Peter King | University of Birmingham (original) (raw)

Papers by Peter King

Transactions of the Hunter Archaeological Society, 2009

Fell & Co. were the principal ironmasters at Sheffield. Several of their partners had interests ... more Fell & Co. were the principal ironmasters at Sheffield. Several of their partners had interests in iron and steel making elsewhere. The core business originated in that founded by Lionel Copley with partners at the end of the 1630s. Between 1696 and 1738, Fell & Co. and their northern neighbours Spencer & Co. managed their Yorkshire furnaces in a sort of super-partnership. The two firms also shared ownership of certain ironworks in Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. This article explores many aspects both of the core iron business and others belonging to its partners.

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd ser. 23, 2012

The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges power... more The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges powered by the river Stour. The article explores the history of these in the context of a family history.

Historical Metallurgy, 2015

Thomas Tomkyns had an effective (though inefficient) process for making bar iron from pig iron in... more Thomas Tomkyns had an effective (though inefficient) process for making
bar iron from pig iron in a reverberatory air furnace, which he patented in the name of Roger Woodhouse in January 1724. Its implementation was delayed by Tomkyns being severely in debt, also by the rivalry of William Wood who had an ineffective process for making iron from its ore, but enjoyed political patronage from Sir Robert Walpole. The process was tried at Nine Elms in Surrey in 1726, then used successively at Oakamoor (Staffs) in 1728, at a copper works near Maidenhead (probably Temple Mills at Bisham, Berks), and finally at Lydney c1733. However, the low price of iron (due to Russian imports) in the mid-1730s rendered the process unprofitable. In this context, William Fallowfield, whose process used peat, stood little chance of commercial success.
NOTE: identification of Temple Mills, Bisham is probably incorrect: correct site is probably Taplow.

Historical Metallurgy , 2018

The production of iron by the puddling process continued after Bessemer invented his process for ... more The production of iron by the puddling process continued after Bessemer invented his process for making mild steel, reaching its zenith in the 1870s, then declined rapidly as mild steel was substituted for iron for rails and then shipbuilding. Data on furnace numbers in the Mineral Statistics are used to estimate output of puddled iron and of mild steel from four processes. The total output of all iron and steel processes rose from 5.44M tons in 1875 to 6.0M tons in 1899, but with significantly lower output in the intervening period. Acid Bessemer steel output was at its highest in 1889. Soon after, Open Hearth steel overtook Bessemer steel in importance. Between 1877 and 1899, the roles of puddled iron and mild steel were reversed, with the former falling from 80% of the total to only 20%.

Historical Metallurgy , 2011

The 1780s and 1790s were a period of great change in the British iron industry. These decades saw... more The 1780s and 1790s were a period of great change in the British iron
industry. These decades saw a rapid transition from most bar iron being made with charcoal in finery forges and hammers to the use of reverberatory furnaces fuelled with coal, and the iron being rolled into bars instead of hammer-forged. This change is illustrated by a series of lists, of which the fullest and most important was probably compiled in 1790, but partly updated in 1794. The list provides good evidence of the spread of potting and stamping and of a process to recycle scrap iron, but has a few
surprising omissions. The subsequent successful adoption of puddling depended on the production of finers’ metal, developed at Merthyr Tydfil in about 1791. This only gradually replaced the stamping process, which was the first to produce good bar iron without charcoal.

Historical Metallurgy, 2015

The foundry trade developed as a separate branch of the iron industry in the first half of the 18... more The foundry trade developed as a separate branch of the iron industry in
the first half of the 18th century. It mostly used coke pig iron, which was produced at Coalbrookdale and in a small number of other furnaces. This was rendered possible by Sir Clement Clerke’s development of the air furnace for remelting pig iron and of Abraham Darby’s patented method of casting pots in green sand. This paper considers the spread of coke smelting and of foundries with air furnaces in the 18th century,
which are closely related to each other. It ends by looking briefly at unresolved issues in the origins of the later foundry cupola.

