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Publications by Jonathan Fox

This fully revised edition offers a comprehensive overview of the many theories of religion and p... more This fully revised edition offers a comprehensive overview of the many theories of religion and politics, and provides students with an accessible, in-depth guide to the subject's most significant debates, issues and methodologies. It begins by asking the basic questions of how social scientists see religion and why religion remains relevant to politics in the modern era. Fox examines the influence of religious identity, beliefs, institutions, and legitimacy on politics, and surveys important approaches and issues found in the literature on religion and politics. Four new chapters on religious policy around the world, political secularism, and religious freedom and human rights have been added to fully revised content covering religious identity, rational choice approaches to religious politics, worldviews, beliefs, doctrines, ideologies, institutions, and political mobilization, fundamentalism, secularization, and religion and conflict. This work will be essential reading for all students of religion and politics, comparative politics, international relations, and security studies.

While secularization theory—the prediction that religion is in decline—is itself in decline, many... more While secularization theory—the prediction that religion is in decline—is itself in decline, many argue that it is still applicable to the West. I argue that rather than causing religion’s decline, modernity has caused the rise of secularism as an ideology that competes with religion. I test this proposition—which I call the secular-religious competition perspective—by measuring change over time in 117 distinct government religion policies in 27 Western democracies between 1990 and 2014 using the Religion and State round 3 (RAS3) dataset. I find that while, overall, governments have added new policies, especially those limiting the religious institutions and practices of religious minorities, overall 96 policies were added and 31 dropped. Also, all but two Western democracies changed their religion policy in some manner during this period. This better reflects a religious economy where secular and religious political forces compete to influence government religion policy than one where religion is in decline.

This study develops and examines the concept of hegemonic religion and its relationship with demo... more This study develops and examines the concept of hegemonic religion and its relationship with democracy. A religion is hegemonic not only when the state grants that religion exclusive material and political privileges and benefits, but also when the religion is a core element of national identity and citizenship. We empirically examine the link between hege-monic religion and democracy using the Religion and State round 2 (RAS2), Polity, and CIRI datasets. We specifically use religious education policy, financing of religion, and religiously based laws as measures of the extent of religious hegemony in a state. We find that the presence of these religiously hegemonic traits, especially in combination, is strongly associated with a lack of democracy. However, it is possible for democracies to have some hegemonic features but not all of them. The academic consensus is that modernization, democratization, and seculariza-tion are inextricably linked in any process of political development, with seculari-zation referring to the separation of Church and State and the privatization of religion. However, recent sociological data shows that democratization is not dependent on the separation of Church and State and that government involvement in religion often increases as democracy grows, especially in Christian nations (Fox 2007, 2008, 2015). When it comes to experiences of democratization outside the West, they are most often measured and evaluated in comparison to the Western experience of political development as enshrined in the dominant concepts of political science, such as secularism. Additionally, when studies take religion into account, they address it as either the independent or dependent variable, thereby overemphasizing its importance or neglecting it. We would like to propose an alternative, investigating instead the correlation between religion and democracy from an institutional perspective in order to relativize the direct relation between the two. In particular, we focus on a specific type of state–religion arrangement and state–society interaction that we call hegemonic, where a state gives exclusive privileges and benefits to a single religion. We further ask, if hegemonic religion is related to a lack of democracy, does it completely preclude democracy? In other words, is it possible for a state to be both democratic and religiously hegemonic?

This study examines the extent of religious discrimination by governments and societal actors aga... more This study examines the extent of religious discrimination by governments and societal actors against 159 religious minorities in 37 democratic countries which are either or both members of the European Union or Western democracies between 1990 and 2014 using the Religion and State-Minorities Round 3 (RASM3) dataset. While religious freedom is a contested term, religious discrimination—which I define as restrictions placed on the religious practices and institutions of minority religions that are not placed on the majority religion—is a violation of all liberal conceptions of religious freedom. I find that both types of discrimination examined here are common and increasing.

the cradle of three of the world’s major religions, religion and politics in the Middle East hav... more the cradle of three of the world’s major religions, religion and politics in the Middle East have always been closely associated. The region is also the world’s most autocratic. In contrast, there is a growing tradition of democracy and separation of religion and the state in many other parts of the world, especially the West. The purpose of this study is to examine the differences and similarities between the Middle East and the rest of the world with regard to the role of religion and political regime in ethnic conflict employing a large-n, cross sectional analysis of ethnoreligious groups. The empirical domain for this research is based on data from the Minorities at Risk Phase 3 Dataset as well as data on religion collected independently. Using this data, this paper addresses three main questions: 1. Are religious issues salient to ethnopolitical conflict in the Middle East and in the rest of the world?, 2. Since the majority of Middle Eastern states are Islamic, does Islam have a role in ethnic conflict? and, 3. What is the impact of regime type on ethnopolitical conflict in the Middle East and in the rest of the world?

