Ravindra Singh | University of Cambridge (original) (raw)
Papers by Ravindra Singh
CV Ravindra Nath Singh, 2020
This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explor... more This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200-1900 BC) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration.
Several major cereal groups have been identified as staples used by the pre-urban, urban and post... more Several major cereal groups have been identified as staples used by the pre-urban, urban and post-urban phase populations of the Indus Civilisation (3200–1500 BCE): wheat, barley , a range of small hulled millets and also rice, though their proportional exploitation is variable across space and over time. Traditional quantification methods examine the frequency, intensity and proportionality of the use of these crops and help ascertain the 'relative importance' of these cereals for Indus populations. However, this notion of 'importance' is abstracted from the daily lives of the people using these crops and may be biased by the differential production (as well as archaeological survival) of individual cereals. This paper outlines an alternative approach to quantifying Indus cereals by investigating proportions of calories. Cereals are predominantly composed of carbohydrates and therefore provided much of the daily caloric intake among many late Holocene farming populations. The four major cereal groups cultivated by Indus farmers, however, vary greatly in terms of calories per grain, and this has an impact on their proportional input to past diets. This paper demonstrates that, when converted to proportions of calories, the perceived 'importance' of cereals from five Indus sites changes dramatically, reducing the role of the previously dominant small hulled millet species and elevating the role of Triticoid grains. Although other factors will also have affected how a farmer perceived the role and importance of a crop, including its ecological tolerances, investments required to grow it, and the crop's role in the economy, this papers suggests that some consideration of what cereals meant in terms of daily lives is needed alongside the more abstracted quantification methods that have traditionally been applied.
The nature and timing of rice domestication and the development of rice cultivation in South Asia... more The nature and timing of rice domestication and the development of rice cultivation in South Asia is much debated. In northern South Asia there is presently a significant gap (c.4200 years) between earliest evidence for the exploitation of wild rice (Lahuradewa c.6000 BCE) and earliest dated evidence for the utilisation of fully domesticated rice (Mahagara c.1800 BCE). The Indus Civilisation (c.3000e1500 BCE) developed and declined during the intervening period, and there has been debate about whether rice was adopted and exploited by Indus populations during this 'gap'. This paper presents new analysis of spikelet bases and weeds collected from three Indus Civilisation settlements in northwest India, which provide insight into the way that rice was exploited. This analysis suggests that starting in the period before the Indus urban phase (Early Harappan) and continuing through the urban (Mature Harappan/ Harappan), post-urban (Late Harappan) and on into the post-Indus Painted Grey Ware (PGW) period, there was a progressive increase in the proportion of domesticated-type spikelet bases and a decrease in wild-types. This pattern fits with a model of the slow development of rice exploitation from wild foraging to agriculture involving full cultivation. Importantly, the accompanying weeds show no increased proportions of wetland species during this period. Instead a mix of wetland and dryland species was identified, and although these data are preliminary, they suggest that the development of an independent rice tradition may have been intertwined with the practices of the eastern most Indus peoples. These data also suggest that when fully domesticated Oryza sativa ssp. japonica was introduced around 2000 BCE, it arrived in an area that was already familiar with domesticated rice cultivation and a range of cultivation techniques.
This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explor... more This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200–1900 BC) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration.
The first direct absolute dates for the exploitation of several summer crops by Indus populations... more The first direct absolute dates for the exploitation of several summer crops by Indus populations are presented here. These include rice, millets and three tropical pulse species at two settlements in the hinterland of the urban site of Rakhigarhi. The dates confirm the role of native summer domesticates in the rise of Indus cities. They demonstrate that, from their earliest phases, a range of crops and variable strategies, including multi-cropping, were used to feed different urban centres. This has important implications for understanding the development of the earliest cities in South Asia, particularly the organisation of labour and provisioning throughout the year.
In spite of famous Bronze Age Indus Civilzation (Harappan flourished between 2800 BC to 1900 BC i... more In spite of famous Bronze Age Indus Civilzation (Harappan flourished between 2800 BC to 1900 BC in a vast area of India and Pakistan, Tin ores are shown to be absent in India. Only known sources are said to be in Afghanistan which had been utilized by the metallurgist of this famous civilization. In this context, recently excavated site Khanak (Lat:28°54'26.5" N; Long:75°52'08.9" E) has given evidence of metallurgy at least since 3000 BC.
