Chris Loendorf | Arizona State University (original) (raw)
Peer Reviewed Journal Papers by Chris Loendorf
American Indian Rock Art, Volume 50, 2024
The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) Cultural Resource Management Program Sensitive Site Herita... more The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) Cultural Resource Management Program Sensitive Site Heritage Preservation Program focuses on the identification and protection of at-risk archaeological sites. Initial work focuses on pedestrian and unmanned aerial vehicle (drone) reconnaissance to identify the locations and extent of sensitive sites. Once sites are identified they are documented and assessed as to their degree of risk. This documentation includes detailed recording of petroglyph panels with sketches, scaled illustrations, and photography including drone imagery and photogrammetry. Damage mitigation efforts are undertaken at those sites that are negatively impacted and considered at risk. This work includes the use of graffiti-removal products, sign and fence installation, road closures, and site monitoring with cameras. Project work has resulted in the identification and protection of archaeological sites throughout the GRIC. The project is already showing signs of having a positive impact; to date, at every location where conservation measures have been implemented, petroglyph panels have not been subject to additional vandalism. In addition, data collected from monitored sites show that all recent site impacts have been limited to trash dumping, the creation of camp fire rings, and tire track damage. This research also shows that many people will assist in the protection of cultural resources once they become aware of conservation issues.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2023
Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central ... more Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central Arizona identified ceramic and lithic artifacts derived from the Rio Grande region. These remains were collected from GR-1425, which is located at the heading of the Blackwater canal system within the Gila River Indian Community. The site lacks evidence for permanent occupation, and instead only short-term habitation occurred. Extensive evidence for weapon manufacturing suggests that the temporary relocation was associated with conflict, and radiocarbon dates suggest that the cultural remains were deposited after the Hohokam Classic period ended circa CE 1450. The most parsimonious explanation for the data from GR-1425 is that a group of Eastern Puebloans temporarily moved to the middle Gila River around the time of the Pueblo Revolt in CE 1680. As a result of increased interactions of disparate populations brought together by the extensive population movements that occurred at this time, substantial changes in regional ceramic traditions occurred, and data from GR-1425 suggest the extent of these interactions was more wide-scale than previously recognized.
KIVA Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History, 2020
Within the Phoenix Basin in southern Arizona, disk beads have long been highly valued. Remarkably... more Within the Phoenix Basin in southern Arizona, disk beads have long been highly valued. Remarkably, the Akimel O’Odham (i.e., Pima) and Pee Posh (i.e., Maricopa) still place great importance on them today. Similar beads were formed from shell, stone, and clay. The effort necessary to manufacture beadsfromtheseconstituentsvaries,butbeadsmadefromdifferentmaterials are often macroscopically indistinguishable. Furthermore, some raw materials had to be imported, while other constituents were locally available. These factors should have affected the value of different bead types, and ethnographic evidence shows that indigenous people have clearly defined preferences for attributes, including color and material. In particular, beads made from shell and turquoise are recognized as being most valuable. This paper presents archaeological, ethnohistorical, ethnographic, and contemporary data that show that small disk beads were a form of wealth that was employed in trade transactions.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2019
Although obsidian was only rarely employed during the Archaic period in the Hohokam region of sou... more Although obsidian was only rarely employed during the Archaic period in the Hohokam region of southern Arizona, use of this natural glass became widespread during the pre-Classic period around AD 600 and continued unabated through the late nineteenth century. As a result of its unique physical properties, this stone was largely if not exclusively used to manufacture weapons, specifically small arrow tips. This factor appears to have affected acquisition patterns for this stone, and data suggest that obsidian was primarily obtained as a raw material through trade. Simultaneously, in rare circumstances points appear to have been introduced on the tips of enemy's arrows, points were also sometimes collected as talismans from settings such as battlefields, and obsidian was occasionally acquired from earlier site components. However, considerable evidence demonstrates that the stone was an important commodity, the vast majority of which was obtained through trade with closely allied peoples who lived outside the Phoenix Basin.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2019
Recent excavations at the Lower Santan Platform Mound in the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) i... more Recent excavations at the Lower Santan Platform Mound in the
Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) identified three unusually large
circular rock and adobe features on the floor of an exceptionally
large room within the mound compound. These features have been
referred to as “pedestals” and they appear to be the bases of beehive-
shaped adobe grain storage facilities. These distinctive features
have not been previously identified within the GRIC, but they are
common in some peripheral areas including the Tonto Basin, along
the San Pedro River, and in some portions of Northern Mexico. Given
their nature, these features are not likely to have been emulated for
stylistic reasons, and instead they more likely reflect differences in
the cultural traditions of the makers. This suggests the pedestals may
be evidence for close relationships, including immigration, between
the Phoenix Basin and other areas. Historical documentation, ethnographic evidence, and oral traditions support this possibility.
