Matthew Stanard | Berry College (original) (raw)
Books by Matthew Stanard
The Leopard, the Lion, and the Cock: Colonial Memories and Monuments in Belgium, 2019
Thought-provoking reflection on culture, colonialism, and the remainders of empire in Belgium aft... more Thought-provoking reflection on culture, colonialism, and the remainders of empire in Belgium after 1960
The degree to which the late colonial era affected Europe has been for long underappreciated, and only recently have European countries started to acknowledge not having come to terms with decolonisation. In Belgium, the past two decades have witnessed a growing awareness of the controversial episodes in the country’s colonial past. This volume examines the long-term effects and legacies of the colonial era on Belgium after 1960, the year the Congo gained its independence, and calls into question memories of the colonial past by focusing on the meaning and place of colonial monuments in public space.
The book foregrounds the enduring presence of “empire” in everyday Belgian life in the form of permanent colonial markers in bronze and stone, lieux de mémoires of the country’s history of overseas expansion. By means of photographs and explanations of major pro-colonial memorials, as well as several obscure ones, the book reveals the surprising degree to which Belgium became infused with a colonialist spirit during the colonial era.
Another key component of the analysis is an account of the varied ways that both Dutch- and French-speaking Belgians approached the colonial past after 1960, treating memorials variously as objects of veneration, with indifference, or as symbols to be attacked or torn down. The book provides a thought-provoking reflection on culture, colonialism, and the remainders of empire in Belgium after 1960.
European Overseas Empire 1879-1999: A Short History, 2018
A Timely Look Back at the Era That Shaped Our World Thousands of years of recorded history show... more A Timely Look Back at the Era That Shaped Our World
Thousands of years of recorded history show that the main way in which human societies have been organized is as empires. Today, the evidence of recent European overseas empire’s lasting effects is all around us: from international frontiers and fusion cuisine to multiplying apologies for colonial misdeeds. European Overseas Empire, 1879-1999: A Short History explores the major events in this critical period that continue to inform and affect our world today.
New access to archives and a renewed interest in the most recent era of European overseas empire building and the decolonization that followed have produced a wealth of fascinating information that has recharged perennial debates and shed new light on topics previously considered settled . At the same time, current events are once again beginning to echo the past, bringing historical perspective into the spotlight to guide our actions going forward. This book examines our collective past, providing new insight and fresh perspectives as it:
Traces current events to their roots in the European overseas imperialism of the 19th and 20th centuries
Challenges the notion of political, cultural, social, and economic exchanges of the era as being primarily “Europe-outward”
Examines the complexity and contingency of colonial rule, and the range of outcomes for the various territories involved
Explores the power dynamics of overseas empires, and their legacies that continue to shape the world today
Co-authored books by Matthew Stanard
Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire, 2020
Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire offers a new paradigm to understand d... more Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire offers a new paradigm to understand decolonisation in Europe by showing how it was fundamentally a fluid process of fluxes and refluxes involving not only transfers of populations, ideas, and sociocultural practices across continents but also complex intra-European dynamics at a time of political convergence following the Treaty of Rome. Decolonisation was neither a process of sudden, rapid changes to European cultures nor one of cultural inertia, but a development marked by fluidity, movement, and dynamism. Rather than being a static process where Europe’s (former) metropoles and their peoples ‘at home’ reacted to the end of empire ‘out there’, decolonisation translated into new realities for Europe’s cultures, societies, and politics as flows, ebbs, fluxes, and cultural refluxes reshaped both former colonies and former metropoles.
The volume’s contributors set out a carefully crafted panorama of decolonisation’s sequels in European popular culture by means of in-depth studies of specific cases and media, analysing the interwoven meaning, momentum, memory, material culture, and migration patterns of the end of empire across eight major European countries.
The revised meaning of ‘decolonisation’ that emerges will challenge scholars in several fields, and the panorama of new research in the book charts paths for new investigations. The question mark in the title asks not only how European cultures experienced the ‘end of empire’ but also the extent to which this is still a work in progress.
Papers by Matthew Stanard
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Cultural Heritage and Conflict, 2024
Colonialism in the Congo led to the creation of colonial memories in Belgium, both individual and... more Colonialism in the Congo led to the creation of colonial memories in Belgium, both individual and collective. Because so few Belgians ever traveled to central Africa, proempire propaganda, colonial information, and images that the Church, the state, and colonial enthusiasts circulated in the metropole had a major impact on memory formation. Belgians experienced colonialism vicariously, including in museums, at monuments, in churches and classrooms, and at commemorative events. One result was that the period of Leopold II’s Congo Free State became foundational for Belgian colonial recollections. The memories that developed were overwhelmingly positive, leading to optimistic and confident attitudes toward the country’s past involvement in central Africa. Leopold II, who had died an unpopular figure, came to be remembered as a colonial genius. Since 2000, generational change, controversies, anniversaries, historical publications, an increase in Congolese immigration, and international developments like the Black Lives Matter movement have challenged collective memory in the country and increased social tensions. Like so much else in Belgium, group memories seem to have diverged somewhat along linguistic and regional lines. In the Dutch-speaking north, there are today more negative recollections of the monarchy’s and the state’s role in colonialism, yet more positive memories of missionary action in the Congo. In the French-speaking south, more positive memories of the monarchy’s and state’s actions have endured. Further research is warranted into whether and how memories changed regionally.
Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques, 2020
Studies of the visual culture of the Congo Free State (CFS) have focused overwhelmingly yet narro... more Studies of the visual culture of the Congo Free State (CFS) have focused overwhelmingly yet narrowly on the “atrocity” photograph used to criticize Leopold II's colonial misrule. This article presents a new picture of the visual culture of Leopold II's Congo Free State by examining a broader, more heterogeneous range of fin de siècle images of varied provenance that comprised the visual culture of the CFS. These include architecture, paintings, African artwork, and public monuments, many of which were positive, pro-Leopoldian images emphasizing a favorable view of colonialism. The visual culture of the CFS was imbued with recurring themes of violence, European heroism, and anti-Arab sentiment, and emerged from a unique, transnational, back-and-forth process whereby Leopold and his critics instrumentalized images to counter each other and achieve their goals.
Koloniaal Congo: Een geschiedenis in vragen, 2020
“De koloniale propaganda: het ontwaken van een Belgisch koloniaal bewustzijn?” In Koloniaal Congo... more “De koloniale propaganda: het ontwaken van een Belgisch koloniaal bewustzijn?” In Koloniaal Congo: Een geschiedenis in vragen. Onder redactie van Amandine Lauro, Idesbald Goddeeris et Guy Vanthemsche. Polis. June 2020.
Le Congo colonial: Une histoire en questions, 2020
“La propagande coloniale : l’éveil d’un esprit colonial belge?” In Le Congo colonial: Une histoir... more “La propagande coloniale : l’éveil d’un esprit colonial belge?” In Le Congo colonial: Une histoire en questions. Eds. Amandine Lauro, Idesbald Goddeeris et Guy Vanthemsche. La Renaissance du Livre. June 2020.
Pre-Publication, Leopold’s Legacy: Belgium’s Enduring Imprint of Empire, 2020
The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, 2018
“Après nous, le déluge: Belgium, Decolonization, and the Congo.” In The Oxford Handbook of the En... more “Après nous, le déluge: Belgium, Decolonization, and the Congo.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, eds. Martin Thomas and Andrew Thompson. Oxford University Press, 2018.
The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History: Essays in Honour of John M. MacKenzie, 2019
“Lumumba’s Ghost: A Historiography of Belgian Colonial Culture.” In The MacKenzie Moment and Impe... more “Lumumba’s Ghost: A Historiography of Belgian Colonial Culture.” In The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History: Essays in Honour of John M. MacKenzie. Eds. Stephanie Barczewski and Martin Farr. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Translated by Guido Mattia Gallerani. Scritture Migranti: Rivista di Scambi Interculturali, 2018
“‘Il passato (coloniale) non è affatto morto, anzi non è nemmeno passato’: la storia dell’imperia... more “‘Il passato (coloniale) non è affatto morto, anzi non è nemmeno passato’: la storia
dell’imperialismo, la decolonizzazione e le culture europee dopo il 1945.” Translated by Guido
Mattia Gallerani. Scritture Migranti: Rivista di Scambi Interculturali, issue “Europa/Europe,”
vols. 9-10 (2015-16): 81-110.
In The Colonial Past in History Textbooks - Historical and Social Psychological Perspectives, edi... more In The Colonial Past in History Textbooks - Historical and Social Psychological Perspectives, edited by: Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, University of Leuven, and Joaquim Pires Valentim, University of Coimbra. International Review of History Education, 2018This book examines the evolving representations of the colonial past from the mid-19th century up to decolonization in the 1960s and 70s − the so-called era of Modern Imperialism – in postwar history textbooks from across the world. The aim of the book is to examine the evolving outlook of colonial representations in history education and the underpinning explanations for the specific outlook in different – former colonizer and colonized – countries (to be found in collective memory, popular historical culture, social representations, identity-building processes, and the state of historical knowledge within academia). The approach of the book is novel and innovative in different ways. First of all, given the complexity of the research, an original interdisciplinary approach has been implemented, which brings together historians, history educators and social psychologists to examine representations of colonialism in history education in different countries around the world while drawing on different theoretical frameworks. Secondly, given the interest in the interplay between collective memory, popular historical culture, social representations, and the state of historical knowledge within academia, a diachronic approach is implemented, examining the evolving representations of the colonial past, and connecting them to developments within society at large and academia. This will allow for a deeper understanding of the processes under examination. Thirdly, studies from various corners of the world are included in the book. More specifically, the project includes research from three categories of countries: former colonizer countries – including England, Spain, Italy, France, Portugal and Belgium –, countries having been both colonized and colonizer – Chile – and former colonized countries, including Zimbabwe, Malta and Mozambique. This selection allows pairing up the countries under review as former colonizing-colonized ones (for instance Portugal-Mozambique, United Kingdom-Malta), allowing for an in-depth comparison between the countries involved. Before reaching the research core, three introductory chapters outline three general issues. The book starts with addressing the different approaches and epistemological underpinnings history and social psychology as academic disciplines hold. In a second chapter, evolutions within international academic colonial historiography are analyzed, with a special focus on the recent development of New Imperial History. A third chapter analyses history textbooks as cultural tools and political means of transmitting historical knowledge and representations across generations. The next ten chapters form the core of the book, in which evolving representations of colonial history (from mid-19th century until decolonization in the 1960s and 1970s) are examined, explained and reflected upon, for the abovementioned countries. This is done through a history textbook analysis in a diachronic perspective. For some countries the analysis dates back to textbooks published after the Second World War; for other countries the focus will be more limited in time. The research presented is done by historians and history educators, as well as by social psychologists. In a concluding chapter, an overall overview is presented, in which similarities and differences throughout the case studies are identified, interpreted and reflected upon.
Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 2018
It is the era of decolonisation in central Africa: angry mobs in the streets; authorities struggl... more It is the era of decolonisation in central Africa: angry mobs in the streets; authorities struggling to contain agitation by communists and other subversives; reports of Africans strangled to death or dragged behind cars by European settlers; whites arming themselves. One might presume these scenes of disorder and abuse took place during the Congo crisis from 1960 to 1965, when events appeared to spin out of control in central Africa. In fact, they occurred during the years after the Second World War, when Belgians seemed to have affairs well in hand in their central African colony. The Congo crisis is almost always viewed in sharp contrast to the peaceful era that preceded it—as if the lifting of Belgian rule unleashed chaos—and the relative stability post-1965 that came with the Mobutu dictatorship. There is broad agreement that Congo’s independence was a fiasco, with the former colonial ruler, Belgium, largely to blame. This essay argues that the Belgian authorities were not as in control as has been believed. Historians have known for years now that things were not as rosy as they might have seemed at the time, in the years leading up to independence in 1960, but recently available archival documents reveal the situation was even more fluid than previously thought. Bula Matari was not as far-reaching as believed, and many controls signalled a nervousness inherent in the late colonial state more than they did its strength. Reports by administrators reveal a lack of domination in the 1950s and underlying tensions in the colony, even conflicts. The public impression that Belgians had affairs well in hand is due in part to post-Second World War propaganda depicting an idyllic Congo. Belgians wanted to build support for colonialism, bolster their authority, forestall foreign interference and combat their own anxieties. Images produced persuaded many that the Congo was more peaceful than it was. The shock at independence ought to be attributed less to events unfolding as of June 1960 and more to the impressions of tranquillity projected by the authorities beforehand.
This chapter identifies and develops several themes that have emerged in recent works on the end ... more This chapter identifies and develops several themes that have emerged in recent works on the end of Belgium’s empire. The first is how, before 1960, factors mainly endogenous to the Congo and the Belgian-Congo colonial relationship were responsible for shaping decolonization’s history. Paradoxically, the depth of Belgium’s colonial impact politically and economically also produced changes that undermined colonial control as well as Congo’s cohesion. The chapter analyses the depth of Belgian social, economic and political connections with its vast Congo territory in the years preceding and immediately following the 1960 crisis, the assassination of Lumumba, and the widening UN intervention of the early 1960s.
Central Africa’s long history witnessed growing connections to the world beyond as a result of th... more Central Africa’s long history witnessed growing connections to the world beyond as a result of the Atlantic slave trade and then increasing activity by East African Swahili traders and Europeans in the 1800s. Strictly speaking, the official period of Belgian colonial rule in the Congo did not begin until 1908, lasting until 1960, when the Congo achieved its independence. But Belgian involvement began earlier. In 1885, the United States and European states—including Belgium—recognized King Leopold II of Belgium as the sovereign of a huge state roughly contiguous with the Congo River basin called the État Indépendant du Congo, or the EIC. (Leopold II’s colony is generally called the Congo Free State in English. One sees the French term État Libre du Congo and the Flemish terms Onafhankelijke Staat Congo and Onafhankelijke Kongostaat much less frequently.) Although Leopold’s rule (1885–1908) was in many ways an international endeavor, it became increasingly Belgian over time, as the white colonial population became majority Belgian. African populations in many areas of the EIC suffered atrocities at the hands of European and African colonial agents because of Leopold II’s approach of extracting natural resources by force. Missionary and other documentation of this suffering prompted a humanitarian campaign, foreign criticism, and finally Belgian reproaches. In an unfolding of events that was anything but inevitable, Leopold ceded his colony to Belgium in 1908, after which Belgium ruled it as a colony known as the Congo Belge (Belgian Congo) until 1960. As with all of Africa during the colonial era, the Belgian Congo was a European creation, and its borders and very existence did not reflect African interests or ethnic, linguistic, economic, or other groupings. Belgians never completely ruled all of their huge colony, but they intensified their administration, enacted reforms, and introduced medical advances, Christianity, the French language, and much else. After World War I, Belgium gained Ruanda-Urundi, which the Belgians governed not as the League of Nations mandate it was but rather as just another part of their colonial empire. In 1960, Congolese realized their independence, creating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (renamed Zaire between 1971 and 1997). The dividing of what follows into the Congo Free State period, the Belgian Congo period, and the postcolonial period is somewhat arbitrary; even though 1908 and 1960 were key milestones, the situation changed primarily in a juridical fashion in those years, and in important ways there was more continuity than change.
