Cristian E Nae | UAGE Iasi (original) (raw)

Papers by Cristian E Nae

Sesit pro Umeni, Teorii a Pribuzne Zony, 2023

For the past two decades, research exhibitions in Central and Eastern Europe have supplemented ar... more For the past two decades, research exhibitions in Central and Eastern Europe have supplemented art historical writing. They offered precious archival information and highlighted emancipatory practices and transnational artistic exchanges. However, I argue that art exhibitions can also challenge art historical writing through some of their particularities as cultural events. Therefore, I propose a model of art historical writing based on a curatorial methodology grounded in three key concepts: transpositionality, constellations and heterochrony, which, in my view, open the horizon for comparative, transnational history of exhibitions. At the same time, I argue that the self-reflexive and performative condition of experimental art exhibitions created in Central and Eastern Europe during socialism can also challenge the canon of exhibition histories from a situated perspective and reveal some of its unquestioned assumptions.

Proceedings of the European Society for …, 2010

Abstract. In this paper, I intend to sketch out and to confront an implicit ontological model of ... more Abstract. In this paper, I intend to sketch out and to confront an implicit ontological model of community, grounded on dialogical practice, which can be found in Grant Kester's proposal of a dialog-ical model of aesthetic judgment and experience of art. Firstly, I am trying to ...

Performance Art in the Second Public Sphere

Routledge eBooks, Jul 27, 2022

National Communism during Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime On a blue background, history unfolds. In th... more National Communism during Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime On a blue background, history unfolds. In the central upper part of a large-scale composition, floating against the celestial background, the figure of Nicolae Ceaușescu waves to the people. He is surrounded by easily recognizable historical figures, stretching left to right, from the Dacian king Burebista to Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the first ruler of modern Romania in the 19th century. Ceaușescu is positioned as the apex of a historical development to which countless generations of nameless people contributed. These generations, past and present, are also positioned in two ascending rows, symmetrically located on the left and right side of the composition. They form the sides of a triangular space opened at the very core of the image. In the central lower part of the painting, at the basis of this imaginary pyramid, a group of young women wearing folk costumes and facing the viewer seem to perform a traditional Romanian dance-a hora. 1 Above them, in the middle register, confident young women bring their offspring in their arms-sons and daughters of the nation from whom future leaders will be born. What is perhaps equally disturbing is that the painting, executed by Sabin Bălașa and entitled Song of Romania, 2 bears compositional similarities to the iconography of the last judgement. Marking the end of history and the entrance into mythical time, it portrays the development of the Romanian nation as a continuous historical thread, fusing facts and legends. This painting by Sabin Bălașa, a favorite of the political system during socialism who was praised for his style characterized as "cosmic romanticism", is one of the many visual representations created in the late 1970s and 1980s along similar lines. They promoted the historical continuity of Romanian people on the current territory of Romania on ethnographic and linguistic grounds in a heroic and mythical fashion and celebrated the exceptional status of the Romanian nation and its leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu. Such paintings and sculptures are a defining aspect of the cultural politics of Ceaușescu's regime in Romania. Despite the short period of cultural détente that lasted until 1971, his politics and cultural policy may rather be associated with a mature version of Stalinism (Tismăneanu 2003, 187-189), which replicated personal dictatorship, promoted cultural homogeneity and an extreme form of nationalism (Bialer 1980, 10).

Estetika: The European Journal of Aesthetics, 2011

Cristian Nae This work was supported by a CNCSIS-UEFISCSU research grant, project number PNII-PD ... more Cristian Nae This work was supported by a CNCSIS-UEFISCSU research grant, project number PNII-PD 104/2010, code 604. I thank Tereza Hadravová, Jakub Stejskal, and the two anonymous peer-reviewers for their useful comments on an earlier draft of this article.

Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, 2019

This text analyses specific type of Romanian performances that were produced in order to be looke... more This text analyses specific type of Romanian performances that were produced in order to be looked at and to be circulated as photographs during the 1970s and 80s. Contrary to the live and ephemeral character of performance art, after 1971, harsh political, economic and cultural conditions forced performance art into the private sphere, again entailing the necessity of self-historicization and self-promotion. A context like this transformed photography from a documentary evidence into a conceptual medium that could circulate as an object. The author proposes several categories according to which photography functioned as an iconic supplement of the missing action, and an attempt to reveal and question on how photographic images re-enact the past event for the contemporary observer. However, the text argues that, despite the important influence of social and institutional conditions of production, these artworks focused primarily on the artistic process and its aesthetic autonomy, and less on a political agenda beyond them.