American Antiquity, 2019
This article summarizes the results of controlled experiments in which flaked-stone points that v... more This article summarizes the results of controlled experiments in which flaked-stone points that varied in impact strength by a factor of almost three were shot at media that were increasingly inelastic and therefore likely to break the points. Broken tips were reworked if possible, and used again under the same conditions. Our results show that all damage to low impact-strength materials, especially obsidian, was generally catastrophic, and, consequently, these points could only rarely be reworked. The fact that low-strength stones were commonly used to make small arrowpoints suggests that reworking was not a primary concern for their designers. Furthermore, in those instances when broken tips could be reworked, their performance declined. In addition, reworking broken points also resulted in shapes that are uncommon in many arrowpoint assemblages. Our results suggest that the original design attributes of arrowpoints may have been less affected by reworking, and, consequently, may more accurately suggest temporal and behavioral associations. Este artículo resume los resultados de los experimentos controlados en los que puntas de proyectil de piedra que varían en la resistencia al impacto en un factor de casi tres se dispararon a materiales que eran cada vez más inelásticos y, por lo tanto, que podían romper las puntas. Las puntas rotas se reformaron si era posible y se volvieron a usar en las mismas condiciones. Nues-tros resultados muestran que el daño a los materiales de baja resistencia al impacto, como la obsidiana, fueron generalmente catastróficos, y, en consecuencia, estas puntas rara vez se podian volver a trabajar. El hecho de que piedras de baja resistencia se usaran comúnmente para hacer pequeñas puntas de flecha sugiere que los diseñadores no pensaban en reacondicionarlas. Además, en aquellos casos en que las puntas rotas se pudieran reacondicionar, su rendimiento disminuía. En consecuencia, la reformatización de puntas rotas también dio lugar a formas que son poco comunes en muchos conjuntos de puntas de flecha. Nuestros resultados sugieren que los atributos de diseño originales de las puntas de flecha pueden haberse visto menos afectados por el retoque, y, en consecuencia, pueden sugerir con mayor precisión asociaciones temporales y de comportamiento. Palabras clave: reformación de puntas de proyectil, daño debido al uso, diseño, rendimiento, restricciones de materia prima, experimento controlado R esearchers have identified many variables that conditioned the form of flaked-stone projectile points (Shott 1996). These varied factors can be grouped into three general lines of inquiry: design characteristics, raw material constraints, and reworking. Point design variables include both stylistic expressions (e.g., serrations) that do not substantially change point performance as well as intentional modifications (e.g., side notching of triangular points) that do significantly alter point function, and, therefore, are potentially related to differences in the intended use (
Kiva , 2018
Much of what is known regarding Historic period Native American communities is based on studying ... more Much of what is known regarding Historic period Native American communities is based on studying documents that were written by non-indigenous peoples. However, archaeological excavations in a portion of the Blackwater Village within the Gila River Indian Community provide another perspective on Native American life ways within south-central Arizona during the late 1800s. The latter nineteenth century was a pivotal time for the Akimel O’Odham (i.e., Pima) who have long lived within the Phoenix Basin, and they experienced dramatic changes in their subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, craft production, and other cultural practices during this time. These recent investigations demonstrate that the Akimel O’Odham were not passive recipients of Euroamerican culture, and instead they chose to adopt some aspects of non-native practices while at the same time retaining important traditions. As a result, the Akimel O’Odham have successfully maintained their society in the face of tremendous hardships, and Blackwater Village remains a vibrant settlement to this day.
Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material "... more Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material " quality " , but this variable has proven difficult to quantify, and the precise characteristics that improve performance remain unclear. This paper presents the results of controlled experiments that were designed to test projectile points made from stones with varying impact strength. By comparing an independent measure of strength with projectile point experimental data, our research suggests that this variable can be objectively measured, and it is a good predictor of some aspects of projectile tip function. Our results show that highly homogenous fine-grained materials with low impact strength (e.g., obsidian) perform well when penetrating elastic materials such as skin and muscle. These same materials , however, function poorly when penetrating more inelastic materials like rawhide, and they are substantially less durable.
Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material "... more Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material " quality " , but this variable has proven difficult to quantify, and the precise characteristics that improve performance remain unclear. This paper presents the results of controlled experiments that were designed to test projectile points made from stones with varying impact strength. By comparing an independent measure of strength with projectile point experimental data, our research suggests that this variable can be objectively measured, and it is a good predictor of some aspects of projectile tip function. Our results show that highly homogenous fine-grained materials with low impact strength (e.g., obsidian) perform well when penetrating elastic materials such as skin and muscle. These same materials , however, function poorly when penetrating more inelastic materials like rawhide, and they are substantially less durable.
This paper applies artifact design theory to the study of flaked-stone projectile points. The rol... more This paper applies artifact design theory to the study of flaked-stone projectile points. The role of human engineering in the point production process is emphasized in this analytical perspective. as developed here, this research paradigm postulates that people make highly-shaped artifacts, such as flaked-stone projectile points, with the intent of performing one or more specific tasks. Both available materials and known manufacturing techniques limit the design process, while the production and performance of projectiles is constrained by the laws of physics. although physical parameters limit variability, considerable room remains for individual or group expression , and projectile point characteristics are the product of both cultural identity and performance requirements. Projectile point design theory as developed here is not a replacement for previous analytical approaches including typological methods, and instead compliments this research.
Archaeologists have long used the prehistoric inhabitants of the Phoenix Basin in south-central A... more Archaeologists have long used the prehistoric inhabitants of the Phoenix Basin in south-central Arizona as an example of a failed or collapsed society, and most prehistorians still assert that Hohokam material culture patterns ended at the close of the Classic period (circa A.D. 1150–1450). Although researchers are increasingly recognizing connections between prehistoric and modern indigenous people, little consensus exists regarding the cause or causes of the dramatic alterations in material culture patterns that occurred in the region. Most archaeologists who have studied the changes at the end of the Classic period, however, have not fully considered the implications of previous and subsequent conditions, including similar and seemingly abrupt shifts in cultural practices that occurred both before and after this time. This paper uses Akimel O'Odham (i.e., Pima) cultural knowledge to contextualize the " Hohokam Collapse. " We show that this perspective of culture history explains the relationship between prehistoric and historic populations and answers many of the long-standing questions regarding cultural variation in the Phoenix Basin. Durante mucho tiempo, los arqueólogos han utilizado los habitantes prehistóricos de la cuenca de Phoenix en el centro-sur de Arizona (es decir, la cultura hohokam) como ejemplo de una sociedad que fracasó o colapsó. La mayoría de los prehistoriadores todavía afirma que los patrones de la cultura material hohokam terminaron al final del periodo clásico (hacia 1150–1450 d.C.). Aunque cada vez más se reconocen las conexiones entre los habitantes indígenas prehistóricos y modernos de la zona, hay desacuerdo sobre la causa o causas de las dramáticas alteraciones a los patrones de cultura material que se produjeron en la región. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los arqueólogos que han estudiado los cambios ocurridos al final del período clásico no han considerado las implicaciones de las condiciones anteriores y subsiguientes, incluyendo cambios similares y aparentemente abruptos en las prácticas culturales que se produjeron previamente. En este trabajo se utiliza el conocimiento cultural de los Akimel O'Odham (es decir, los pima) para contextualizar el " colapso hohokam ". Demostramos que esta perspectiva de la historia cultural explica la relación entre las poblaciones prehistóricas e históricas, y responde a muchas de las preguntas de larga data con respecto a la variación cultural en la cuenca de Phoenix.