History writing about empire is thriving, although few could have predicted this in the 1980s, wh... more History writing about empire is thriving, although few could have predicted this in the 1980s, when the field was moribund. This article examines the history and historiography of post-1945 empires and decolonization, observing how international and economic developments, combined with changes to the history profession, revived the field in the 1990s. From this resurgence emerged the “new imperial history,” with its focus on imperialism and culture, although some debate whether Europe ever developed a “colonial culture.” The essay assesses recent works on the legacies of empire and decolonization that indicate what we know about colonial culture at this juncture, and how it should be studied. It also identifies obstacles like missed collaborations between postcolonial studies and history writing, and terminological issues, including problems with the label “new imperial history.” The essay concludes by indicating directions for future research: into the forms of decolonization; toward greater inclusion of the “smaller” empires; toward fuller comparison of cultures and empires; and into migration’s effects on Europe.
Histories of colonial culture in Europe have been narrowly focused, whereas comparative and trans... more Histories of colonial culture in Europe have been narrowly focused, whereas comparative and transnational studies can provide more fruitful results. By resisting the traditional approach to imperialistic culture, which focuses on individual nation-states and their empires, one can examine common themes and practices across Western Europe, for instance during the interwar period. During that time, states, pro-empire interest groups, and others repeatedly portrayed empires as singular, unified entities as well as realms of untold fortunes, even when in most instances they were neither. Reinforcing these themes were a number of near-universal practices, including the holding of so-called `colonial days' and the creation of ethnographic exhibits of colonial subjects, often at international expositions. An examination of pro-empire propaganda between the wars demonstrates that European states with overseas colonies in the twentieth century did not develop distinct colonial cultures; rather, they shared a number of common premises and performances. This suggests the coming into being of a broader European colonial culture and the need for comparative and transnational studies in this field. The states included in this analysis are Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Portugal, and the Netherlands.
The Leopard, the Lion, and the Cock: Colonial Memories and Monuments in Belgium, 2019
Thought-provoking reflection on culture, colonialism, and the remainders of empire in Belgium aft... more Thought-provoking reflection on culture, colonialism, and the remainders of empire in Belgium after 1960
The degree to which the late colonial era affected Europe has been for long underappreciated, and only recently have European countries started to acknowledge not having come to terms with decolonisation. In Belgium, the past two decades have witnessed a growing awareness of the controversial episodes in the country’s colonial past. This volume examines the long-term effects and legacies of the colonial era on Belgium after 1960, the year the Congo gained its independence, and calls into question memories of the colonial past by focusing on the meaning and place of colonial monuments in public space.
The book foregrounds the enduring presence of “empire” in everyday Belgian life in the form of permanent colonial markers in bronze and stone, lieux de mémoires of the country’s history of overseas expansion. By means of photographs and explanations of major pro-colonial memorials, as well as several obscure ones, the book reveals the surprising degree to which Belgium became infused with a colonialist spirit during the colonial era.
Another key component of the analysis is an account of the varied ways that both Dutch- and French-speaking Belgians approached the colonial past after 1960, treating memorials variously as objects of veneration, with indifference, or as symbols to be attacked or torn down. The book provides a thought-provoking reflection on culture, colonialism, and the remainders of empire in Belgium after 1960.
European Overseas Empire 1879-1999: A Short History, 2018
A Timely Look Back at the Era That Shaped Our World Thousands of years of recorded history show... more A Timely Look Back at the Era That Shaped Our World
Thousands of years of recorded history show that the main way in which human societies have been organized is as empires. Today, the evidence of recent European overseas empire’s lasting effects is all around us: from international frontiers and fusion cuisine to multiplying apologies for colonial misdeeds. European Overseas Empire, 1879-1999: A Short History explores the major events in this critical period that continue to inform and affect our world today.