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd series 20, 2006

Medieval roads leading northwards out of Worcestershire and identified with how they changed over... more Medieval roads leading northwards out of Worcestershire and identified with how they changed over time. Straetes (paved roads) named in Saxon charters for Hartlebury and other places are identified, including a new interpretation of one charter, now identified as for Upper Mitton. One of these was realigned when made a turnpike. Some of these roads may go back to the Roman period

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd series 15, 1996

The text of a charter founding a minster in north Worcestershire is analysed showing the minster ... more The text of a charter founding a minster in north Worcestershire is analysed showing the minster to be Kidderminster and a wood called Moerheb to have become Kidderminster Heath. An analysis of a number of discrepant facts relating to the northern boundary of Worcestershire suggests a boundary for the Hwicce generally a little further north than that of the thirteenth century diocese. The distribution of hillforts along this, in a region where they are otherwise scarce, and other evidence suggests this boundary also to be that of the Dobunni. It is further suggested that there is continuity between Anglo-Saxon regions with -saete names and vici, the lowest Roman administrative divisions.

The Economic History Review, 2006

Note: One of the tables contains an error. See corrigendum in Economic History Review 59(1) (200... more Note: One of the tables contains an error. See corrigendum in Economic History Review 59(1) (2006), 264

The Economic History Review, 2011

This lecture explored the freight of iron on the river Severn. Pig iron was sent up the river fr... more This lecture explored the freight of iron on the river Severn. Pig iron was sent up the river from the 1610s for forges to fine. Bar iron came down the river from Shropshire by the 1630s. Much of this iron was processed in the Stour valley in north Worcestershire and then manufactured into ironware in the Black Country. The paper describes briefly iron production in all these areas and how Midlands ironware reached London from the 1610s.

Lecture to Finds Research Group in Autumn 2009

The text is an edition of the surviving accounts for mines and bloomer 1530-1, preserved in State... more The text is an edition of the surviving accounts for mines and bloomer 1530-1, preserved in State Pater in The National Archives (SP 1/66) and a further report (SP 1/237, f. 22). For further details see the related article

Accounts survive for bloomery that operated in Clun Park, near Llantrisant, Glamorgan in the 1530... more Accounts survive for bloomery that operated in Clun Park, near Llantrisant, Glamorgan in the 1530s. At the end of the century, a blast furnace was built nearby. The article considers both ironworks and 19th century and later mentions of them

Coal and ironstone mining in the 16th century was often undertaken in a small scale. Workings we... more Coal and ironstone mining in the 16th century was often undertaken in a small scale. Workings were shallow, close to the outcrop of seams, and drained by soughs. The mining of single acres (0.4 ha) of land was not unusual. Early entrepreneurs were often gentry, but by the mid-17th century, ironmasters and later specialist coalmasters, such as members of the Bate family, Miles Cooke of Wednesbury, and John Tandy of Dudley Castle. By the late 17th century, much of the most accessible coal had perhaps been worked out. Savery erected one of his Miner’s Friends at Wednesbury, but this failed. However, the Newcomen engine enabled further mines to be worked and on a larger scale. This was exploited by Lord Ward (owner of the Dudley estates), by George and Burslem Sparrow, and by a few others, usually mining on a larger scale. In this period, the cost of transport meant that the market for coal was limited, being quite local. This changed with the opening of canals in the 1770s, coal could be sold into more distant markets, leading to the well-known great expansion in mining during the Industrial Revolution.

Transactions of Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society XXXVIII (1999 for 1996-7), 59-76

The iron industry in south Staffordshire was concentrated in a few businesses from the early year... more The iron industry in south Staffordshire was concentrated in a few businesses from the early years of the 17th century, involving at various times Lord Dudley, and members of the Parkes, Foley, Chetwynd and Jennens familes. The slitting mill was introduced to the area by Colman and Chedtwynd by 1611

Transactions of Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society XLI (2006), 65-78.

The history of water mills mainly on the Hol Brook in Perry Barr (now in the north of Birmingham)... more The history of water mills mainly on the Hol Brook in Perry Barr (now in the north of Birmingham) is traced back from the 19th century to the late 15th. Mills were at various times used as paper mills, wire mills, blade mills. This is followed by the identification of the sites of ironworks, a furnace and forge and (earlier) bllomsmithies and hammer mills

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd ser. 23 , 2012

The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges power... more The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges powered by the river Stour. The article explores the history of these in the context of a family history.

This article explores the import to England and uses of oregrounds iron, made in an area north of... more This article explores the import to England and uses of oregrounds iron, made in an area north of Stockholm. This was the raw material for most steel made by the cementation process and was much used in naval dockyards. In the 18th century, its import was controlled by a small group of importers, including the Sykes family of Hull, through advance payments through exporting houses in Stockholm.