The present text tackles the old problem of artistic autonomy given the constitutive heteronomy o... more The present text tackles the old problem of artistic autonomy given the constitutive heteronomy of post-conceptual artistic practices in terms of their medium-specificity. Instead of considering the idea of artistic autonomy as a modernist prejudice to be discarded, I suggest that it may be revised as the performative autonomy of discourse against ideological uses of language, given that conceptual art is considered as practice and activity rather than the production of objects. Resistance may be itself redefined as the performative re-articulation of language within its conventional use. Therefore, if aesthetic formalism tried to achieve the autonomy of art in the social sphere by means of medium-specificity, whereas early conceptualists strolled towards a functionalist type of artistic autonomy in the artistic sphere, contemporary post-conceptual practices revised the very concept of form as the critical communicative articulation of the social sphere.

Realisms of the Avant-Garde, 2020

Many genealogies and critical analyses of Pop art tend to approach it as a monolithic artistic en... more Many genealogies and critical analyses of Pop art tend to approach it as a monolithic artistic entity, firmly rooted in late capitalist modernity that it celebrates and interrogates at once. 1 The limitations of such an approach became obvious in the expanded field of global art history. To what extent may we use the same umbrella-term to designate, for instance, the construction of politically charged figurative representations produced in countries such as Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, China, Argentina or Brazil in the 1960s? What categories should we use in classifying as "pop art" paintings produced in a different economy of images, determined not by overabundance, but rather by a shortage of consumer products? What characterizes the popularity of these images, and how realistic are they, after all? To rephrase Katalin Timar's influential article written some time ago, is that Pop our Pop? 2 Answers to such unsettling questions seem to have been offered by two influential exhibitions presenting Pop art in a global context. In September 2015, at Tate Modern, curators Jessica Morgan and Flavia Frigeri opened a blockbuster exhibition, featuring artists from Latin America to Asia, and from Europe to the Middle East. According to Jessica Morgan, Pop was not a mere celebration of Western consumer culture, but was often a subversive critical language internationally employed as a political, anti-imperialist gesture. 3 Taking a different route, the exhibition International Pop, organized by the Walker Art Center

IKON. Journal of Iconographic Studies, 2018

The present text addresses the tactical, cynical or transgressive uses of Christian iconography i... more The present text addresses the tactical, cynical or transgressive uses of Christian iconography in contemporary art from Romania in comparison with critical art from Poland. In these countries that may now be characterized as post-secular societies, religion is considered to have played an important emancipatory role during communism. Starting from the assumption that iconoclastic gestures are not only destructive, but also inherently productive, I suggest that contemporary art in post-socialist countries employs conflicting and contrasting symbols in order to produce a new discursive field which aims to release existing cultural tensions, to expose the imbrication between religion and politics, and thus, to play a critical social function. Borrowing a concept coined by Bruno Latour and Peter Weibel, such a critical visual practice may be called "iconoclash". On the one hand, the artworks that may fall into this category resemble postmodernist strategies of appropriation and pastiche, but, as I will argue, they are rather immersed in a media ecology. On the other hand, on a social level, they reveal existing social tensions and defy new forms of authoritarianism in countries whose recent public spheres are divided by the confrontation between conservative Christian religiosity and secularized socialist ideals in an expanding capitalist economy of images.

Decebal SCRIBA 70s-80s Works, Verlag Kettler, 2017

A comparative analysis of Romanian neo-avant-garde artist Decebal Scriba's conceptual art from th... more A comparative analysis of Romanian neo-avant-garde artist Decebal Scriba's conceptual art from the early 1970s, in relation to North American conceptual art and Jiri Kovanda's performative pieces.