New access to archives and a renewed interest in the most recent era of European overseas empire building and the decolonization that followed have produced a wealth of fascinating information that has recharged perennial debates and shed new light on topics previously considered settled . At the same time, current events are once again beginning to echo the past, bringing historical perspective into the spotlight to guide our actions going forward. This book examines our collective past, providing new insight and fresh perspectives as it:
Traces current events to their roots in the European overseas imperialism of the 19th and 20th centuries
Challenges the notion of political, cultural, social, and economic exchanges of the era as being primarily “Europe-outward”
Examines the complexity and contingency of colonial rule, and the range of outcomes for the various territories involved
Explores the power dynamics of overseas empires, and their legacies that continue to shape the world today
Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire, 2020
Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire offers a new paradigm to understand d... more Decolonising Europe? Popular Responses to the End of Empire offers a new paradigm to understand decolonisation in Europe by showing how it was fundamentally a fluid process of fluxes and refluxes involving not only transfers of populations, ideas, and sociocultural practices across continents but also complex intra-European dynamics at a time of political convergence following the Treaty of Rome. Decolonisation was neither a process of sudden, rapid changes to European cultures nor one of cultural inertia, but a development marked by fluidity, movement, and dynamism. Rather than being a static process where Europe’s (former) metropoles and their peoples ‘at home’ reacted to the end of empire ‘out there’, decolonisation translated into new realities for Europe’s cultures, societies, and politics as flows, ebbs, fluxes, and cultural refluxes reshaped both former colonies and former metropoles.
The volume’s contributors set out a carefully crafted panorama of decolonisation’s sequels in European popular culture by means of in-depth studies of specific cases and media, analysing the interwoven meaning, momentum, memory, material culture, and migration patterns of the end of empire across eight major European countries.
The revised meaning of ‘decolonisation’ that emerges will challenge scholars in several fields, and the panorama of new research in the book charts paths for new investigations. The question mark in the title asks not only how European cultures experienced the ‘end of empire’ but also the extent to which this is still a work in progress.
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Cultural Heritage and Conflict, 2024
Colonialism in the Congo led to the creation of colonial memories in Belgium, both individual and... more Colonialism in the Congo led to the creation of colonial memories in Belgium, both individual and collective. Because so few Belgians ever traveled to central Africa, proempire propaganda, colonial information, and images that the Church, the state, and colonial enthusiasts circulated in the metropole had a major impact on memory formation. Belgians experienced colonialism vicariously, including in museums, at monuments, in churches and classrooms, and at commemorative events. One result was that the period of Leopold II’s Congo Free State became foundational for Belgian colonial recollections. The memories that developed were overwhelmingly positive, leading to optimistic and confident attitudes toward the country’s past involvement in central Africa. Leopold II, who had died an unpopular figure, came to be remembered as a colonial genius. Since 2000, generational change, controversies, anniversaries, historical publications, an increase in Congolese immigration, and international developments like the Black Lives Matter movement have challenged collective memory in the country and increased social tensions. Like so much else in Belgium, group memories seem to have diverged somewhat along linguistic and regional lines. In the Dutch-speaking north, there are today more negative recollections of the monarchy’s and the state’s role in colonialism, yet more positive memories of missionary action in the Congo. In the French-speaking south, more positive memories of the monarchy’s and state’s actions have endured. Further research is warranted into whether and how memories changed regionally.
Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques, 2020
Studies of the visual culture of the Congo Free State (CFS) have focused overwhelmingly yet narro... more Studies of the visual culture of the Congo Free State (CFS) have focused overwhelmingly yet narrowly on the “atrocity” photograph used to criticize Leopold II's colonial misrule. This article presents a new picture of the visual culture of Leopold II's Congo Free State by examining a broader, more heterogeneous range of fin de siècle images of varied provenance that comprised the visual culture of the CFS. These include architecture, paintings, African artwork, and public monuments, many of which were positive, pro-Leopoldian images emphasizing a favorable view of colonialism. The visual culture of the CFS was imbued with recurring themes of violence, European heroism, and anti-Arab sentiment, and emerged from a unique, transnational, back-and-forth process whereby Leopold and his critics instrumentalized images to counter each other and achieve their goals.
Koloniaal Congo: Een geschiedenis in vragen, 2020
“De koloniale propaganda: het ontwaken van een Belgisch koloniaal bewustzijn?” In Koloniaal Congo... more “De koloniale propaganda: het ontwaken van een Belgisch koloniaal bewustzijn?” In Koloniaal Congo: Een geschiedenis in vragen. Onder redactie van Amandine Lauro, Idesbald Goddeeris et Guy Vanthemsche. Polis. June 2020.
Le Congo colonial: Une histoire en questions, 2020
“La propagande coloniale : l’éveil d’un esprit colonial belge?” In Le Congo colonial: Une histoir... more “La propagande coloniale : l’éveil d’un esprit colonial belge?” In Le Congo colonial: Une histoire en questions. Eds. Amandine Lauro, Idesbald Goddeeris et Guy Vanthemsche. La Renaissance du Livre. June 2020.