Transactions of the Hunter Archaeological Society, 2009

Fell & Co. were the principal ironmasters at Sheffield. Several of their partners had interests ... more Fell & Co. were the principal ironmasters at Sheffield. Several of their partners had interests in iron and steel making elsewhere. The core business originated in that founded by Lionel Copley with partners at the end of the 1630s. Between 1696 and 1738, Fell & Co. and their northern neighbours Spencer & Co. managed their Yorkshire furnaces in a sort of super-partnership. The two firms also shared ownership of certain ironworks in Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. This article explores many aspects both of the core iron business and others belonging to its partners.

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd ser. 23, 2012

The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges power... more The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges powered by the river Stour. The article explores the history of these in the context of a family history.

Historical Metallurgy, 2015

Thomas Tomkyns had an effective (though inefficient) process for making bar iron from pig iron in... more Thomas Tomkyns had an effective (though inefficient) process for making
bar iron from pig iron in a reverberatory air furnace, which he patented in the name of Roger Woodhouse in January 1724. Its implementation was delayed by Tomkyns being severely in debt, also by the rivalry of William Wood who had an ineffective process for making iron from its ore, but enjoyed political patronage from Sir Robert Walpole. The process was tried at Nine Elms in Surrey in 1726, then used successively at Oakamoor (Staffs) in 1728, at a copper works near Maidenhead (probably Temple Mills at Bisham, Berks), and finally at Lydney c1733. However, the low price of iron (due to Russian imports) in the mid-1730s rendered the process unprofitable. In this context, William Fallowfield, whose process used peat, stood little chance of commercial success.
NOTE: identification of Temple Mills, Bisham is probably incorrect: correct site is probably Taplow.

Historical Metallurgy , 2018

The production of iron by the puddling process continued after Bessemer invented his process for ... more The production of iron by the puddling process continued after Bessemer invented his process for making mild steel, reaching its zenith in the 1870s, then declined rapidly as mild steel was substituted for iron for rails and then shipbuilding. Data on furnace numbers in the Mineral Statistics are used to estimate output of puddled iron and of mild steel from four processes. The total output of all iron and steel processes rose from 5.44M tons in 1875 to 6.0M tons in 1899, but with significantly lower output in the intervening period. Acid Bessemer steel output was at its highest in 1889. Soon after, Open Hearth steel overtook Bessemer steel in importance. Between 1877 and 1899, the roles of puddled iron and mild steel were reversed, with the former falling from 80% of the total to only 20%.

Historical Metallurgy , 2011

The 1780s and 1790s were a period of great change in the British iron industry. These decades saw... more The 1780s and 1790s were a period of great change in the British iron
industry. These decades saw a rapid transition from most bar iron being made with charcoal in finery forges and hammers to the use of reverberatory furnaces fuelled with coal, and the iron being rolled into bars instead of hammer-forged. This change is illustrated by a series of lists, of which the fullest and most important was probably compiled in 1790, but partly updated in 1794. The list provides good evidence of the spread of potting and stamping and of a process to recycle scrap iron, but has a few
surprising omissions. The subsequent successful adoption of puddling depended on the production of finers’ metal, developed at Merthyr Tydfil in about 1791. This only gradually replaced the stamping process, which was the first to produce good bar iron without charcoal.

Historical Metallurgy, 2015

The foundry trade developed as a separate branch of the iron industry in the first half of the 18... more The foundry trade developed as a separate branch of the iron industry in
the first half of the 18th century. It mostly used coke pig iron, which was produced at Coalbrookdale and in a small number of other furnaces. This was rendered possible by Sir Clement Clerke’s development of the air furnace for remelting pig iron and of Abraham Darby’s patented method of casting pots in green sand. This paper considers the spread of coke smelting and of foundries with air furnaces in the 18th century,
which are closely related to each other. It ends by looking briefly at unresolved issues in the origins of the later foundry cupola.