The region would have been an important resource area for many varieties of metals, minerals, stones (procured from Aravalli hills) and must have provided much needed functional trade routes facilitating the smooth flow of trade items from one place to another. The geology of this area belongs to the Malani igneous suite of rocks of western Rajasthan. Quartzite and meta-sediments belonging to the Delhi Supergroup from the country rocks. The Tosham hill is surrounded by Khanak, Riwasa, Dulheri, Dadam and Dharan ring complexes. The occurrence of primary tin in the form of cassiterite from the Tosham area was first reported in 1983 which was found associated with the muscovite-biotite granite. Tosham is located right in the middle of the Harappan distribution in Haryana. Its location may also be related to the rich copper-bearing zone of Southwest Haryana & Northeast Rajasthan.
In this context it may be noted that name of the village ‘Khanak’ means ‘miners’ which further suggest that the site has traditionally been occupied by the miner communities of the Tosham area. Evidences suggest that its antiquity may go back even earlier than Early Harappan- Sothi-Siswal periods (3000 BC). Excavations revealed ample evidence of metallurgical activities as attested by the occurrence of slag, ores and evidences of ashes and fragments of furnaces in addition to the bronze objects. We have conducted petrological, XRD, EDAX, TEM, SEM and metallography on the slag, ores, crucible fragments and bronze objects samples recovered from Khanak excavations. This has given positive indication of mining and metallurgy of poly-mettalic Tin at the site, however it can only be ascertained after the detailed scientific examination of the materials which is underway. In view of the importance of site, we intend to excavate the site horizontally in future so as to obtain more samples for scientific studies.
Harappans, Excavations in proximity of Kunal and Bhirrana
[It is hoped that the details of some excavated sites will bring out the rich tapestry of Indian ... more [It is hoped that the details of some excavated sites will bring out the rich tapestry of Indian protohistory in various regions. This also highlights the tools of scientific analysis which have been applied to the results of excavations at many of these sites. The difference of opinion between the past and the present excavators of a site is also intriguing. Alamgirpur offers an interesting case study of such scholarly differences. Early Indian excavators were keen on understanding the sequences of their sites in terms of breaks and discontinuity of populations. They were also insistent on discovering new cultures on the basis of pottery shapes and designs, even though the pottery range was well within an established tradition. The question of the so-called Bara culture is a case in point. The pottery of this culture differs in no way from the basic ceramic frame of the Harappan tradition. And yet the early excavator of Alamgirpur did not hesitate to estimate the proportion of Bara and Harappan pottery at the site, completely ignoring the fact that the Bara pottery can be explained within the frame of Late Harappan pottery.]
Alamgirpur (29º 00.206'N; 77º 29.057'E) was earlier excavated by Y.D. Sharma in 1959, who confi r... more Alamgirpur (29º 00.206'N; 77º 29.057'E) was earlier excavated by Y.D. Sharma in 1959, who confi rmed the Harappan affi liation of the site and revealed a four-fold cultural sequence with a break in between each period. However, later he (1989) revised the chronology, and mentioned that Period I had Harappan, Bara and some new but related wares. In view of this complication, a fresh limited excavation was conducted from April to June, 2008, by the Banaras Hindu University with the objectives to reconfi rm the cultural sequence on the basis of AMS dates, to study the faunal and fl oral remains, and to carry out palynological and geoarchaeological studies in order to understand the human response to the changing climatic conditions. However, establishing a chronology for the site was an essential component of this research. The new excavations at Alamgirpur carried out with a multidisciplinary approach revealed that the fi rst inhabitants of this site used Harappan (with a few Early Harappan and OCP) pottery, simple structures made with mud walls with thatched roofs based on wooden posts. Considering the material remains and the consistent AMS dates, the Harappan presence across the Yamuna River is now unquestionable. The date range of 2600 to 2200 B.C. (calibrated) has been proposed for the earliest level at Alamgirpur. On the basis of recent excavations and geoarchaeological study it has been suggested that there is no stratigraphic gap between Harappan and PGW levels. The study conducted on fuel exploitation, suggests that although the site was located in an open grassland environment where people had access to some wood resource, but forms of fuel other than wood was also exploited. Preliminary archaeobotanical analysis showed the presence of various cereals namely, barley, wheat and rice, and legumes such as vetch, wild/domesticated peas and mung bean, in addition to oil seeds suggesting agriculturebased subsistence economy of Harappa settlers at this site.
CV Ravindra Nath Singh, 2020
This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explor... more This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200-1900 BC) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration.