Pre-Publication, Leopold’s Legacy: Belgium’s Enduring Imprint of Empire, 2020
The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, 2018
“Après nous, le déluge: Belgium, Decolonization, and the Congo.” In The Oxford Handbook of the En... more “Après nous, le déluge: Belgium, Decolonization, and the Congo.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, eds. Martin Thomas and Andrew Thompson. Oxford University Press, 2018.
The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History: Essays in Honour of John M. MacKenzie, 2019
“Lumumba’s Ghost: A Historiography of Belgian Colonial Culture.” In The MacKenzie Moment and Impe... more “Lumumba’s Ghost: A Historiography of Belgian Colonial Culture.” In The MacKenzie Moment and Imperial History: Essays in Honour of John M. MacKenzie. Eds. Stephanie Barczewski and Martin Farr. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Translated by Guido Mattia Gallerani. Scritture Migranti: Rivista di Scambi Interculturali, 2018
“‘Il passato (coloniale) non è affatto morto, anzi non è nemmeno passato’: la storia dell’imperia... more “‘Il passato (coloniale) non è affatto morto, anzi non è nemmeno passato’: la storia
dell’imperialismo, la decolonizzazione e le culture europee dopo il 1945.” Translated by Guido
Mattia Gallerani. Scritture Migranti: Rivista di Scambi Interculturali, issue “Europa/Europe,”
vols. 9-10 (2015-16): 81-110.
In The Colonial Past in History Textbooks - Historical and Social Psychological Perspectives, edi... more In The Colonial Past in History Textbooks - Historical and Social Psychological Perspectives, edited by: Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, University of Leuven, and Joaquim Pires Valentim, University of Coimbra. International Review of History Education, 2018This book examines the evolving representations of the colonial past from the mid-19th century up to decolonization in the 1960s and 70s − the so-called era of Modern Imperialism – in postwar history textbooks from across the world. The aim of the book is to examine the evolving outlook of colonial representations in history education and the underpinning explanations for the specific outlook in different – former colonizer and colonized – countries (to be found in collective memory, popular historical culture, social representations, identity-building processes, and the state of historical knowledge within academia). The approach of the book is novel and innovative in different ways. First of all, given the complexity of the research, an original interdisciplinary approach has been implemented, which brings together historians, history educators and social psychologists to examine representations of colonialism in history education in different countries around the world while drawing on different theoretical frameworks. Secondly, given the interest in the interplay between collective memory, popular historical culture, social representations, and the state of historical knowledge within academia, a diachronic approach is implemented, examining the evolving representations of the colonial past, and connecting them to developments within society at large and academia. This will allow for a deeper understanding of the processes under examination. Thirdly, studies from various corners of the world are included in the book. More specifically, the project includes research from three categories of countries: former colonizer countries – including England, Spain, Italy, France, Portugal and Belgium –, countries having been both colonized and colonizer – Chile – and former colonized countries, including Zimbabwe, Malta and Mozambique. This selection allows pairing up the countries under review as former colonizing-colonized ones (for instance Portugal-Mozambique, United Kingdom-Malta), allowing for an in-depth comparison between the countries involved. Before reaching the research core, three introductory chapters outline three general issues. The book starts with addressing the different approaches and epistemological underpinnings history and social psychology as academic disciplines hold. In a second chapter, evolutions within international academic colonial historiography are analyzed, with a special focus on the recent development of New Imperial History. A third chapter analyses history textbooks as cultural tools and political means of transmitting historical knowledge and representations across generations. The next ten chapters form the core of the book, in which evolving representations of colonial history (from mid-19th century until decolonization in the 1960s and 1970s) are examined, explained and reflected upon, for the abovementioned countries. This is done through a history textbook analysis in a diachronic perspective. For some countries the analysis dates back to textbooks published after the Second World War; for other countries the focus will be more limited in time. The research presented is done by historians and history educators, as well as by social psychologists. In a concluding chapter, an overall overview is presented, in which similarities and differences throughout the case studies are identified, interpreted and reflected upon.
Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 2018
It is the era of decolonisation in central Africa: angry mobs in the streets; authorities struggl... more It is the era of decolonisation in central Africa: angry mobs in the streets; authorities struggling to contain agitation by communists and other subversives; reports of Africans strangled to death or dragged behind cars by European settlers; whites arming themselves. One might presume these scenes of disorder and abuse took place during the Congo crisis from 1960 to 1965, when events appeared to spin out of control in central Africa. In fact, they occurred during the years after the Second World War, when Belgians seemed to have affairs well in hand in their central African colony. The Congo crisis is almost always viewed in sharp contrast to the peaceful era that preceded it—as if the lifting of Belgian rule unleashed chaos—and the relative stability post-1965 that came with the Mobutu dictatorship. There is broad agreement that Congo’s independence was a fiasco, with the former colonial ruler, Belgium, largely to blame. This essay argues that the Belgian authorities were not as in control as has been believed. Historians have known for years now that things were not as rosy as they might have seemed at the time, in the years leading up to independence in 1960, but recently available archival documents reveal the situation was even more fluid than previously thought. Bula Matari was not as far-reaching as believed, and many controls signalled a nervousness inherent in the late colonial state more than they did its strength. Reports by administrators reveal a lack of domination in the 1950s and underlying tensions in the colony, even conflicts. The public impression that Belgians had affairs well in hand is due in part to post-Second World War propaganda depicting an idyllic Congo. Belgians wanted to build support for colonialism, bolster their authority, forestall foreign interference and combat their own anxieties. Images produced persuaded many that the Congo was more peaceful than it was. The shock at independence ought to be attributed less to events unfolding as of June 1960 and more to the impressions of tranquillity projected by the authorities beforehand.
