The ratification of the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property by Norway, has resulted in new legislative tools against traficking in cultural materials. Earlier, Norwegian law solely protected what is defined as the country's own national
cultural heritage, whereas now cultural material from other states signatory to this convention, illegally exported fromtheir country of origin, should be prevented from crossing Norwegian borders. It is argued that the change is a result of the public controversy and debate adressing ethical and legal issues in the Schøyen collection and the implications of the dubious provenance concerning manuscripts in the collection.Theft, either from museums or as a result of looting fromarchaeological sites, range as one of the most serious threats to the preservation of cultural heritage globally.
The article therefore discuss the importance of the academic community in these matters; its responsibility in showing the public that looting will continue as long as there is a demand for unprovenanced cultural objects in the antiquities industry.

Since the new regulations entered into force January 1st 2007, Norwegian Customs have not yet (August 2008) seized any foreign, cultural objects. A report from the University of Oslo documents that the Norwegian Customs lacks basic knowledge necessary to fulfill the task of controlling the import of cultural objects to the country.

The article concludes that, so far, the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, as theresponsible Norwegian authority, has not succeded in preventing illicit import and export in cultural objects.

Miljøkrim vol. 17 nr. 2, 2013

Norwegian Archaeological Review, 2014

Metal detecting has become a popular hobby in Norway. The use of metal detectors is legal, as lo... more Metal detecting has become a popular hobby in Norway. The use of metal detectors is legal, as long as one has the landowner‘s permission, and complies with the Norwegian Cultural Heritage Act. As in other
countries, the relationship between private metal detecting and archaeology is complex. The perspectives and experiences of archaeologists and heritage management representatives in regard to what challenges and positive effects that arise from private metal detecting varies greatly. With this article we wish to address various sides of the relationship openly.

Temaet for denne artikkelen er historiske lovbestemmelser knyttet til funn av verdisaker, og hvor... more Temaet for denne artikkelen er historiske lovbestemmelser knyttet til funn av verdisaker, og hvordan disse danner bakgrunn for dagens lovregulerte finnerlønnsordning for funn av løse kulturminner. Finnerlønn handler om eierskap til gjenstander som blir funnet og om omstendighetene rundt funnet. Disse faktorene er avgjørende for den rettslige stillingen både til finneren og til det som blir funnet. Dette gir noen nokså komplekse problemstillinger, for eksempel hvorvidt funnet ble gjort uforvarende og tilfeldig, eller som et resultat av målrettet leting, og hvorvidt slik leting foregår i et beskyttet område eller på andres eiendom. Eksempler fra historiske rettskilder tyder på at dette er problemstillinger som
jurister har balt med i noen tusen år.

Heritage, 2020

In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that me... more In the wake of the trade in ancient materials, several ethical and political issues arise that merit concern: the decimation of the cultural heritage of war-torn countries, proliferation of corruption, ideological connotations of orientalism, financial support of terrorism, and participation in networks involved in money laundering, weapon sales, human trafficking and drugs. Moreover, trafficking and trading also have a harmful effect on the fabric of academia itself. This study uses open sources to track the history of the private Schøyen Collection, and the researchers and public institutions that have worked with and supported the collector. Focussing on the public debates that evolved around the Buddhist manuscripts and other looted or illicitly obtained material from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq, this article unravels strategies to whitewash Schøyen's and his research groups' activities. Numerous elements are familiar from the field of antiquities trafficking research and as such adds to the growing body of knowledge about illicit trade and collecting. A noteworthy element in the Schøyen case is Martin Schøyen and his partners' appeal to digital dissemination to divorce collections from their problematic provenance and history and thus circumvent contemporary ethical standards. Like paper publications, digital presentations contribute to the marketing and price formation of illicit objects. The Norwegian state's potential purchase of the entire Schøyen collection was promoted with the aid of digital dissemination of the collection hosted by public institutions. In the wake of the Schøyen case, it is evident that in spite of formal regulations to thwart antiquities trafficking, the continuation of the trade rests on the attitudes and practice of scholars and institutions.

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 2020

How do recently crafted objects of dubious provenance become ancient manuscripts of serious scien... more How do recently crafted objects of dubious provenance become ancient manuscripts of serious scientific interest? In this article, we explore the curious case of Hazon Gabriel. We demonstrate how this unprovenanced stone inscription was turned into an “authentic” artifact with an ideal provenance, and we discuss the role of the owner and the scholarly community in this process

Dead Sea Discoveries 28.1, 2021

In the course of the last eighteen years more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments have surfa... more In the course of the last eighteen years more than 75 new “Dead Sea Scrolls” fragments have surfaced on the antiquities market. These are commonly referred to as post-2002 Dead Sea Scrolls-like fragments. A growing number of scholars regard a substantial part of them as forgeries. In this article, we will discuss four more dubious fragments, but this time from the 20th Century—or at least from pre-2002. Two of the fragments have been known since the late nineties and are published in the DJD series. One was published in Revue de Qumran (2003), and one in Gleanings from the Caves (2016). All four are today accepted as part of the Dead Sea Scrolls dataset even though they are unprovenanced and have made-up—or at least very adaptable—lists of previous owners. In this article, we will critically review their provenance and discuss the lack of proper interest in provenance on the part of the collector who owns them and the scholars who published them.