Journal of Archaeological Science, Jan 2013
Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of ∼2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the ... more Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of ∼2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the alluvial sediments of McClellan Wash on Gila River Indian Community in southern Arizona. Charcoal from the sediments filling the wells yielded radiocarbon ages of ∼1000 B.C. The time in which wells were dug coincides with a period of general regional aridity and high ENSO activity in the American Southwest. Digging to access water may have occurred in response to period(s) of resource uncertainty, or as a logistical activity that engaged increasingly resource-tethered Late Archaic/Early Agricultural populations. These activities laid the foundation for agricultural practices that eventually became the dominant mode of subsistence in the low-lying areas of the Sonoran Desert.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , 2015
Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Care... more Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Carefully controlled experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance. This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
Ethnohistorical and ethnographic observations from around the world indicate that projectiles wer... more Ethnohistorical and ethnographic observations from around the world indicate that projectiles were often made differently for warfare and hunting. Using experiential archaeology and analysis of a thousand years’ worth of data from the middle Gila River in Arizona, the authors argue that side notched arrow points were produced for hunting large animals and were designed to be retrieved and reused, while unnotched points were intended for single use and for another purpose: to kill people. The data suggests furthermore that the region witnessed a steady increase in levels of violence during the period under study.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2013
Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Care... more Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Carefully controlled
experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance.
This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic
may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological
data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership
in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
Human Ecology
Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an e... more Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an environmental nuisance. It shapes and reshapes adaptive response and human ideology over the short and long term. In 2011, the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC), Arizona, U.S.A. sponsored a study of dust entrainment within the jurisdiction of its airshed. The study’s primary objectives were to determine the relationship between sediment sources and sinks in premodern contexts and how indigenous people have coped with eolian activity since intensive settlement of the Middle Gila River Valley began. Ethnographic and archaeological sources indicate that people respect winds and observe cultural procedures consistent with their origin and to reduce their ill effects. Geomorphic data also show stratigraphic correspondence between relic wash channels and adjacent terrace and sand sheet deposits demonstrating a long history of eolian activity derived from fluvial sources. Climatological data from PM10 “exceedance events” corroborate anthropological analyses indicating that extreme dust events are typically westerlies and occur during exceptionally dry periods. Eolian dust is part of the ambient ecosystem of the GRIC and should be viewed as such within the modern cultural and regulatory environment governing these emissions.
Kiva, May 2014
This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that... more This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that have previously been suggested to date to the Historic period. The locations of these artifacts within the Gila River Indian Community and other lines of evidence including ceramic data are consistent with ethnohistorically
and ethnographically documented Akimel O’odham settlement patterns along the middle Gila River. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the three point types considered here were indeed produced during the Protohistoric and Historic periods, and it appears that it is possible to characterize diagnostic
projectile point types from this time. These data also provide corroborating
evidence for historically documented population movements during the Historic
period.
American Indian Rock Art, Volume 50, 2024
The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) Cultural Resource Management Program Sensitive Site Herita... more The Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) Cultural Resource Management Program Sensitive Site Heritage Preservation Program focuses on the identification and protection of at-risk archaeological sites. Initial work focuses on pedestrian and unmanned aerial vehicle (drone) reconnaissance to identify the locations and extent of sensitive sites. Once sites are identified they are documented and assessed as to their degree of risk. This documentation includes detailed recording of petroglyph panels with sketches, scaled illustrations, and photography including drone imagery and photogrammetry. Damage mitigation efforts are undertaken at those sites that are negatively impacted and considered at risk. This work includes the use of graffiti-removal products, sign and fence installation, road closures, and site monitoring with cameras. Project work has resulted in the identification and protection of archaeological sites throughout the GRIC. The project is already showing signs of having a positive impact; to date, at every location where conservation measures have been implemented, petroglyph panels have not been subject to additional vandalism. In addition, data collected from monitored sites show that all recent site impacts have been limited to trash dumping, the creation of camp fire rings, and tire track damage. This research also shows that many people will assist in the protection of cultural resources once they become aware of conservation issues.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2023
Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central ... more Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central Arizona identified ceramic and lithic artifacts derived from the Rio Grande region. These remains were collected from GR-1425, which is located at the heading of the Blackwater canal system within the Gila River Indian Community. The site lacks evidence for permanent occupation, and instead only short-term habitation occurred. Extensive evidence for weapon manufacturing suggests that the temporary relocation was associated with conflict, and radiocarbon dates suggest that the cultural remains were deposited after the Hohokam Classic period ended circa CE 1450. The most parsimonious explanation for the data from GR-1425 is that a group of Eastern Puebloans temporarily moved to the middle Gila River around the time of the Pueblo Revolt in CE 1680. As a result of increased interactions of disparate populations brought together by the extensive population movements that occurred at this time, substantial changes in regional ceramic traditions occurred, and data from GR-1425 suggest the extent of these interactions was more wide-scale than previously recognized.
KIVA Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History, 2020
Within the Phoenix Basin in southern Arizona, disk beads have long been highly valued. Remarkably... more Within the Phoenix Basin in southern Arizona, disk beads have long been highly valued. Remarkably, the Akimel O’Odham (i.e., Pima) and Pee Posh (i.e., Maricopa) still place great importance on them today. Similar beads were formed from shell, stone, and clay. The effort necessary to manufacture beadsfromtheseconstituentsvaries,butbeadsmadefromdifferentmaterials are often macroscopically indistinguishable. Furthermore, some raw materials had to be imported, while other constituents were locally available. These factors should have affected the value of different bead types, and ethnographic evidence shows that indigenous people have clearly defined preferences for attributes, including color and material. In particular, beads made from shell and turquoise are recognized as being most valuable. This paper presents archaeological, ethnohistorical, ethnographic, and contemporary data that show that small disk beads were a form of wealth that was employed in trade transactions.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2019
Although obsidian was only rarely employed during the Archaic period in the Hohokam region of sou... more Although obsidian was only rarely employed during the Archaic period in the Hohokam region of southern Arizona, use of this natural glass became widespread during the pre-Classic period around AD 600 and continued unabated through the late nineteenth century. As a result of its unique physical properties, this stone was largely if not exclusively used to manufacture weapons, specifically small arrow tips. This factor appears to have affected acquisition patterns for this stone, and data suggest that obsidian was primarily obtained as a raw material through trade. Simultaneously, in rare circumstances points appear to have been introduced on the tips of enemy's arrows, points were also sometimes collected as talismans from settings such as battlefields, and obsidian was occasionally acquired from earlier site components. However, considerable evidence demonstrates that the stone was an important commodity, the vast majority of which was obtained through trade with closely allied peoples who lived outside the Phoenix Basin.