Research has documented that religious minorities often face the brunt of religious discriminatio... more Research has documented that religious minorities often face the brunt of religious discrimination. Yet formal tests, using global collections, have been lacking. Building on the religious economy theory and recent work in law and politics, we propose that minority religions face discrimination from the state because they represent unwanted competition for the state supported religion, are viewed as a threat to the state and larger culture, and lack support from an independent judiciary. Drawing on the recently collected Religion and State-Minorities collection on more than 500 minority religions, we find support for each of the propositions, though the level of support varies based on the targets of state discrimination. In general, the support is strongest when explaining discrimination against minority religion’s institutions and clergy, but weakens when explaining more general discrimination against the membership.

Many liberal Western thinkers assume and advocate that religion and state must be separate for de... more Many liberal Western thinkers assume and advocate that religion and state must be separate for democracy to flourish. This requirement is an example of political secularism, which I define as an ideology or set of beliefs that advocates that religion ought to be separate from all or some aspects of politics and/or public life. In this chapter I examine this link between political secularism and democracy in depth. First, I demonstrate that there are multiple trends within political secularism—that is, there is considerable disagreement on what it means for states to be secular. Second, I examine whether, in practice, democracies meet any of the standards set out in this literature. Using data from the Religion and State (RAS) dataset for 2008, I demonstrate that most democracies do not follow policies toward religion that can be considered consistent with any conception of political secularism.

This study draws substantially on 'securitization' theory to examine whether religious discrimina... more This study draws substantially on 'securitization' theory to examine whether religious discrimination against Muslims as compared with other religious minorities is disproportionately higher in Western democracies. We explore variation in the treatment of religious minorities in the West using a special version of the Religion and State-Minorities Round 2 (RAS2-M) data set. We analyse the extent and causes of 29 different kinds of religious discrimination against 86 religious minorities in 27 Western democracies (coded yearly from 1990 to 2008). The results support the securitization argument showing that Muslims suffer from higher levels of discrimination in comparison with other religious minorities, especially since 2001. The 9/11 attacks were perceived by many in the West as an existential threat to Western political and secular norms. This contributed to a new security agenda based on the securitization of Islam (SOI). SOI is a process that is constructed around a perceived Islamist threat and the promotion of actions outside the normal bounds of political procedure that requires the commitment of greater resources. This is translated into new political discourses, institutions and state policies. We argue that this had consequences for the religious freedom of Muslims in the West. Our central research questions are as follows: Do Western democracies treat Muslims differently than other religious minorities? Has this treatment changed since

This essay describes a basic methodology for designing and collecting aggregate data on ethnicity... more This essay describes a basic methodology for designing and collecting aggregate data on ethnicity and religion using human coders. Datasets based on this methodology should be reproducible and transparent, and must measure what they intend to measure in a clear, accurate, and precise manner. The essay describes a process for collecting such data which involves a number of steps and issues including: (1) defining the unit of analysis, (2) cases to include, (3) variable selection and design, (4) information sources for coding the variables, (5) the coding
process, and (6) resources.

This study uses the Religion and State round 2 (RAS2) dataset to examine the presence of religiou... more This study uses the Religion and State round 2 (RAS2) dataset to examine the presence of religious freedom in 177 countries. There are many different conceptions of the meaning of religious freedom but they can be divided into two categories, those which focus on the free exercise of religion—that is the right to practice religion and maintain religious institutions—and those which focus on treating all religions equally, also known as the level playing field model. The results show that neither form of religious freedom is common even among democracies and states which have constitutional clauses protecting religious freedom. This finding has serious implications for our understanding of the nature of liberal democracy.

This brief piece examines the nature and extent of religious persecution of religious minorities ... more This brief piece examines the nature and extent of religious persecution of religious minorities around the world.

his study examines sources of religious discrimination with a particular emphasis on comparison o... more his study examines sources of religious discrimination with a particular emphasis on comparison of the identity- versus structure-related causes. Using a dyad-based analysis, it asks whether and when majorities behave differently in general and whether levels of religious discrimination are different against different minority groups. The Religion and State-Minorities (RASM) dataset, which includes data on 598 minorities in 177 countries covering the years 1990–2008, is used. The results show that specific minority and majority religions tend to have unique patterns of discrimination. Thus religious identity plays an important role in causing religious discrimination. Also, when controlling for other factors, Christian minorities experience the highest levels of discrimination around the world, including in the Christian world other than in Western democracies where Muslims experience the highest levels of discrimination.