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd series 20, 2006

Medieval roads leading northwards out of Worcestershire and identified with how they changed over... more Medieval roads leading northwards out of Worcestershire and identified with how they changed over time. Straetes (paved roads) named in Saxon charters for Hartlebury and other places are identified, including a new interpretation of one charter, now identified as for Upper Mitton. One of these was realigned when made a turnpike. Some of these roads may go back to the Roman period

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd series 15, 1996

The text of a charter founding a minster in north Worcestershire is analysed showing the minster ... more The text of a charter founding a minster in north Worcestershire is analysed showing the minster to be Kidderminster and a wood called Moerheb to have become Kidderminster Heath. An analysis of a number of discrepant facts relating to the northern boundary of Worcestershire suggests a boundary for the Hwicce generally a little further north than that of the thirteenth century diocese. The distribution of hillforts along this, in a region where they are otherwise scarce, and other evidence suggests this boundary also to be that of the Dobunni. It is further suggested that there is continuity between Anglo-Saxon regions with -saete names and vici, the lowest Roman administrative divisions.

The Economic History Review, 2006

Note: One of the tables contains an error. See corrigendum in Economic History Review 59(1) (200... more Note: One of the tables contains an error. See corrigendum in Economic History Review 59(1) (2006), 264

The Economic History Review, 2011

This lecture explored the freight of iron on the river Severn. Pig iron was sent up the river fr... more This lecture explored the freight of iron on the river Severn. Pig iron was sent up the river from the 1610s for forges to fine. Bar iron came down the river from Shropshire by the 1630s. Much of this iron was processed in the Stour valley in north Worcestershire and then manufactured into ironware in the Black Country. The paper describes briefly iron production in all these areas and how Midlands ironware reached London from the 1610s.

Lecture to Finds Research Group in Autumn 2009

The text is an edition of the surviving accounts for mines and bloomer 1530-1, preserved in State... more The text is an edition of the surviving accounts for mines and bloomer 1530-1, preserved in State Pater in The National Archives (SP 1/66) and a further report (SP 1/237, f. 22). For further details see the related article

Accounts survive for bloomery that operated in Clun Park, near Llantrisant, Glamorgan in the 1530... more Accounts survive for bloomery that operated in Clun Park, near Llantrisant, Glamorgan in the 1530s. At the end of the century, a blast furnace was built nearby. The article considers both ironworks and 19th century and later mentions of them

Coal and ironstone mining in the 16th century was often undertaken in a small scale. Workings we... more Coal and ironstone mining in the 16th century was often undertaken in a small scale. Workings were shallow, close to the outcrop of seams, and drained by soughs. The mining of single acres (0.4 ha) of land was not unusual. Early entrepreneurs were often gentry, but by the mid-17th century, ironmasters and later specialist coalmasters, such as members of the Bate family, Miles Cooke of Wednesbury, and John Tandy of Dudley Castle. By the late 17th century, much of the most accessible coal had perhaps been worked out. Savery erected one of his Miner’s Friends at Wednesbury, but this failed. However, the Newcomen engine enabled further mines to be worked and on a larger scale. This was exploited by Lord Ward (owner of the Dudley estates), by George and Burslem Sparrow, and by a few others, usually mining on a larger scale. In this period, the cost of transport meant that the market for coal was limited, being quite local. This changed with the opening of canals in the 1770s, coal could be sold into more distant markets, leading to the well-known great expansion in mining during the Industrial Revolution.

Transactions of Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society XXXVIII (1999 for 1996-7), 59-76

The iron industry in south Staffordshire was concentrated in a few businesses from the early year... more The iron industry in south Staffordshire was concentrated in a few businesses from the early years of the 17th century, involving at various times Lord Dudley, and members of the Parkes, Foley, Chetwynd and Jennens familes. The slitting mill was introduced to the area by Colman and Chedtwynd by 1611

Transactions of Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society XLI (2006), 65-78.

The history of water mills mainly on the Hol Brook in Perry Barr (now in the north of Birmingham)... more The history of water mills mainly on the Hol Brook in Perry Barr (now in the north of Birmingham) is traced back from the 19th century to the late 15th. Mills were at various times used as paper mills, wire mills, blade mills. This is followed by the identification of the sites of ironworks, a furnace and forge and (earlier) bllomsmithies and hammer mills

Transactions of Worcestershire Archaeological Society, 3rd ser. 23 , 2012

The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges power... more The Willmot family of MItton (now part of Stourport) operated fulling mills and then forges powered by the river Stour. The article explores the history of these in the context of a family history.

This article explores the import to England and uses of oregrounds iron, made in an area north of... more This article explores the import to England and uses of oregrounds iron, made in an area north of Stockholm. This was the raw material for most steel made by the cementation process and was much used in naval dockyards. In the 18th century, its import was controlled by a small group of importers, including the Sykes family of Hull, through advance payments through exporting houses in Stockholm.