Journal of Arizona Archaeology, 2019
Recent excavations at the Lower Santan Platform Mound in the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) i... more Recent excavations at the Lower Santan Platform Mound in the
Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) identified three unusually large
circular rock and adobe features on the floor of an exceptionally
large room within the mound compound. These features have been
referred to as “pedestals” and they appear to be the bases of beehive-
shaped adobe grain storage facilities. These distinctive features
have not been previously identified within the GRIC, but they are
common in some peripheral areas including the Tonto Basin, along
the San Pedro River, and in some portions of Northern Mexico. Given
their nature, these features are not likely to have been emulated for
stylistic reasons, and instead they more likely reflect differences in
the cultural traditions of the makers. This suggests the pedestals may
be evidence for close relationships, including immigration, between
the Phoenix Basin and other areas. Historical documentation, ethnographic evidence, and oral traditions support this possibility.
American Antiquity, 2019
This article summarizes the results of controlled experiments in which flaked-stone points that v... more This article summarizes the results of controlled experiments in which flaked-stone points that varied in impact strength by a factor of almost three were shot at media that were increasingly inelastic and therefore likely to break the points. Broken tips were reworked if possible, and used again under the same conditions. Our results show that all damage to low impact-strength materials, especially obsidian, was generally catastrophic, and, consequently, these points could only rarely be reworked. The fact that low-strength stones were commonly used to make small arrowpoints suggests that reworking was not a primary concern for their designers. Furthermore, in those instances when broken tips could be reworked, their performance declined. In addition, reworking broken points also resulted in shapes that are uncommon in many arrowpoint assemblages. Our results suggest that the original design attributes of arrowpoints may have been less affected by reworking, and, consequently, may more accurately suggest temporal and behavioral associations. Este artículo resume los resultados de los experimentos controlados en los que puntas de proyectil de piedra que varían en la resistencia al impacto en un factor de casi tres se dispararon a materiales que eran cada vez más inelásticos y, por lo tanto, que podían romper las puntas. Las puntas rotas se reformaron si era posible y se volvieron a usar en las mismas condiciones. Nues-tros resultados muestran que el daño a los materiales de baja resistencia al impacto, como la obsidiana, fueron generalmente catastróficos, y, en consecuencia, estas puntas rara vez se podian volver a trabajar. El hecho de que piedras de baja resistencia se usaran comúnmente para hacer pequeñas puntas de flecha sugiere que los diseñadores no pensaban en reacondicionarlas. Además, en aquellos casos en que las puntas rotas se pudieran reacondicionar, su rendimiento disminuía. En consecuencia, la reformatización de puntas rotas también dio lugar a formas que son poco comunes en muchos conjuntos de puntas de flecha. Nuestros resultados sugieren que los atributos de diseño originales de las puntas de flecha pueden haberse visto menos afectados por el retoque, y, en consecuencia, pueden sugerir con mayor precisión asociaciones temporales y de comportamiento. Palabras clave: reformación de puntas de proyectil, daño debido al uso, diseño, rendimiento, restricciones de materia prima, experimento controlado R esearchers have identified many variables that conditioned the form of flaked-stone projectile points (Shott 1996). These varied factors can be grouped into three general lines of inquiry: design characteristics, raw material constraints, and reworking. Point design variables include both stylistic expressions (e.g., serrations) that do not substantially change point performance as well as intentional modifications (e.g., side notching of triangular points) that do significantly alter point function, and, therefore, are potentially related to differences in the intended use (
Kiva , 2018
Much of what is known regarding Historic period Native American communities is based on studying ... more Much of what is known regarding Historic period Native American communities is based on studying documents that were written by non-indigenous peoples. However, archaeological excavations in a portion of the Blackwater Village within the Gila River Indian Community provide another perspective on Native American life ways within south-central Arizona during the late 1800s. The latter nineteenth century was a pivotal time for the Akimel O’Odham (i.e., Pima) who have long lived within the Phoenix Basin, and they experienced dramatic changes in their subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, craft production, and other cultural practices during this time. These recent investigations demonstrate that the Akimel O’Odham were not passive recipients of Euroamerican culture, and instead they chose to adopt some aspects of non-native practices while at the same time retaining important traditions. As a result, the Akimel O’Odham have successfully maintained their society in the face of tremendous hardships, and Blackwater Village remains a vibrant settlement to this day.
Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material "... more Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material " quality " , but this variable has proven difficult to quantify, and the precise characteristics that improve performance remain unclear. This paper presents the results of controlled experiments that were designed to test projectile points made from stones with varying impact strength. By comparing an independent measure of strength with projectile point experimental data, our research suggests that this variable can be objectively measured, and it is a good predictor of some aspects of projectile tip function. Our results show that highly homogenous fine-grained materials with low impact strength (e.g., obsidian) perform well when penetrating elastic materials such as skin and muscle. These same materials , however, function poorly when penetrating more inelastic materials like rawhide, and they are substantially less durable.
Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material "... more Archaeologists have previously proposed several different measures of flaked stone raw material " quality " , but this variable has proven difficult to quantify, and the precise characteristics that improve performance remain unclear. This paper presents the results of controlled experiments that were designed to test projectile points made from stones with varying impact strength. By comparing an independent measure of strength with projectile point experimental data, our research suggests that this variable can be objectively measured, and it is a good predictor of some aspects of projectile tip function. Our results show that highly homogenous fine-grained materials with low impact strength (e.g., obsidian) perform well when penetrating elastic materials such as skin and muscle. These same materials , however, function poorly when penetrating more inelastic materials like rawhide, and they are substantially less durable.