Several major cereal groups have been identified as staples used by the pre-urban, urban and post... more Several major cereal groups have been identified as staples used by the pre-urban, urban and post-urban phase populations of the Indus Civilisation (3200–1500 BCE): wheat, barley , a range of small hulled millets and also rice, though their proportional exploitation is variable across space and over time. Traditional quantification methods examine the frequency, intensity and proportionality of the use of these crops and help ascertain the 'relative importance' of these cereals for Indus populations. However, this notion of 'importance' is abstracted from the daily lives of the people using these crops and may be biased by the differential production (as well as archaeological survival) of individual cereals. This paper outlines an alternative approach to quantifying Indus cereals by investigating proportions of calories. Cereals are predominantly composed of carbohydrates and therefore provided much of the daily caloric intake among many late Holocene farming populations. The four major cereal groups cultivated by Indus farmers, however, vary greatly in terms of calories per grain, and this has an impact on their proportional input to past diets. This paper demonstrates that, when converted to proportions of calories, the perceived 'importance' of cereals from five Indus sites changes dramatically, reducing the role of the previously dominant small hulled millet species and elevating the role of Triticoid grains. Although other factors will also have affected how a farmer perceived the role and importance of a crop, including its ecological tolerances, investments required to grow it, and the crop's role in the economy, this papers suggests that some consideration of what cereals meant in terms of daily lives is needed alongside the more abstracted quantification methods that have traditionally been applied.
The nature and timing of rice domestication and the development of rice cultivation in South Asia... more The nature and timing of rice domestication and the development of rice cultivation in South Asia is much debated. In northern South Asia there is presently a significant gap (c.4200 years) between earliest evidence for the exploitation of wild rice (Lahuradewa c.6000 BCE) and earliest dated evidence for the utilisation of fully domesticated rice (Mahagara c.1800 BCE). The Indus Civilisation (c.3000e1500 BCE) developed and declined during the intervening period, and there has been debate about whether rice was adopted and exploited by Indus populations during this 'gap'. This paper presents new analysis of spikelet bases and weeds collected from three Indus Civilisation settlements in northwest India, which provide insight into the way that rice was exploited. This analysis suggests that starting in the period before the Indus urban phase (Early Harappan) and continuing through the urban (Mature Harappan/ Harappan), post-urban (Late Harappan) and on into the post-Indus Painted Grey Ware (PGW) period, there was a progressive increase in the proportion of domesticated-type spikelet bases and a decrease in wild-types. This pattern fits with a model of the slow development of rice exploitation from wild foraging to agriculture involving full cultivation. Importantly, the accompanying weeds show no increased proportions of wetland species during this period. Instead a mix of wetland and dryland species was identified, and although these data are preliminary, they suggest that the development of an independent rice tradition may have been intertwined with the practices of the eastern most Indus peoples. These data also suggest that when fully domesticated Oryza sativa ssp. japonica was introduced around 2000 BCE, it arrived in an area that was already familiar with domesticated rice cultivation and a range of cultivation techniques.
This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explor... more This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200–1900 BC) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration.
The first direct absolute dates for the exploitation of several summer crops by Indus populations... more The first direct absolute dates for the exploitation of several summer crops by Indus populations are presented here. These include rice, millets and three tropical pulse species at two settlements in the hinterland of the urban site of Rakhigarhi. The dates confirm the role of native summer domesticates in the rise of Indus cities. They demonstrate that, from their earliest phases, a range of crops and variable strategies, including multi-cropping, were used to feed different urban centres. This has important implications for understanding the development of the earliest cities in South Asia, particularly the organisation of labour and provisioning throughout the year.
In spite of famous Bronze Age Indus Civilzation (Harappan flourished between 2800 BC to 1900 BC i... more In spite of famous Bronze Age Indus Civilzation (Harappan flourished between 2800 BC to 1900 BC in a vast area of India and Pakistan, Tin ores are shown to be absent in India. Only known sources are said to be in Afghanistan which had been utilized by the metallurgist of this famous civilization. In this context, recently excavated site Khanak (Lat:28°54'26.5" N; Long:75°52'08.9" E) has given evidence of metallurgy at least since 3000 BC.
The region would have been an important resource area for many varieties of metals, minerals, stones (procured from Aravalli hills) and must have provided much needed functional trade routes facilitating the smooth flow of trade items from one place to another. The geology of this area belongs to the Malani igneous suite of rocks of western Rajasthan. Quartzite and meta-sediments belonging to the Delhi Supergroup from the country rocks. The Tosham hill is surrounded by Khanak, Riwasa, Dulheri, Dadam and Dharan ring complexes. The occurrence of primary tin in the form of cassiterite from the Tosham area was first reported in 1983 which was found associated with the muscovite-biotite granite. Tosham is located right in the middle of the Harappan distribution in Haryana. Its location may also be related to the rich copper-bearing zone of Southwest Haryana & Northeast Rajasthan.