Textul analizează tendințele de critică instituțională apărute în Arta din România în perioada an... more Textul analizează tendințele de critică instituțională apărute în Arta din România în perioada anilor 90.
Textul a fost publicat in volumul ”Arta in Romania intre anii 1945-2000. O analiză din perspectiva prezentului” (NEC/UNARTE/MNAC, 2016)

published in: Romanian Cultural Resolution: Contemporary Romanian Art, eds. Alexandru Niculescu a... more published in: Romanian Cultural Resolution: Contemporary Romanian Art, eds. Alexandru Niculescu and Adrian Bojenoiu, Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2011

A chapter from the anthology Performance Art in the Second Public Sphere: Event-Based Art in Lat... more A chapter from the anthology Performance Art in the Second Public Sphere: Event-Based Art in Late Socialist Europe, edited by Katalin Cseh-Varga and Adam Czirak, Routledge, 2018

Studies in Eastern European Cinema, 2016

The article analyses the experimental films produced by a semiprofessional workshop, kinema ikon,... more The article analyses the experimental films produced by a semiprofessional workshop, kinema ikon, in Arad, Romania between 1970 and 1989. Employing a socially contextualized reading of the film workshop as an informal institution, the author argues that the workshop's members were interested in intermedia art as a means of producing unconventional representations and autonomous aesthetic objects. At the same time, the workshop focused on the incorporation and expansion of the vocabulary of avant-garde film through a strategic fragmentation of vision. Finally, the article advances a reading of kinema ikon's films as socially subversive practices, given that the notion of ideology critique is related not to their actual representational content, but rather to their particular modes of production and forms of visuality.

Diana Margarit și Alexandru Ioan Tofan (eds.), Bestiarul puterii, Editura Universității Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iasi, 2014

The paper focuses on the politics of reception regarding performative artistic photography during... more The paper focuses on the politics of reception regarding performative artistic photography during the communist era. The main thesis defended here is that the particular conditions of reception of clandestine artistic actions constructed a deffered viewer, equating the eye of the camera with the eye of (art) history. Nevertheless, from the perspective of the present, it claims that the photographic unconscious of these images reveals a politically subversive meaning, which becomes manifest under a certain hidden panoptic scrutiny. By exemplifying several artistic mechanisms effective in deconsipring the latent surveillence projected onto everyday life within communism as a totalitarian regime, the article contributes to the retrospective reconstruction of this cultural background.

Zivot Umjetnosti, vol. 93, 2013

The ideological aspects of writing art history as parts of a rhetorical construction have been va... more The ideological aspects of writing art history as parts of a rhetorical construction have been variously stressed. However, less stress has been put both on the association and dissimilarity between curating and writing art history. Especially in the case of the art from the former Central and Eastern-Europe, the curator lately appeared as a substitute for an underdeveloped art historical research on the Region. The present text analyzes the art historical shift in recent curatorial practices concerning art produced in Central-Eastern Europe after 1945, regarded as form of art historical revisionism by creating specific political and temporal imaginaries. By focusing on the logic of visual display as a knowledge/power apparatus and on the operations of archiving, framing and narrating, it addresses the way aesthetic experience and visual rhetoric construct the idea of historicity. It also questions the way a politics of regional identity is embedded in politics of time and the way temporality is enacted by different strategies of spatialization.

Sesit pro Umeni, Teorii a Pribuzne Zony, 2023

For the past two decades, research exhibitions in Central and Eastern Europe have supplemented ar... more For the past two decades, research exhibitions in Central and Eastern Europe have supplemented art historical writing. They offered precious archival information and highlighted emancipatory practices and transnational artistic exchanges. However, I argue that art exhibitions can also challenge art historical writing through some of their particularities as cultural events. Therefore, I propose a model of art historical writing based on a curatorial methodology grounded in three key concepts: transpositionality, constellations and heterochrony, which, in my view, open the horizon for comparative, transnational history of exhibitions. At the same time, I argue that the self-reflexive and performative condition of experimental art exhibitions created in Central and Eastern Europe during socialism can also challenge the canon of exhibition histories from a situated perspective and reveal some of its unquestioned assumptions.

Proceedings of the European Society for …, 2010

Abstract. In this paper, I intend to sketch out and to confront an implicit ontological model of ... more Abstract. In this paper, I intend to sketch out and to confront an implicit ontological model of community, grounded on dialogical practice, which can be found in Grant Kester's proposal of a dialog-ical model of aesthetic judgment and experience of art. Firstly, I am trying to ...