This paper applies artifact design theory to the study of flaked-stone projectile points. The rol... more This paper applies artifact design theory to the study of flaked-stone projectile points. The role of human engineering in the point production process is emphasized in this analytical perspective. as developed here, this research paradigm postulates that people make highly-shaped artifacts, such as flaked-stone projectile points, with the intent of performing one or more specific tasks. Both available materials and known manufacturing techniques limit the design process, while the production and performance of projectiles is constrained by the laws of physics. although physical parameters limit variability, considerable room remains for individual or group expression , and projectile point characteristics are the product of both cultural identity and performance requirements. Projectile point design theory as developed here is not a replacement for previous analytical approaches including typological methods, and instead compliments this research.
Archaeologists have long used the prehistoric inhabitants of the Phoenix Basin in south-central A... more Archaeologists have long used the prehistoric inhabitants of the Phoenix Basin in south-central Arizona as an example of a failed or collapsed society, and most prehistorians still assert that Hohokam material culture patterns ended at the close of the Classic period (circa A.D. 1150–1450). Although researchers are increasingly recognizing connections between prehistoric and modern indigenous people, little consensus exists regarding the cause or causes of the dramatic alterations in material culture patterns that occurred in the region. Most archaeologists who have studied the changes at the end of the Classic period, however, have not fully considered the implications of previous and subsequent conditions, including similar and seemingly abrupt shifts in cultural practices that occurred both before and after this time. This paper uses Akimel O'Odham (i.e., Pima) cultural knowledge to contextualize the " Hohokam Collapse. " We show that this perspective of culture history explains the relationship between prehistoric and historic populations and answers many of the long-standing questions regarding cultural variation in the Phoenix Basin. Durante mucho tiempo, los arqueólogos han utilizado los habitantes prehistóricos de la cuenca de Phoenix en el centro-sur de Arizona (es decir, la cultura hohokam) como ejemplo de una sociedad que fracasó o colapsó. La mayoría de los prehistoriadores todavía afirma que los patrones de la cultura material hohokam terminaron al final del periodo clásico (hacia 1150–1450 d.C.). Aunque cada vez más se reconocen las conexiones entre los habitantes indígenas prehistóricos y modernos de la zona, hay desacuerdo sobre la causa o causas de las dramáticas alteraciones a los patrones de cultura material que se produjeron en la región. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los arqueólogos que han estudiado los cambios ocurridos al final del período clásico no han considerado las implicaciones de las condiciones anteriores y subsiguientes, incluyendo cambios similares y aparentemente abruptos en las prácticas culturales que se produjeron previamente. En este trabajo se utiliza el conocimiento cultural de los Akimel O'Odham (es decir, los pima) para contextualizar el " colapso hohokam ". Demostramos que esta perspectiva de la historia cultural explica la relación entre las poblaciones prehistóricas e históricas, y responde a muchas de las preguntas de larga data con respecto a la variación cultural en la cuenca de Phoenix.
Journal of Archaeological Science, Jan 2013
Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of ∼2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the ... more Eight prehistoric wells dug to a depth of ∼2 m below the modern ground surface were found in the alluvial sediments of McClellan Wash on Gila River Indian Community in southern Arizona. Charcoal from the sediments filling the wells yielded radiocarbon ages of ∼1000 B.C. The time in which wells were dug coincides with a period of general regional aridity and high ENSO activity in the American Southwest. Digging to access water may have occurred in response to period(s) of resource uncertainty, or as a logistical activity that engaged increasingly resource-tethered Late Archaic/Early Agricultural populations. These activities laid the foundation for agricultural practices that eventually became the dominant mode of subsistence in the low-lying areas of the Sonoran Desert.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , 2015
Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Care... more Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Carefully controlled experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance. This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
Ethnohistorical and ethnographic observations from around the world indicate that projectiles wer... more Ethnohistorical and ethnographic observations from around the world indicate that projectiles were often made differently for warfare and hunting. Using experiential archaeology and analysis of a thousand years’ worth of data from the middle Gila River in Arizona, the authors argue that side notched arrow points were produced for hunting large animals and were designed to be retrieved and reused, while unnotched points were intended for single use and for another purpose: to kill people. The data suggests furthermore that the region witnessed a steady increase in levels of violence during the period under study.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2013
Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Care... more Why were stone projectile point blade margins serrated in some circumstances and not others? Carefully controlled
experiments reported here are used to quantify the effects of this attribute on projectile performance.
This research suggests that serration does not substantially alter point performance, and this characteristic
may therefore vary independently of function. These results in conjunction with patterning in archeological
data suggest that point blade traits including serration served as active symbols of sociocultural group membership
in some areas, such as the Phoenix Basin in Southern Arizona.
Human Ecology
Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an e... more Dust in its myriad forms impacts human existence in arid environments; but dust is more than an environmental nuisance. It shapes and reshapes adaptive response and human ideology over the short and long term. In 2011, the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC), Arizona, U.S.A. sponsored a study of dust entrainment within the jurisdiction of its airshed. The study’s primary objectives were to determine the relationship between sediment sources and sinks in premodern contexts and how indigenous people have coped with eolian activity since intensive settlement of the Middle Gila River Valley began. Ethnographic and archaeological sources indicate that people respect winds and observe cultural procedures consistent with their origin and to reduce their ill effects. Geomorphic data also show stratigraphic correspondence between relic wash channels and adjacent terrace and sand sheet deposits demonstrating a long history of eolian activity derived from fluvial sources. Climatological data from PM10 “exceedance events” corroborate anthropological analyses indicating that extreme dust events are typically westerlies and occur during exceptionally dry periods. Eolian dust is part of the ambient ecosystem of the GRIC and should be viewed as such within the modern cultural and regulatory environment governing these emissions.
Kiva, May 2014
This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that... more This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that have previously been suggested to date to the Historic period. The locations of these artifacts within the Gila River Indian Community and other lines of evidence including ceramic data are consistent with ethnohistorically
and ethnographically documented Akimel O’odham settlement patterns along the middle Gila River. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the three point types considered here were indeed produced during the Protohistoric and Historic periods, and it appears that it is possible to characterize diagnostic
projectile point types from this time. These data also provide corroborating
evidence for historically documented population movements during the Historic
period.