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... An Evaluation of Religious Legislation and Discrimination from 1990 to 2008 Jonathan Fox Depa... more ... An Evaluation of Religious Legislation and Discrimination from 1990 to 2008 Jonathan Fox Department of Political Studies Bar Ilan University Jonathan.Fox@biu.ac.il ... 2008), the public role of religious institutions (Finke, 1992; Minkenberg, 2009: 1193) "the state, the ...

Middle East Quarterly, Sep 1, 2001

This is a simple question, but finding an accurate answer is not at all simple. It is complicated... more This is a simple question, but finding an accurate answer is not at all simple. It is complicated by two interrelated factors. First, due to differing perspectives and differing political agendas, interpretations of events in the region vary wildly, and accuracy is often lost. This problem ...

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Middle East Quarterly, Sep 1, 2001

Religious discrimination is the norm in many countries around the world, and the rate is rising. ... more Religious discrimination is the norm in many countries around the world, and the rate is rising. Nearly every country which discriminates does so unequally, singling out some religious minorities for more discrimination than others. Religious tradition does not explain this complex issue. For example, Muslim majority states include both the most discriminatory and tolerant states in the world, as is also the case with Christian majority states. Religious ideologies, nationalism, regime, culture, security issues, and political issues are also all part of the answer. In The Unfree Exercise of Religion Jonathan Fox examines how we understand concepts like religious discrimination and religious freedom, and why countries discriminate. He makes a study of religious discrimination against 597 religious minorities in 177 countries between 1990 and 2008. While 29 types of discrimination are discussed in this book, the most common include restrictions in places of worship, proselytizing, and religious education.

This book examines 111 types of state religion policy in 177 countries between 1990 and 2008. Jon... more This book examines 111 types of state religion policy in 177 countries between 1990 and 2008. Jonathan Fox argues that policy is largely a result of the competition between political secular actors and religious actors, both of which try to influence state religion policy. While there are other factors that influence state religion policy and both the secular and religious camps are divided, Fox offers that the secular-religious competition perspective provides critical insight into the nature of religious politics across the globe. While many states have both increased and decreased their involvement in religion, Fox demonstrates that states which have become more involved in religion are far more common.

Offers the most complete coverage of how states deal with religion of any book on the market
Includes an analysis of each of the 111 specific types of policies included in the study
Introduces a new perspective for understanding religion and politics: the secular-religious competition perspective

There is a growing realization among international relations scholars and practitioners that reli... more There is a growing realization among international relations scholars and practitioners that religion is a critical factor in global politics. The Iranian Revolution, the September 11 attacks, the ethno-religious conflicts such as the ones in the former Yugoslavia and Sri Lanka are among the many reasons for this increased focus on religion in international affairs. The rise of religious political parties across the world ranging from the Christian Democrats in Europe to Bharatiya Janata Party in India similarly illustrated religion's heightened international profile.

Despite all this attention, it is challenging to situate religion within a discipline which has been dominantly secular from its inception. Only a few existent works have ventured to integrate religion into core international relations theories such as Classical Realism, Neorealism, Neoliberalism, Constructivism and the English school. This work is the first systematic attempt to comparatively assess the place of religion in the aforementioned theoretical strands of international relations with contemporary examples from around the world.

Written in an accessible and systematic fashion, this book will be an important addition to the fields of both religion and international relations.

An Introduction to Religion and Politics offers a comprehensive overview of the many theories of ... more An Introduction to Religion and Politics offers a comprehensive overview of the many theories of religion and politics, and provides students with an accessible but in-depth account of the most significant debates, issues and methodologies. Fox examines the ways in which religion influences politics, analyses the current key issues and provides a state of the art account of religion and politics, highlighting the diversity in state religion policies around the world.

Topics covered include:

Secularism and secularization

Religious identity

Religious worldviews, beliefs, doctrines and theologies

Religious legitimacy

Religious institutions and mobilization

Rational and functional religion

Religious fundamentalism

Conflict, violence and terror

This work combines theoretical analysis with data on the religion policies of 177 governments, showing that while most of the world's government support religion and many restrict it; true neutrality on the issue of religion is extremely rare. Religion is becoming an inescapable issue in politics.

This work will be essential reading for all students of religion and politics, and will also be of great interest to those studying related subjects such as comparative politics, international relations and war and conflict studies.

This book focuses on the role of religion in politics in several distinctive ways. Most books on ... more This book focuses on the role of religion in politics in several distinctive ways. Most books on religion and politics tend to have a narrow focus - usually on a single country or region or, alternatively, on a limited aspect of religion's influence on politics such as secularism, conflict, terror, or state policy. This book, in contrast, takes a wider perspective. First, and perhaps most importantly, it recognizes and emphasizes that religion interacts with politics on multiple levels. These influences may be divided into the influence of the state and the influence of society on politics. Second, this volume covers multiple countries in major world regions. The chapters cover the United States, Israel, Turkey, North Africa, and Western Europe, and two chapters include information from the entire world. Although this book will be of interest to scholars, its wide coverage of different topics, relevant theories, and different world regions also makes it excellent as a textbook for a survey course on religion and politics. All of the contributors have published extensively in prominent refereed journals on the topic of religion and politics, adding to the scholarly authoritativeness of the volume and its desirability as a textbook written by recognized experts.