Performance Art in the Second Public Sphere

Routledge eBooks, Jul 27, 2022

National Communism during Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime On a blue background, history unfolds. In th... more National Communism during Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime On a blue background, history unfolds. In the central upper part of a large-scale composition, floating against the celestial background, the figure of Nicolae Ceaușescu waves to the people. He is surrounded by easily recognizable historical figures, stretching left to right, from the Dacian king Burebista to Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the first ruler of modern Romania in the 19th century. Ceaușescu is positioned as the apex of a historical development to which countless generations of nameless people contributed. These generations, past and present, are also positioned in two ascending rows, symmetrically located on the left and right side of the composition. They form the sides of a triangular space opened at the very core of the image. In the central lower part of the painting, at the basis of this imaginary pyramid, a group of young women wearing folk costumes and facing the viewer seem to perform a traditional Romanian dance-a hora. 1 Above them, in the middle register, confident young women bring their offspring in their arms-sons and daughters of the nation from whom future leaders will be born. What is perhaps equally disturbing is that the painting, executed by Sabin Bălașa and entitled Song of Romania, 2 bears compositional similarities to the iconography of the last judgement. Marking the end of history and the entrance into mythical time, it portrays the development of the Romanian nation as a continuous historical thread, fusing facts and legends. This painting by Sabin Bălașa, a favorite of the political system during socialism who was praised for his style characterized as "cosmic romanticism", is one of the many visual representations created in the late 1970s and 1980s along similar lines. They promoted the historical continuity of Romanian people on the current territory of Romania on ethnographic and linguistic grounds in a heroic and mythical fashion and celebrated the exceptional status of the Romanian nation and its leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu. Such paintings and sculptures are a defining aspect of the cultural politics of Ceaușescu's regime in Romania. Despite the short period of cultural détente that lasted until 1971, his politics and cultural policy may rather be associated with a mature version of Stalinism (Tismăneanu 2003, 187-189), which replicated personal dictatorship, promoted cultural homogeneity and an extreme form of nationalism (Bialer 1980, 10).

Estetika: The European Journal of Aesthetics, 2011

Cristian Nae This work was supported by a CNCSIS-UEFISCSU research grant, project number PNII-PD ... more Cristian Nae This work was supported by a CNCSIS-UEFISCSU research grant, project number PNII-PD 104/2010, code 604. I thank Tereza Hadravová, Jakub Stejskal, and the two anonymous peer-reviewers for their useful comments on an earlier draft of this article.

Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe, 2019

This text analyses specific type of Romanian performances that were produced in order to be looke... more This text analyses specific type of Romanian performances that were produced in order to be looked at and to be circulated as photographs during the 1970s and 80s. Contrary to the live and ephemeral character of performance art, after 1971, harsh political, economic and cultural conditions forced performance art into the private sphere, again entailing the necessity of self-historicization and self-promotion. A context like this transformed photography from a documentary evidence into a conceptual medium that could circulate as an object. The author proposes several categories according to which photography functioned as an iconic supplement of the missing action, and an attempt to reveal and question on how photographic images re-enact the past event for the contemporary observer. However, the text argues that, despite the important influence of social and institutional conditions of production, these artworks focused primarily on the artistic process and its aesthetic autonomy, and less on a political agenda beyond them.

The present text tackles the old problem of artistic autonomy given the constitutive heteronomy o... more The present text tackles the old problem of artistic autonomy given the constitutive heteronomy of post-conceptual artistic practices in terms of their medium-specificity. Instead of considering the idea of artistic autonomy as a modernist prejudice to be discarded, I suggest that it may be revised as the performative autonomy of discourse against ideological uses of language, given that conceptual art is considered as practice and activity rather than the production of objects. Resistance may be itself redefined as the performative re-articulation of language within its conventional use. Therefore, if aesthetic formalism tried to achieve the autonomy of art in the social sphere by means of medium-specificity, whereas early conceptualists strolled towards a functionalist type of artistic autonomy in the artistic sphere, contemporary post-conceptual practices revised the very concept of form as the critical communicative articulation of the social sphere.