This chapter identifies and develops several themes that have emerged in recent works on the end ... more This chapter identifies and develops several themes that have emerged in recent works on the end of Belgium’s empire. The first is how, before 1960, factors mainly endogenous to the Congo and the Belgian-Congo colonial relationship were responsible for shaping decolonization’s history. Paradoxically, the depth of Belgium’s colonial impact politically and economically also produced changes that undermined colonial control as well as Congo’s cohesion. The chapter analyses the depth of Belgian social, economic and political connections with its vast Congo territory in the years preceding and immediately following the 1960 crisis, the assassination of Lumumba, and the widening UN intervention of the early 1960s.
Central Africa’s long history witnessed growing connections to the world beyond as a result of th... more Central Africa’s long history witnessed growing connections to the world beyond as a result of the Atlantic slave trade and then increasing activity by East African Swahili traders and Europeans in the 1800s. Strictly speaking, the official period of Belgian colonial rule in the Congo did not begin until 1908, lasting until 1960, when the Congo achieved its independence. But Belgian involvement began earlier. In 1885, the United States and European states—including Belgium—recognized King Leopold II of Belgium as the sovereign of a huge state roughly contiguous with the Congo River basin called the État Indépendant du Congo, or the EIC. (Leopold II’s colony is generally called the Congo Free State in English. One sees the French term État Libre du Congo and the Flemish terms Onafhankelijke Staat Congo and Onafhankelijke Kongostaat much less frequently.) Although Leopold’s rule (1885–1908) was in many ways an international endeavor, it became increasingly Belgian over time, as the white colonial population became majority Belgian. African populations in many areas of the EIC suffered atrocities at the hands of European and African colonial agents because of Leopold II’s approach of extracting natural resources by force. Missionary and other documentation of this suffering prompted a humanitarian campaign, foreign criticism, and finally Belgian reproaches. In an unfolding of events that was anything but inevitable, Leopold ceded his colony to Belgium in 1908, after which Belgium ruled it as a colony known as the Congo Belge (Belgian Congo) until 1960. As with all of Africa during the colonial era, the Belgian Congo was a European creation, and its borders and very existence did not reflect African interests or ethnic, linguistic, economic, or other groupings. Belgians never completely ruled all of their huge colony, but they intensified their administration, enacted reforms, and introduced medical advances, Christianity, the French language, and much else. After World War I, Belgium gained Ruanda-Urundi, which the Belgians governed not as the League of Nations mandate it was but rather as just another part of their colonial empire. In 1960, Congolese realized their independence, creating the Democratic Republic of the Congo (renamed Zaire between 1971 and 1997). The dividing of what follows into the Congo Free State period, the Belgian Congo period, and the postcolonial period is somewhat arbitrary; even though 1908 and 1960 were key milestones, the situation changed primarily in a juridical fashion in those years, and in important ways there was more continuity than change.
History writing about empire is thriving, although few could have predicted this in the 1980s, wh... more History writing about empire is thriving, although few could have predicted this in the 1980s, when the field was moribund. This article examines the history and historiography of post-1945 empires and decolonization, observing how international and economic developments, combined with changes to the history profession, revived the field in the 1990s. From this resurgence emerged the “new imperial history,” with its focus on imperialism and culture, although some debate whether Europe ever developed a “colonial culture.” The essay assesses recent works on the legacies of empire and decolonization that indicate what we know about colonial culture at this juncture, and how it should be studied. It also identifies obstacles like missed collaborations between postcolonial studies and history writing, and terminological issues, including problems with the label “new imperial history.” The essay concludes by indicating directions for future research: into the forms of decolonization; toward greater inclusion of the “smaller” empires; toward fuller comparison of cultures and empires; and into migration’s effects on Europe.
Histories of colonial culture in Europe have been narrowly focused, whereas comparative and trans... more Histories of colonial culture in Europe have been narrowly focused, whereas comparative and transnational studies can provide more fruitful results. By resisting the traditional approach to imperialistic culture, which focuses on individual nation-states and their empires, one can examine common themes and practices across Western Europe, for instance during the interwar period. During that time, states, pro-empire interest groups, and others repeatedly portrayed empires as singular, unified entities as well as realms of untold fortunes, even when in most instances they were neither. Reinforcing these themes were a number of near-universal practices, including the holding of so-called `colonial days' and the creation of ethnographic exhibits of colonial subjects, often at international expositions. An examination of pro-empire propaganda between the wars demonstrates that European states with overseas colonies in the twentieth century did not develop distinct colonial cultures; rather, they shared a number of common premises and performances. This suggests the coming into being of a broader European colonial culture and the need for comparative and transnational studies in this field. The states included in this analysis are Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Portugal, and the Netherlands.
