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The development of archaeology involving the discovery and excavation of ancient sites, conservat... more The development of archaeology involving the discovery and excavation of ancient sites, conservation of extant architectural remains and management of movable and immovable cultural heritage in South Asia (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) is traced back to the early British colonial times. In most writings on this subject during the past century , the story begins around the middle of the 18th century. It is a long but fascinating account of architectural heritage and antiquities documented and narrated by several writers enthusiastically while a few others have given provocative views of the colonial or imperial interests in promoting historical and cultural research .
The Mughals brought the tradition of creating formal gardens with canals of running water, tanks,... more The Mughals brought the tradition of creating formal gardens with canals of running water, tanks, fountains and pavilions to South Asia from Central Asia in the beginning of 16 th century ACE that was entirely different in expression than the gardens of earlier period. A number of gardens were laid soon after the first Mughal Emperor, Zheer-ud-Din Babar established the Mughal Dynasty in the South Asian Sub-continent in 1526 ACE that lasted for more than two centuries. Among the four capital cities of the Mughals, Lahore remained a city of special importance to many Mughal rulers because of its moderate climate and location between Kabul and Delhi (Picture #1). Therefore, the Mughal rulers and their governors selected the city of Lahore in Pakistan, for laying out gardens. All of them thus, contributed to making it the most beautiful city of gardens in the sub-continent. The tradition of laying out new gardens continued even after the decline of Mughal rule even by their successors such as the Sikhs before the arrival of the British colonizers in 19 th century ACE. The basic plan and other elements of the Mughal gardens in fact, reflected the Islamic concept of paradise on earth with rows of trees and flowerbeds, centrally placed canals, waterfalls and running fountains. The gardens were traditionally divided into four, eight, sixteen or thirty-two equal parts with watercourses and brick-lined walkways and causeways. This plan is historically known as the Char-Bagh or 4-quartered garden which was originally inspired from Iran.
South Asia's first civilization known as the Harappan or Indus Civilization was already flourishi... more South Asia's first civilization known as the Harappan or Indus Civilization was already flourishing by the middle of third millennium B.C. within the vast area of the Greater Indus Valley drained by the Ghaggar-Hakra and Indus river systems of Pakistan. Best known from its extensively excavated two principal urban centres at Harappa on the Ravi River where it was first discovered and recognized, and at Mohenjodaro on the bank of the Indus,' it is marked by many a unique and distinct feature among its contemporaneous civilizations of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates Valleys. An astonishing aspect of the Indus Civilization is its geographical extent much beyond the core re~ion in the central Indus Valley where Mohenjodaro, Harappa and the third unexcavated urban centre of Ganweriwala are located. It reached as far north as Badakhshan in northern ,Afghanistan and southwards along the Arabian Sea coast of Pakistan and Western India. Such a political domination or cultural expansion over a large territory had not been ever achieved by any other oriental civilization of the ancient world. Equally outstanding feature is the town planning as at Mohenjodaro which is divided by streets and lanes and lined with public and private buildings with an elaborate drainage system. The long life span of the Harappan cities and towns, their growth and prolification mostly in the flood plain, clearly demonstrate availability of sufficient economic resources and surplus which were mobilized to construct huge fortifications and public buildings on artificially raised platforms of earth, and technology for effective utilization of the riparian environment to support growing numbers of permanently settled human population and inducing the rise and development of inter-related socio-economic, political and religious institutions. A net-work of inter-settlement trade of exchange existed within the Greater Indus Valley and with neighbouring regions for the procurement and supply of raw materials and distributions of finished articles. Possessing the essential elements of full urbanization, the Harappan society was sharply stratified as would be evident from the varying size of private houses and differences in their grave furniture and modes of burials. Specialised crafts activities involved manufacturing of shell, faience and terracotta bangles, flint knapping, beads, pottery, seal cuttings and gravings, melting of copper and manufacture of metal utensils. The glyptic and representational arts were well developed and 'numerous cultic objects are indicative of formal role of religion. The mass production of different kinds and their occurrence throughout tire Greater Indus Valley requires a high technological level, an elaborate means of communication and an effective political or administrative system controlling a vast territory which induced a sort of Pan-Indus cultural integration not achieved elsewhere in the ancient world.
