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You may re-use this information (not including logos) free of charge in any format or medium, und... more You may re-use this information (not including logos) free of charge in any format or medium, under the terms of the Open Government Licence. Visit www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence, write to the

All enterprises operate in a regulated environment. However, employers' understanding of specific... more All enterprises operate in a regulated environment. However, employers' understanding of specific regulations and the effects on enterprise are subject to debate. An area that has provoked controversy over the past 20 years or so, is employment rights, particularly given the raft of new legislation since 1997. Drawing on a telephone survey of over 1000 small employers, plus faceto-face interviews, the paper presents new evidence and thinking on owner-managers' knowledge and perceived effects of employment rights in small firms. Particular attention is paid to maternity and parental leave, working time regulations and the national minimum wage. The paper argues that knowledge of employment rights varies according to a range of factors including enterprise size, sector, workforce composition, relevance of particular rights and employer history of involvement in employment disputes. Awareness and knowledge of rights rises when employers are at risk to having to meet these rights. Owners of micro-enterprises were less likely to display detailed knowledge suggesting a general size threshold in awareness levels. The paper also analyses the perceived effects of employment rights on small firms. This has attracted a great deal of attention over the past five years. The paper reports on which types of enterprise are more at risk to reporting positive and negative effects and in relation to which particular rights. However, given the ignorance of employers on employment rights, it also questions the validity of other research which report with some precision the cost of employment rights. Instead, it is argued that many business owners have a predisposition to criticise regulations and many of these reported effects are based on perception rather than experiential effects. When put into context, the results show a rise in the importance of employment regulation as a constraint in business performance over the past 20 years. However, the paper also argues that this effect is uneven within the small business population.

The WERS2004 research team are to be commended for upholding the strong WERS survey tradition and... more The WERS2004 research team are to be commended for upholding the strong WERS survey tradition and the WERS2004 steering group for the strong direction that they gave to the project. The specialist team members, both those involved in this project and those not, are to be thanked for making insightful recommendations for change. 4

Ethnicity in the 1991 Census, 1997

Work, Employment & Society, 1994

Cambridge Studies in Social Research, 2001

Sociology, 1974

The purpose of this article is to take a single concept, unionateness, and to illustrate the way ... more The purpose of this article is to take a single concept, unionateness, and to illustrate the way in which theoretical and operational considerations interact in leading to its refinement and elaboration. A distinction is introduced between enterprise and society unionateness, and the problems associated with the operationalization and measurement of each of these new concepts are discussed. The importance of measurement procedures as an intrinsic part of the problem of conceptualization is emphasized, particularly in relation to certain techniques of measurement which are not widely used. In a concluding section there is a brief presentation of findings which demonstrate the value of the distinction introduced.

International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 2012

ABSTRACT The paper reviews different approaches to, and current knowledge of the measurement of o... more ABSTRACT The paper reviews different approaches to, and current knowledge of the measurement of occupational segregation, using the case of gender segregation. It shows that most popular segregation ‘indices’ are actually statistics of association in a 2x2 table, often with distorting weightings. The dimensions of segregation comprise a vertical dimension measuring inequality and an orthogonal horizontal one measuring difference without inequality. Together, the dimensions make up segregation as generally understood; so segregation and its dimensions require consistent measurements. Conditions for suitable measures are considered, and the limitations of the various measures noted. The alternative conception of segregation, where all occupations are treated as though they were the same size, is shown to be seriously flawed. The most useful measures are selected and shown to be related as Lorenz curves. Since all segregation measures vary with the number of occupations considered, standardisation on 200 occupations is introduced for the chosen measures.

Contemporary Sociology, 1984

Administrative Science Quarterly, 1968

GeNet WP, 2005

The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. H... more The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. However, there remains considerable confusion on the precise meaning of the term, and how segregation should be measured. In the first place it is necessary to distinguish segregation from the related but logically distinct concepts of concentration and exposure. Then the actual measurement should not be contaminated by other aspects of the labour market or the occupational classification used. Finally, and most importantly from a ...

Contemporary Social Science, 2015

The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with p... more The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &

European Sociological Review, 2000

Abstract Occupational gender segregation has generally been assumed to be a structure of gender i... more Abstract Occupational gender segregation has generally been assumed to be a structure of gender inequality in the labour market; high levels of segregation are equated with high levels of gender inequality in a society. The paper questions this assumption. It examines, across a range of countries, the relations between United Nations development measures of gender equality and segregation levels. Contrary to conventional expectations, correlations are found to be positive. To explain these results it is argued that segregation, as ...

Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie, 2008

Cet article examine les changements survenus entre 1981 et 1996 dans la segregation hommes-femmes... more Cet article examine les changements survenus entre 1981 et 1996 dans la segregation hommes-femmes. Le niveau de segregation dans son ensemble a faiblement baisse, suivant en cela la tendance observee depuis les annees soixante. La diminution se traduit par une decroissance de 41 % de la segregation verticale (equit6 salariale) mais par une augmentation de la segregation horizontale (differences autres que cette equite). Les femmes ont renforce leur point d'ancrage dans la main-d'aeuvre a plein temps et elargi l'etendue de leur participation alors que celle des hommes dans des secteurs a temps partiel et moins prises a augmente, et que les emplois traditionnellement * This research was supported by an . We would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers from The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology for their helpful comments. This manuscript was

Cambridge Studies in Social Research, 2001

Ethnicity in the 1991 Census, 1997

Work, Employment & Society, 1994

Cambridge Studies in Social Research, 2001

Sociology, 1974

International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 2012

Contemporary Sociology, 1984

Administrative Science Quarterly, 1968

GeNet WP, 2005

Contemporary Social Science, 2015

European Sociological Review, 2000

Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie, 2008

Cambridge Studies in Social Research, 2001

Sociology, 2012

It is well known that women and men tend to work in different occupations, and generally held tha... more It is well known that women and men tend to work in different occupations, and generally held that this disadvantages women. In order to understand how far this occupational segregation entails gender inequality it is necessary to examine the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the segregation. The horizontal dimension measures difference without inequality while the vertical dimension measures the extent of the occupational inequality. Two measures of vertical inequality are used: pay and social stratification (CAMSIS). Measurements over a number of industrially developed countries show the expected male advantage with regard to pay. However, contrary to popular beliefs, women are consistently advantaged in terms of stratification. Also, it is found that the position of women is more favourable where the overall segregation is higher – the lower the male advantage on pay and the greater the female advantage on stratification.