This presentation summarizes the remarkable career of Lawrence L. Loendorf, who has conducted cut... more This presentation summarizes the remarkable career of Lawrence L. Loendorf, who has conducted cutting edge archaeological research for nearly six decades. As his son, my life follows the arc of Larry's research as an archaeologist from when it formally began in early 1960s through today. Consequently, I am uniquely positioned to comment on his work, which is far too vast to fully encapsulate here, and instead I am only able to present a few highlights. Larry's passion for archaeology has inspired an entire generation of researchers, including myself. He is an award winning educator, and he has been a mentor to many aspiring archaeologists. He has personally helped many people develop successful careers of their own, including a number who were otherwise disadvantaged. His work has contributed greatly to our understanding of Northern Plains prehistory in particular, and to rock art research throughout North America in general. His incredible enthusiasm for understanding and preserving the past continues unabated to this day, and he remains highly engaged as a field and laboratory investigator with his ongoing work at Sacred Sites Research, Inc., a non-profit corporation he established.
pXRF Analysis Report 2012-04, 2012
This document summarizes the results of an Energy Dispersive X-Ray Florescence (EDXRF) elemental ... more This document summarizes the results of an Energy Dispersive X-Ray Florescence (EDXRF) elemental characterization analyses of artifacts recovered from a prehistoric Hohokam site in Maricopa County, Arizona. Elemental data were collected using a Bruker Tracer III-V portable EDXRF spectrometer. The analysis involved determining material types for a collection of over 4,000 small disk beads. Hohokam disk beads were made from both stone and shell, and it is difficult to reliably distinguish these material types based on macroscopic appearance. Examination of the spectral data revealed that all of the beads were manufactured from stone, and no shell beads appear to have been included in the sample. EDXRF analyses of 76 “turquoise” artifacts is also reported. The first part of this analysis involved assessing if the stone was turquoise or some other material with a similar appearance. The second stage included a geographic provenance analyses of the raw materials used to make the beads. The results of this study indicate that 73 of the artifacts are turquoise, and the remaining three artifacts appear to have a similar composition to the disk beads that were analyzed in the first part of the analysis. Although it was not possible to determine source areas for most of the artifacts, the EDXRF data have potential for identifying stone from different sources.
Archaeology of the Pueblo Grande Platform Mound and Surrounding Features Volume 5: Special Studies Edited by Anthropological Papers No. 1 Pueblo Grande Museum, Phoenix 2020, 2020
The Encyclopedia of Archaeological Sciences, 2019
This encyclopedia entry covers the scientific instruments that archaeologists employ to study lit... more This encyclopedia entry covers the scientific instruments that archaeologists employ to study lithic raw materials, and the conclusions that are drawn from these analyses.
pXRF Technical Report 2019-02, 2019
The document presents the results of a non-destructive Energy Dispersive X-Ray Florescence (EDXR... more The document presents the results of a non-destructive Energy Dispersive X-Ray Florescence (EDXRF) analysis of obsidian artifacts from Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (CAGR) in Coolidge, Arizona. The analysis was completed by staff from the Gila River Indian Community Cultural Resource Management Program (GRIC-CRMP). All documentation was fully non-destructive, and the artifacts were returned to the exact location where they were found within the CAGR. Consequently, analyzed materials were therefore not disturbed or otherwise substantially altered in any manner, and no cultural remains left the CAGR at any point.
![Research paper thumbnail of EDXRF SOURCE PROVENANCE ANALYSIS OF OBSIDIAN ARTIFACTS FROM UNIVERSITY INDIAN RUIN (AZ BB:9:33 [ASM]), TUCSON, ARIZONA](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/58600820/thumbnails/1.jpg)
](pXRF Technical Report 2011-04, 2011
This report summarizes the results of a non-destructive Energy Dispersive X-Ray Florescence (EDXR... more This report summarizes the results of a non-destructive Energy Dispersive X-Ray Florescence (EDXRF) analysis of 180 obsidian artifacts from the University Indian Ruin (UIR; AZ BB:9:33 [ASM]), Tucson, Arizona. All artifacts were analyzed by the Gila River Indian Community’s Cultural Resource Management Program (GRIC-CRMP) using a Bruker Tracer III-V portable X-Ray spectrometer. Twenty-two of these artifacts were previously analyzed as part of a sample of 56 artifacts that were examined by the Archaeological XRF Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. These 22 specimens were selected for reanalysis here in order to obtain additional geochemical data for obsidian source areas, as well as to provide intra-analysis control data. Although
a total of 184 specimens were submitted for EDXRF analysis, four of the artifacts were composed of raw materials other than obsidian.
GRIC-CRMP pXRF, 2018
This report summarizes the results of a non-destructive Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDX... more This report summarizes the results of a non-destructive Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis of 92 artifacts from Gila Crossing (GR-1112) ; however one of them was determined to be man made glass instead of obsidian. Obsidian from eight of the sources in the Southwest was identified at GR-1112. The collection is comparatively diverse, which may in part reflect the long period of occupation at Gila Crossing, and obsidian use at the site may span the Colonial through the late Historic periods.
Loendorf, Chris 1995 Burial Practices at Schoolhouse Mesa Sites. In The Archaeology of Schoolhou... more Loendorf, Chris
1995 Burial Practices at Schoolhouse Mesa Sites. In The Archaeology of Schoolhouse Point Mesa, Roosevelt Platform Mound Study, by Owen Lindauer. Roosevelt Monograph Series 8, Anthropological Field Studies 37. Office of Cultural Resource Management, Department of Anthropology, ASU, Tempe.
Fierce and Indomitable: The Protohistoric Non-Pueblo World in the American Southwest, 2017
In contrast to the prehistoric periods and phases, the Protohistoric period is defined on the bas... more In contrast to the prehistoric periods and phases, the Protohistoric period is defined on the basis of external events rather than changes observed in the material culture of southern Arizona, and there is little reason to expect that variation in indigenous artifacts should closely coincide with either the beginning or the end of this period. As a result, the Protohistoric period remains poorly defined in the Akimel O’odham core area within the Phoenix Basin of southern Arizona, and this chapter explores a different methodological approach for identifying temporal variation in indigenous assemblages. Specifically, this discussion considers the hypothesis that flaked-stone arrow points generally decreased in size over time, and as a consequence, variation in point weight can be employed to estimate relative age. Archaeologists have long recognized that spear and atlatl points are generally larger than arrow points, and size has been widely employed to separate these types. However, previous investigators have largely not considered the weight of these artifacts, and the focus of this research has been on technological rather than temporal variation. Archaeologists have also devoted less attention to continuous variation within technological types, such as the bow and arrow, and the temporal implications of this patterning.