Realisms of the Avant-Garde, 2020

Many genealogies and critical analyses of Pop art tend to approach it as a monolithic artistic en... more Many genealogies and critical analyses of Pop art tend to approach it as a monolithic artistic entity, firmly rooted in late capitalist modernity that it celebrates and interrogates at once. 1 The limitations of such an approach became obvious in the expanded field of global art history. To what extent may we use the same umbrella-term to designate, for instance, the construction of politically charged figurative representations produced in countries such as Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, China, Argentina or Brazil in the 1960s? What categories should we use in classifying as "pop art" paintings produced in a different economy of images, determined not by overabundance, but rather by a shortage of consumer products? What characterizes the popularity of these images, and how realistic are they, after all? To rephrase Katalin Timar's influential article written some time ago, is that Pop our Pop? 2 Answers to such unsettling questions seem to have been offered by two influential exhibitions presenting Pop art in a global context. In September 2015, at Tate Modern, curators Jessica Morgan and Flavia Frigeri opened a blockbuster exhibition, featuring artists from Latin America to Asia, and from Europe to the Middle East. According to Jessica Morgan, Pop was not a mere celebration of Western consumer culture, but was often a subversive critical language internationally employed as a political, anti-imperialist gesture. 3 Taking a different route, the exhibition International Pop, organized by the Walker Art Center

IKON. Journal of Iconographic Studies, 2018

The present text addresses the tactical, cynical or transgressive uses of Christian iconography i... more The present text addresses the tactical, cynical or transgressive uses of Christian iconography in contemporary art from Romania in comparison with critical art from Poland. In these countries that may now be characterized as post-secular societies, religion is considered to have played an important emancipatory role during communism. Starting from the assumption that iconoclastic gestures are not only destructive, but also inherently productive, I suggest that contemporary art in post-socialist countries employs conflicting and contrasting symbols in order to produce a new discursive field which aims to release existing cultural tensions, to expose the imbrication between religion and politics, and thus, to play a critical social function. Borrowing a concept coined by Bruno Latour and Peter Weibel, such a critical visual practice may be called "iconoclash". On the one hand, the artworks that may fall into this category resemble postmodernist strategies of appropriation and pastiche, but, as I will argue, they are rather immersed in a media ecology. On the other hand, on a social level, they reveal existing social tensions and defy new forms of authoritarianism in countries whose recent public spheres are divided by the confrontation between conservative Christian religiosity and secularized socialist ideals in an expanding capitalist economy of images.

Decebal SCRIBA 70s-80s Works, Verlag Kettler, 2017

A comparative analysis of Romanian neo-avant-garde artist Decebal Scriba's conceptual art from th... more A comparative analysis of Romanian neo-avant-garde artist Decebal Scriba's conceptual art from the early 1970s, in relation to North American conceptual art and Jiri Kovanda's performative pieces.

Textul analizează tendințele de critică instituțională apărute în Arta din România în perioada an... more Textul analizează tendințele de critică instituțională apărute în Arta din România în perioada anilor 90.
Textul a fost publicat in volumul ”Arta in Romania intre anii 1945-2000. O analiză din perspectiva prezentului” (NEC/UNARTE/MNAC, 2016)

published in: Romanian Cultural Resolution: Contemporary Romanian Art, eds. Alexandru Niculescu a... more published in: Romanian Cultural Resolution: Contemporary Romanian Art, eds. Alexandru Niculescu and Adrian Bojenoiu, Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2011

A chapter from the anthology Performance Art in the Second Public Sphere: Event-Based Art in Lat... more A chapter from the anthology Performance Art in the Second Public Sphere: Event-Based Art in Late Socialist Europe, edited by Katalin Cseh-Varga and Adam Czirak, Routledge, 2018

Studies in Eastern European Cinema, 2016

The article analyses the experimental films produced by a semiprofessional workshop, kinema ikon,... more The article analyses the experimental films produced by a semiprofessional workshop, kinema ikon, in Arad, Romania between 1970 and 1989. Employing a socially contextualized reading of the film workshop as an informal institution, the author argues that the workshop's members were interested in intermedia art as a means of producing unconventional representations and autonomous aesthetic objects. At the same time, the workshop focused on the incorporation and expansion of the vocabulary of avant-garde film through a strategic fragmentation of vision. Finally, the article advances a reading of kinema ikon's films as socially subversive practices, given that the notion of ideology critique is related not to their actual representational content, but rather to their particular modes of production and forms of visuality.