The British Journal of Sociology, 2002

Occupational gender segregation – the tendency for women and men to work in different occupation... more Occupational gender segregation – the tendency for women and men to work in
different occupations – is an important feature of all societies, and particularly
the wealthy industrialized ones. To understand this segregation, and to explain
its signifocance, we need to distinguish between vertical segregation entailing
inequality and horizontal segregation representing difference without inequality,
with overall segregation being the resultant of these components. Three major
theoretical approaches to understanding occupational gender segregation are
examined: human capital/rational choice, patriarchy, and preference theories.
All are found to be inadequate; they tend to confuse overall segregation with its
vertical component, and each entails a number of other faults. It is generally
assumed or implied that greater empowerment of women would reduce gender
segregation. This is the reverse of what actually happens; in countries where the
degree of women’s empowerment is greater, the level of gender segregation is
also greater. An alternative theoretical approach based on processes of social
reproduction is shown to be more useful.

GeNet Working Paper, 2005

Work, Employment and Society, 1993

Despite the importance of occupational segregation as an area of investigation concerned with und... more Despite the importance of occupational segregation as an area of investigation concerned with understanding women's employment status, pay levels, and promotional prospects during the last 20 years, there has been relatively little attention paid to the problems of trying to measure segregation levels in quantitative data. This paper argues that there are serious measurement problems which it illustrates by showing that two of the principal indices, the widely-used Index of Dissimilarity and the OECD's WE Index are highly flawed and produce unreliable results. It demonstrates the importance of these deficiencies using cross-national data from 9 countries for the period 1970-1982. The paper introduces a new way of analysing the form of these indices in the Basic Segregation Table, which is a 2 x 2 table of gendered occupations by sex. The paper suggests a new approach to measuring occupational segregation which provides more consistent and valid results. This is called Marginal Matching. The paper ends with an analysis of occupational gender segregation in England and Wales from 1951 to 1981. It concludes that, in contrast to research claims to date, the trend in segregation over this period is one of overall stability.

Work, Employment & Society, 1994

Two important issues concerning the measurement of segregation are raised by Richard Lampard. He ... more Two important issues concerning the measurement of segregation are raised by Richard Lampard. He shows the relationship between the Gini coefficient (G) and the marginal matching measure (MM), and he suggests that G may have a particular advantage as a measure of segregation in that it retains more information than MM. It is worth developing these points further, and seeing whether G really does have an advantage. We shall demonstrate that MM retains just as much relevant inform ation as the Gini coefficient and, furthermore, that it has the additional advantage that it allows for better comparisons over time or between situations, making it the most suitable measure of segregation available at present. As a first step we prove that G is just another statistic of association, being a special case of Somers' D. This makes its limitations clearer. We also show that both MM and the Index of Dissimilarity are specific instances of G. The Gini coefficient and MM First of all, it is necessary to point out that the measure described by Lampard is indeed the Gini coefficient. He presents the measure in a novel form, relating the number of women to the number of workers across occupations. However, a little algebraic manipulation will convert it into the form presented below for the Gini coefficient. Lampard is correct in pointing out that MM is a particular case of the Gini coefficient. Indeed we would go further, for it can be shown that in a 2 x 2 table G becomes the difference of proportions, which permits a more systematic understanding of the relation of G to other measures of segregation.

This manual is a contribution to the ongoing debate on the measurement of occupational segregatio... more This manual is a contribution to the ongoing debate on the measurement of occupational segregation. It was written by Janet Siltanen from the University of Edinburgh, and Jennifer Jarman and Robert M. Blackburn from the University of Cambridge, in the United Kingdom. The manual, which can be used as a self-learning or as a teaching tool, is intended for all users who are interested in understanding the phenomenon of occupational segregation and who want to know how to calculate and interpret data on this subject. It starts by ...

Ethnicity in the 1991 Census, 1997

Contemporary Social Science, 2016

ABSTRACT The paper is concerned with the occupation-based inequalities of women and men in econom... more ABSTRACT The paper is concerned with the occupation-based inequalities of women and men in economically developed societies. The inequalities in their working lives lead to inequalities in retirement, and particularly the greater poverty endured by women. Occupational gender segregation, the tendency for women and men to work in different occupations, results in gender inequalities. The inequalities are measured by pay and class-status. The extent of the inequality in a country is measured as the vertical dimension of the occupational segregation, which varies appreciably across countries. In employment, men almost always have an advantage on the vertical dimension of pay, while on class-status the advantage lies with women. The gender inequalities in working lives carry over into retirement, though in a somewhat different manner. In retirement there is a wide range of experience from affluence to poverty, with a great many experiencing poverty. Those from lower class-status levels who earned too little to save for pensions, including those who worked part-time, suffer poverty in retirement. The occupational status advantage of women disappears, while their income disadvantage combines with greater life expectancy, with the consequence that women are among the majority of retired people in poverty.