This book delves into the extent of government involvement in religion between 1990 and 2002 usin... more This book delves into the extent of government involvement in religion between 1990 and 2002 using both quantitative and qualitative methodology. The study is based on the Religion and State dataset, which includes 175 governments across the globe, all of which are addressed individually in this book. The forms of involvement examined in this study include whether the government has an official religion, whether some religions are given preferential treatment, religious discrimination against minority religion, government regulation of the majority religion, and religious legislation. The study shows that government involvement in religion is ubiquitous, that it increased significantly during this period, and that only a minority of states, including a minority of democracies, have separation of religion and state. These findings contradict the predictions of religion's reduced public significance found in modernization and secularization theory. The findings also demonstrate that state religious monopolies are linked to reduced religious participation.

This new book tackles two crucial questions: First, how does religion in its various forms and ma... more This new book tackles two crucial questions: First, how does religion in its various forms and manifestations influence world politics? Second, how will adding religion to the discourse on international relations modify our theoretical understanding?

Each of these leading authors addresses different aspects of these questions in different contexts providing a diverse and multifaceted view of the topic.

Susanna Pearce and Tanja Ellingsen examine the religious causes of conflict on the macro-level. Several of the contributors focus on specific conflicts. The Gaurav Ghose and Patrick James examine the Kashmir conflict from the Pakistani perspective and Carolyn James and Ozgur. Ozdamar examine it from the Indian perspective. Similarly Hillel Frisch examines the Palestinian-ISraeli conflict from the Palestinian perspective and Jonathan Rynhold examines it from the Israeli perspective. Finally, two of the authors examine other important issues. Stuart Cohen examines the evolution of the religious view of war in the Jewish tradition and Yehudit Auerbach examines whether can play a role in conflict resolution and reconciliation. These assessments deliver fascinating conclusions.

This book was previously published as a Special Issue of Terrorism and Violence.

his book has several main themes and arguments. International Relations has been westerncentric, ... more his book has several main themes and arguments. International Relations has been westerncentric, which has contributed to its ignoring religion; while religion is not the main driving force behind IR, international politics cannot be understood without taking religion into account; the role of religion is related to the fact that IR has evolved to become more than just interstate relations and now included elements of domestic politics. The book proceeds in three stages. First, it looks at why religion was ignored by IR theory and theorists. Second, it examines the multiple ways religion influences IR, including through religious legitimacy and the many ways domestic religious issues can cross borders. In this discussion a number of topics including but not limited to international intervention, international organizations, religious fundamentalism, political Islam, Samuel Huntington's 'clash of civilizations' theory, and terrorism are addressed. Third, these factors are examined empirically using both quantitative and case study methodology.

In Religion, Civilization, and Civil War author Jonathan Fox carves out a new space of research a... more In Religion, Civilization, and Civil War author Jonathan Fox carves out a new space of research and interrogation in conflict studies. As a preeminent observer of religious trends on domestic conflicts, Fox utilizes new statistical analysis in the Minorities at Risk (MAR) dataset - which tracks several hundred politically active ethnic groups across the globe, to examine the impact of religion and religious practice on rebellion, protest, discrimination, and international intervention. Fox also employs the State Failure (SF) dataset, which tracks internal wars and failed governances. Fox expertly uses this information to analyze ethnic wars, mass killings, and civil wars between 1948 and 2001. Covering over five decades, this study provides the most comprehensive and detailed empirical analysis of the impact of religion and civilization on domestic conflict to date and will become a critical resource for both international relations and political science scholars. Like his first book, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late 20th Century: A General Theory, which was touted as closing gaps in the concept of ethnoreligious conflict, Religion, Civilization, and Civil War provides the data to substantiate, expand, and transform the way scholars understand global conflict since World War Two.

This book provides the first systematic, empirical study of the role that religion plays in ethni... more This book provides the first systematic, empirical study of the role that religion plays in ethnic violence. Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late Twentieth Century critiques the existing literature on religion and ethnic conflict, then presents and analyzes original quantitative data gathered from a variety of sources. Fox draws upon the Minorities at Risk model of ethnic conflict to develop and test a dynamic and comprehensive theory of religion and conflict. He applies this theory to resurgent conflicts between ethnic groups of different religions—from the Iranian revolution and the Afghan struggle against the Soviets in the 1980s to the ongoing Middle East conflict—to pinpoint the ways in which religion has become intertwined in, and lent legitimacy to, conflicts in the contemporary world.