The fate of the prehistoric Hohokam populations who lived in the Phoenix Basin of Southern Arizon... more The fate of the prehistoric Hohokam populations who lived in the Phoenix Basin of Southern Arizona has been debated since Spanish missionaries first visited the area in the late 1600s. Despite the many centuries that scholars have spent considering this topic, this issue is still not fully resolved. In The Hohokam–Akimel O’odham Continuum: Sociocultural Dynamics and Projectile Point Design in the Phoenix Basin Arizona, by Chris Loendorf, projectile point data from the Middle Gila River portion of the Hohokam core area are employed to provide a previously unrecognized perspective on cultural continuity in the region. This research demonstrates remarkably strong traditions in material culture between prehistory and history, which indicate that the historical populations (Akimel O’odham or Pima) are the direct cultural descendants of the Hohokam. Archaeologists in Southern Arizona have previously devoted little attention to the analysis of projectile points. However, as the research in this book demonstrates, it is possible to use point data to address a wide range of research issues including subsistence practices, settlement patterns, socioeconomic interactions, and inter-societal conflicts. Although the Akimel O’Odham still maintain detailed social histories regarding their prehistory, this perspective has been extensively ignored or misinterpreted by previous researchers. However, this manuscript devotes considerable attention to the Akimel O’odham views of the past, which suggest that prehistoric populations fluctuated dramatically over time. This possibility has important implications for understanding patterning in the archaeological record that are explored in this book.
Archaeology Southwest Magazine, 2021
The Gila Indian River Community (GRIC) has developed a rock art conservation program to care for,... more The Gila Indian River Community (GRIC) has developed a rock art conservation program to care for, restore, and protect petroglyphs within Community lands. The GRIC Cultural Resource Management Program (CRMP), in consultation with the GRIC Tribal Historic Preservation Office (THPO), has found that vandalism is the most urgent area of concern for rock art conservation. Damages include defacement and graffiti, theft of rock art boulders, littering, dumping, and shooting. Graffiti made with spray paint and brushed paints are among the primary threats to ancient and historic rock art within the GRIC. The Akimel O'Odham and Pee Posh identify with ancient rock art and have actively interacted with it for centuries. Community members' reverence for rock art is reflected in current oral traditions and songs that include rock art locales and associated trails. Most Community members support restoration of vandalized sites to their original condition. Some members, however, believe that rock art panels and associated areas should not be disturbed for any reason. According to that view, even if vandalism occurs, sites should not be rehabilitated; rather, they should be allowed to deteriorate. Addressing the divergent views of the Community is an important but necessary challenge. For the past several years, CRMP has organized projects that included site documentation, protection measures, restoration, damage assessments, and damage mitigation. Initially, we focused on recording sites threatened by vandalism and development, and we conducted an inventory of rock art on land the Community leases to the public. To track our damage mitigation and conservation process, we created a procedural manual with documentation forms. This has allowed us to track the efficacy of our methods and cleaning products. Data collected during these efforts help ensure that our methods do not inadvertently damage the rock art panels we are attempting to conserve. Our preservation procedures involve not only removing graffiti, but also removing trash. When Vandalized petroglyph panel on a large outcrop. IMAGE COURTESY OF GRIC-CRMP
Archaeology Southwest Magazine, 2019
Issue editor Aaron M. Wright, renowned rock art scholar Polly Schaafsma, and authors on the cutti... more Issue editor Aaron M. Wright, renowned rock art scholar Polly Schaafsma, and authors on the cutting edge of rock art research consider rock art within the physical and social contexts of its makers’ lives.
American Antiquity, 2023
The 2019 publication of The Davis Ranch Site: A Kayenta Immigrant Enclave in Southeastern Arizona... more The 2019 publication of The Davis Ranch Site: A Kayenta Immigrant Enclave in Southeastern Arizona, as part of the Amerind Studies in Anthropology series by the University of Arizona Press, addresses an injustice more than 60 years old. Despite the fact that the late Rex Gerald's work at Davis Ranch has had a substantial influence on the interpretation of southern Arizona prehistory, the results of his 1957 excavations at the site have not previously been published. Although the monograph describing the results of investigations was completed not long after his fieldwork, it was not released to the public, apparently because of disagreements regarding interpretations of the data. Regrettably, the questions that guided Gerald's investigations remain largely unresolved, including the issue of what caused material culture changes that occurred during the Classic period (ca. AD 1150-1450). These include the appearance of polychrome pottery (Roosevelt Red Wares), inhumation burials, and compound architecture with surface structures (i.e., the Salado phenomenon). Roosevelt Red Wares are one of the most widespread ceramic types in the Greater Southwest, and modern scholars are largely divided into two camps: those who suggest that the ceramics were associated with the spread of a religious tradition, and others who believe that they were largely made by enclaves of migrants from the Kayenta area to the north (i.e., the Salado people). The excavations were also undertaken to study the relationships between the prehistoric period and historic period residents of the region, which is also still not fully understood. Importantly, censorship is never an appropriate response to disagreements over results and interpretations, and had the excavation data been released in 1958, we could be closer to consensus on these significant issues. The book has eight chapters, along with lengthy appendixes and an index. The manuscript is well illustrated with 43 figures, many of which are in color. The illustrations include photographs from the excavations, as well as recently drafted plan and profile drawings that are based on the field records. Five of the chapters were written by Gerald and edited by Patrick D. Lyons (Chapters 2 through 6). Two were authored by Lyons (Chapters 1 and 7), and Chapter 8 was coauthored by Jeffery J. Clark and Lyons. Chapter 1 summarizes what is known regarding the prehistoric culture history of the San Pedro Valley in southern Arizona, where Davis Ranch is located, and it provides background information about Gerald's field research and manuscript. Chapter 2 is the introduction that Gerald wrote for his 1958 site report. Chapter 3 describes the architecture and other features, whereas Chapter 4 covers the 15 inhumations and three cremation burials identified at the site. Chapter 5 summarizes the lithic artifacts, faunal materials, shell artifacts, and other items. In contrast to the extensive reanalysis of ceramics in Chapter 7, brief reconsiderations are given to these materials. The lack of an obsidian source analysis is especially surprising given that these data have clear regional and temporal patterns, which suggest changes in socioeconomic interactions between different regions and through time. Chapter 6 describes the pottery types present in the Davis Ranch ceramic assemblage, and this single chapter in the current volume consists of two incomplete chapters that were written by Gerald and have been extensively edited by Lyons. Students of Southwest ceramics will find this chapter especially useful because the editorial commentary provides informative background regarding current pottery
American Antiquity, Mar 22, 2023
The 84th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2019
This presentation summarizes the remarkable career of Lawrence L. Loendorf, who has conducted cut... more This presentation summarizes the remarkable career of Lawrence L. Loendorf, who has conducted cutting edge archaeological research for nearly six decades. As his son, my life follows the arc of Larry's research as an archaeologist from when it formally began in early 1960s through today. Consequently, I am uniquely positioned to comment on his work, which is far too vast to fully encapsulate here, and instead I am only able to present a few highlights. Larry's passion for archaeology has inspired an entire generation of researchers, including myself. He is an award winning educator, and he has been a mentor to many aspiring archaeologists. He has personally helped many people develop successful careers of their own, including a number who were otherwise disadvantaged. His work has contributed greatly to our understanding of Northern Plains prehistory in particular, and to rock art research throughout North America in general. His incredible enthusiasm for understanding and preserving the past continues unabated to this day, and he remains highly engaged as a field and laboratory investigator with his ongoing work at Sacred Sites Research, Inc., a non-profit corporation he established.