The period 1914–45 represents the height of European overseas empire even as seeds were sown hast... more The period 1914–45 represents the height of European overseas empire even as seeds were sown hastening imperialism’s demise. Colonies were ‘unfinished empires’ in the process of becoming, although frequent resorts to violence in the colonies indicated the limits of Europe’s grasp. Although many emerged from the First World War dubious about European so-called civilization, the civilizing mission survived and flourished, suggesting Europe’s enduring self-confidence. Development became a dominant discourse while the Great Depression quickened colonial exploitation. Emigration and settlement on expropriated lands slowed relative to Europe’s rapid expansion in the 1800s, yet formal colonialism proceeded apace, with few exceptions. Development and exploitation led to forced or voluntary migration of colonial subjects on a large scale. Cold War ideological competition was ‘exported’ to much of the colonial world. Non-Europeans used networks to claim their rights and attack European colonial rule, and they and the colonies influenced Europe, which developed various ‘colonial cultures’.
Journal of the History of Collections, 2024
The seventeen contributions brought together in this volume seek to advance research on the prove... more The seventeen contributions brought together in this volume seek to advance research on the provenance of objects collected in Congo, as well as their restitution. Such research is challenging because it is very complex, involving dimensions that are variously (or simultaneously) diplomatic, religious, cultural, social, legal, commercial, political and historical, while touching on issues of epistemology, tradition and wealth. The questions that arise can seem limitless. If objects are to be restituted, to whom should they be returned? To individuals, traditional authorities, local communities, the DRC, or someone else? As contributor Anne-Marie Bouttiaux asks, how can Western museums dictate legal pre-conditions for the return of items to Africa when Westerners obtained those objects illegally? What about the role of globalization and cultural change? Because culture is not static, what should be done if communities have lost contact with items, thereby emptying them of their relevance? What if the involvement of local stakeholders leads to answers that some people dislike? When interviewing Congolese artists, contributor Zoë Strother discovered that some are little concerned with the restitution of works of art, preferring to focus on their own endeavours: ‘Two suggested that they would really like to see a museum with THEIR works on the wall next to a label with THEIR names.’ Some might be appalled by the study of exhumed human (Congolese) remains by (European, colonial) physical anthropologists, as detailed in Lies Busselen’s chapter. Yet Busselen also points out that some Congolese viewed the study of their forebears’ skulls as a kind of honour. This is a story with many shades of grey.
H-Empire
In 2001, Verso published an English translation of Ludo De Witte’s De Moord op Lumumba (1999). Th... more In 2001, Verso published an English translation of Ludo De Witte’s De Moord op Lumumba (1999). The work under review here is a reprinting of that book. De Witte is a Belgian sociologist, engaged scholar, and critic of capitalism who is also author of a number of other works of history including Meurtre au Burundi (2021), which examines the 1961 murder of Louis Rwagasore, first prime minister of Burundi. Before asking why The Assassination of Lumumba has been reissued at this moment—unchanged—it is worth first revisiting De Witte’s study itself: its approach, argument, sources, and significance. . . .
The Journal of Development Studies
As its subtitle suggests, Martin Thomas’ latest book is a global history of decolonisation. That ... more As its subtitle suggests, Martin Thomas’ latest book is a global history of decolonisation. That said, the book is not about the demise of empires across all history, nor is it about the eighteenth and nineteenth century ‘end of empires’ in the Americas. It also is not a cultural history of the decolonization of the mind or of colonialism and systemic racism. Rather, Thomas’ book focuses on explaining the demise of recent European empires during the globalised twentieth century and into the twenty-first. . . .
Journal of British Studies, 2014
This three-day international conference prolongs and expands the framework of the 2011 volume Eur... more This three-day international conference prolongs and expands the framework of the 2011 volume European Empires and the People (Manchester Univ. Press), edited by John M. MacKenzie with input from the present co-organisers, Berny Sèbe and Matt Stanard, as well as some of the contributors to the conference. Drawing on that volume and more recent initiatives such as Sèbe’s co-edited book Echoes of Empire: Identity, Memory and Colonial Legacies (IB Tauris 2015), Buettner’s Europe After Empire (Cambridge Univ. Press 2016) and Stuart Ward’s ‘Embers of Empire’ project, the conference considers the cultural repercussions in the metropoles of the ‘ends of empire’ of major European empires. The End of Empire Conference examines the cultural legacy of the imperial past in popular culture, including fundamental evolutions in former metropoles resulting from the complex ‘decolonisations’ that took place in Europe.