Diana Margarit și Alexandru Ioan Tofan (eds.), Bestiarul puterii, Editura Universității Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iasi, 2014

The paper focuses on the politics of reception regarding performative artistic photography during... more The paper focuses on the politics of reception regarding performative artistic photography during the communist era. The main thesis defended here is that the particular conditions of reception of clandestine artistic actions constructed a deffered viewer, equating the eye of the camera with the eye of (art) history. Nevertheless, from the perspective of the present, it claims that the photographic unconscious of these images reveals a politically subversive meaning, which becomes manifest under a certain hidden panoptic scrutiny. By exemplifying several artistic mechanisms effective in deconsipring the latent surveillence projected onto everyday life within communism as a totalitarian regime, the article contributes to the retrospective reconstruction of this cultural background.

Zivot Umjetnosti, vol. 93, 2013

The ideological aspects of writing art history as parts of a rhetorical construction have been va... more The ideological aspects of writing art history as parts of a rhetorical construction have been variously stressed. However, less stress has been put both on the association and dissimilarity between curating and writing art history. Especially in the case of the art from the former Central and Eastern-Europe, the curator lately appeared as a substitute for an underdeveloped art historical research on the Region. The present text analyzes the art historical shift in recent curatorial practices concerning art produced in Central-Eastern Europe after 1945, regarded as form of art historical revisionism by creating specific political and temporal imaginaries. By focusing on the logic of visual display as a knowledge/power apparatus and on the operations of archiving, framing and narrating, it addresses the way aesthetic experience and visual rhetoric construct the idea of historicity. It also questions the way a politics of regional identity is embedded in politics of time and the way temporality is enacted by different strategies of spatialization.

Exhibiting the “Former East”: Identity Politics and Curatorial Practices after 1989, 2013

edited by Cătălin Gheorghe and Cristian Nae, designed by: Lavinia German Published by Universita... more edited by Cătălin Gheorghe and Cristian Nae, designed by: Lavinia German

Published by Universitatea de Arte "George Enescu" Iasi, 2013
With the financial support of the Administration of the National Cultural Fund, Romania

Texts: Cătălin Gheorghe: Argument; Cristian Nae: The Practice of Art History ‒ Art Exhibitions, Between Cultural Geography and Identity Politics; Zoran Erić: Globalisation And Art Exhibitions; Louisa Avgita: The rewriting of Art History as Art: Mapping the “East”; Svetla Kazalarska: Re-drawing the Art Map of “New Europe”; Raluca Voinea: Geographically Defined Exhibitions. The Balkans, Between Eastern Europe and the New Europe; Jens Kastner: Exciting and New: European identity or the artistic field and the production of a concept of “friend”; Edit András: The Ex-eastern Bloc’s Position in the New Critical Theories and in the Recent Curatorial Practice; Marina Gržinić: Critical Exhibitions as Neo-colonial Strategies: Gender Check and the Politics of Inclusion; Cristian Nae: What’s New on the Eastern Front? Performance Art and the Nostalgia for Cultural Resistance; Milena Tomic: Rearview Mirror: New Art From Central and Eastern Europe; Sándor Hornyik: Alternative Time Travelers – Post-Communism, Figurativeness And Decolonization; Kelly Presutti: Les Promesses du Passé: Shaping Art History via the Exhibition

(In)visible Frames. Rhetorics and experimental exhibition practices in Romanian art 1965-1989, 2021

The volume brings together close readings of selected exhibitions organized by artists or art cri... more The volume brings together close readings of selected exhibitions organized by artists or art critics as curators in Socialist Romania in the "grey zone", between the official and unofficial cultural spheres, fostering experiments in exhibition display or advancing conceptual curatorial themes and programs.

Museums and Public Art?, 2018

Edited by Cher Krause Knight and Harriet F. Senie

The special issue of Arta Journal (no. 20-21/2016), edited by Cristian Nae, focuses once again on... more The special issue of Arta Journal (no. 20-21/2016), edited by Cristian Nae, focuses once again on conceptual art in Central and Eastern Europe, analyzed both in its regional specificity and from a global, transnational perspective.