The 81st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2017
The Kiva, Sep 1, 2013
Abstract This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Ari... more Abstract This paper analyzes the distribution of flaked-stone projectile points from southern Arizona that have previously been suggested to date to the Historic period. The locations of these artifacts within the Gila River Indian Community and other lines of evidence including ceramic data are consistent with ethnohistorically and ethnographically documented Akimel O'odham settlement patterns along the middle Gila River. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the three point types considered here were indeed produced during the Protohistoric and Historic periods, and it appears that it is possible to characterize diagnostic projectile point types from this time. These data also provide corroborating evidence for historically documented population movements during the Historic period.
The Kiva, 1998
Page 1. KIVA, Vol. 63, No. 4, 1998 SALADO MULTIPLE INTERMENTS CHRIS LOENDORF Office of Cultural R... more Page 1. KIVA, Vol. 63, No. 4, 1998 SALADO MULTIPLE INTERMENTS CHRIS LOENDORF Office of Cultural Resource Management Department of Anthropology Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona 85287 ABSTRACT Recent ...
The 80th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2015
The 86th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2021
The 84th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2019
American Antiquity, Apr 1, 2013
The 80th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2015
The 86th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, 2021
The Davis Ranch Site, 2019
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2023
Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central ... more Data recovery investigations in the Blackwater area along the middle Gila River in south-central Arizona identified ceramic and lithic artifacts derived from the Rio Grande region. These remains were collected from GR-1425, which is located at the heading of the Blackwater canal system within the Gila River Indian Community. The site lacks evidence for permanent occupation, and instead only short-term habitation occurred. Extensive evidence for weapon manufacturing suggests that the temporary relocation was associated with conflict, and radiocarbon dates suggest that the cultural remains were deposited after the Hohokam Classic period ended circa CE 1450. The most parsimonious explanation for the data from GR-1425 is that a group of Eastern Puebloans temporarily moved to the middle Gila River around the time of the Pueblo Revolt in CE 1680. As a result of increased interactions of disparate populations brought together by the extensive population movements that occurred at this time, substantial changes in regional ceramic traditions occurred, and data from GR-1425 suggest the extent of these interactions was more wide-scale than previously recognized.
Vapaki: Ancestral O’Odham Platform Mounds of the Sonoran Desert, Chapter 15, 2023
Vapaki, 2023
When Euroamericans first visited the Phoenix Basin in AD 1694, our ancestors were living in large... more When Euroamericans first visited the Phoenix
Basin in AD 1694, our ancestors were living
in large villages along the Middle Gila River
(Wilson 2014). In our language, we are called
Akimel O’Odham, or “River People” in English,
and we still live in the same communities as our
ancestors. Our culture is one of the O’Odham
communities who still live in much of southern
Arizona. However, the O’Odham now occupy a
small portion of our aboriginal territory, which
extends well beyond the borders of the modern
reservations in Arizona.
Vapaki: Ancestral O’Odham Platform Mounds of the Sonoran Desert, 2023
Investigations by the Gila River Indian Community Cultural Resource Management Program (GRIC-CRMP... more Investigations by the Gila River Indian Community Cultural Resource Management Program (GRIC-CRMP) along the Middle Gila River provide a new perspective on the development of Classic period Hohokam platform
mound communities. Archaeological data show that major
shifts in settlement patterns occurred over time within the Phoenix Basin, and these movements coincide with substantial changes in cultural traditions, including the appearance of platform mounds during the Classic period (ca. 1150-1450 AD).
Vapaki: Ancestral O'Odham Platform Mounds of the Sonoran Desert, 2023
Vapaki: Ancestral O'Odham Platform Mounds of the Sonoran Desert, 2023
The University of Utah Press, 2023
This volume presents a far-ranging conversation on the topic of Hohokam platform mounds in the hi... more This volume presents a far-ranging conversation on the topic of Hohokam platform mounds in the history of the southern Arizona desert, exploring why they were built, how they were used, and what they meant in the lives of the farmers who built them. Vapaki brings together diverse theoretical approaches, a mix of big-picture and tightly focused perspectives, coverage of the variation in mounds that provides depth for specialists, breadth for those working in other areas and on other topics, and a rich corpus of research ideas and theoretical perspectives. Contributors grapple with questions about platform mounds, including the social, political, ideological, symbolic, and adaptive factors that contributed to their development, spread, and eventual cessation.