![Research paper thumbnail of 1991 The Rise of the Indus Civilization. In, Jansen, M., Mulloy, M. and Urban, G. (eds), Forgotten Cities on the Indus. Mainz Am Rhein, Germany: Verlag Philipp Von Zabern: 104 – 110. [also available in German and French]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/35415017/thumbnails/1.jpg)
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The development of archaeology involving the discovery and excavation of ancient sites, conservat... more The development of archaeology involving the discovery and excavation of ancient sites, conservation of extant architectural remains and management of movable and immovable cultural heritage in South Asia (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) is traced back to the early British colonial times. In most writings on this subject during the past century , the story begins around the middle of the 18th century. It is a long but fascinating account of architectural heritage and antiquities documented and narrated by several writers enthusiastically while a few others have given provocative views of the colonial or imperial interests in promoting historical and cultural research .
The Mughals brought the tradition of creating formal gardens with canals of running water, tanks,... more The Mughals brought the tradition of creating formal gardens with canals of running water, tanks, fountains and pavilions to South Asia from Central Asia in the beginning of 16 th century ACE that was entirely different in expression than the gardens of earlier period. A number of gardens were laid soon after the first Mughal Emperor, Zheer-ud-Din Babar established the Mughal Dynasty in the South Asian Sub-continent in 1526 ACE that lasted for more than two centuries. Among the four capital cities of the Mughals, Lahore remained a city of special importance to many Mughal rulers because of its moderate climate and location between Kabul and Delhi (Picture #1). Therefore, the Mughal rulers and their governors selected the city of Lahore in Pakistan, for laying out gardens. All of them thus, contributed to making it the most beautiful city of gardens in the sub-continent. The tradition of laying out new gardens continued even after the decline of Mughal rule even by their successors such as the Sikhs before the arrival of the British colonizers in 19 th century ACE. The basic plan and other elements of the Mughal gardens in fact, reflected the Islamic concept of paradise on earth with rows of trees and flowerbeds, centrally placed canals, waterfalls and running fountains. The gardens were traditionally divided into four, eight, sixteen or thirty-two equal parts with watercourses and brick-lined walkways and causeways. This plan is historically known as the Char-Bagh or 4-quartered garden which was originally inspired from Iran.
South Asia's first civilization known as the Harappan or Indus Civilization was already flourishi... more South Asia's first civilization known as the Harappan or Indus Civilization was already flourishing by the middle of third millennium B.C. within the vast area of the Greater Indus Valley drained by the Ghaggar-Hakra and Indus river systems of Pakistan. Best known from its extensively excavated two principal urban centres at Harappa on the Ravi River where it was first discovered and recognized, and at Mohenjodaro on the bank of the Indus,' it is marked by many a unique and distinct feature among its contemporaneous civilizations of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates Valleys. An astonishing aspect of the Indus Civilization is its geographical extent much beyond the core re~ion in the central Indus Valley where Mohenjodaro, Harappa and the third unexcavated urban centre of Ganweriwala are located. It reached as far north as Badakhshan in northern ,Afghanistan and southwards along the Arabian Sea coast of Pakistan and Western India. Such a political domination or cultural expansion over a large territory had not been ever achieved by any other oriental civilization of the ancient world. Equally outstanding feature is the town planning as at Mohenjodaro which is divided by streets and lanes and lined with public and private buildings with an elaborate drainage system. The long life span of the Harappan cities and towns, their growth and prolification mostly in the flood plain, clearly demonstrate availability of sufficient economic resources and surplus which were mobilized to construct huge fortifications and public buildings on artificially raised platforms of earth, and technology for effective utilization of the riparian environment to support growing numbers of permanently settled human population and inducing the rise and development of inter-related socio-economic, political and religious institutions. A net-work of inter-settlement trade of exchange existed within the Greater Indus Valley and with neighbouring regions for the procurement and supply of raw materials and distributions of finished articles. Possessing the essential elements of full urbanization, the Harappan society was sharply stratified as would be evident from the varying size of private houses and differences in their grave furniture and modes of burials. Specialised crafts activities involved manufacturing of shell, faience and terracotta bangles, flint knapping, beads, pottery, seal cuttings and gravings, melting of copper and manufacture of metal utensils. The glyptic and representational arts were well developed and 'numerous cultic objects are indicative of formal role of religion. The mass production of different kinds and their occurrence throughout tire Greater Indus Valley requires a high technological level, an elaborate means of communication and an effective political or administrative system controlling a vast territory which induced a sort of Pan-Indus cultural integration not achieved elsewhere in the ancient world.