In this context it may be noted that name of the village ‘Khanak’ means ‘miners’ which further suggest that the site has traditionally been occupied by the miner communities of the Tosham area. Evidences suggest that its antiquity may go back even earlier than Early Harappan- Sothi-Siswal periods (3000 BC). Excavations revealed ample evidence of metallurgical activities as attested by the occurrence of slag, ores and evidences of ashes and fragments of furnaces in addition to the bronze objects. We have conducted petrological, XRD, EDAX, TEM, SEM and metallography on the slag, ores, crucible fragments and bronze objects samples recovered from Khanak excavations. This has given positive indication of mining and metallurgy of poly-mettalic Tin at the site, however it can only be ascertained after the detailed scientific examination of the materials which is underway. In view of the importance of site, we intend to excavate the site horizontally in future so as to obtain more samples for scientific studies.
Harappans, Excavations in proximity of Kunal and Bhirrana
[It is hoped that the details of some excavated sites will bring out the rich tapestry of Indian ... more [It is hoped that the details of some excavated sites will bring out the rich tapestry of Indian protohistory in various regions. This also highlights the tools of scientific analysis which have been applied to the results of excavations at many of these sites. The difference of opinion between the past and the present excavators of a site is also intriguing. Alamgirpur offers an interesting case study of such scholarly differences. Early Indian excavators were keen on understanding the sequences of their sites in terms of breaks and discontinuity of populations. They were also insistent on discovering new cultures on the basis of pottery shapes and designs, even though the pottery range was well within an established tradition. The question of the so-called Bara culture is a case in point. The pottery of this culture differs in no way from the basic ceramic frame of the Harappan tradition. And yet the early excavator of Alamgirpur did not hesitate to estimate the proportion of Bara and Harappan pottery at the site, completely ignoring the fact that the Bara pottery can be explained within the frame of Late Harappan pottery.]
Alamgirpur (29º 00.206'N; 77º 29.057'E) was earlier excavated by Y.D. Sharma in 1959, who confi r... more Alamgirpur (29º 00.206'N; 77º 29.057'E) was earlier excavated by Y.D. Sharma in 1959, who confi rmed the Harappan affi liation of the site and revealed a four-fold cultural sequence with a break in between each period. However, later he (1989) revised the chronology, and mentioned that Period I had Harappan, Bara and some new but related wares. In view of this complication, a fresh limited excavation was conducted from April to June, 2008, by the Banaras Hindu University with the objectives to reconfi rm the cultural sequence on the basis of AMS dates, to study the faunal and fl oral remains, and to carry out palynological and geoarchaeological studies in order to understand the human response to the changing climatic conditions. However, establishing a chronology for the site was an essential component of this research. The new excavations at Alamgirpur carried out with a multidisciplinary approach revealed that the fi rst inhabitants of this site used Harappan (with a few Early Harappan and OCP) pottery, simple structures made with mud walls with thatched roofs based on wooden posts. Considering the material remains and the consistent AMS dates, the Harappan presence across the Yamuna River is now unquestionable. The date range of 2600 to 2200 B.C. (calibrated) has been proposed for the earliest level at Alamgirpur. On the basis of recent excavations and geoarchaeological study it has been suggested that there is no stratigraphic gap between Harappan and PGW levels. The study conducted on fuel exploitation, suggests that although the site was located in an open grassland environment where people had access to some wood resource, but forms of fuel other than wood was also exploited. Preliminary archaeobotanical analysis showed the presence of various cereals namely, barley, wheat and rice, and legumes such as vetch, wild/domesticated peas and mung bean, in addition to oil seeds suggesting agriculturebased subsistence economy of Harappa settlers at this site.
Ceramic Petrology Group Annual Meeting, 10th November 2016, Leiden. Abstract: This paper aims ... more Ceramic Petrology Group Annual Meeting, 10th November 2016, Leiden.
Abstract: This paper aims to present preliminary results of technological ceramic analysis on pottery assemblages from archaeological sites in Uttar Pradesh, North-Western India. Such results are part of a current PhD research project which aims to trace phenomena of social continuity and change in Bronze Age North-Western India through a technological and compositional study of Indus Urban, Post-Urban and Post-Indus ceramic industries. In this study, morpho-stylistic and scientific analysis are used to explore not only ceramic production and distribution, but also cultural choices and relations between social groups at rural settlements, particularly considering the effect of Indus urban development and decline on village-size sites. Technological choices and the full trajectory of the chaîne opératoire for the production of ceramic artefacts during the Harappan, Late Harappan (c. 2500-1600 BC) and Protohistoric (PGW, possibly c. 1300/1200-500 BC) periods and their local varieties in NW Indian villages will be assessd; moreover, pottery will be used as a medium for understanding possible technological and social changes which may have taken place in the arouse of an abrupt weakening of the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) at c. 2200-2100 BC in NW India. After providing an overview of the broad research project and its methodology, achievements obtained so far in the field of South Asian pottery analysis will be presented; eventually, preliminary results of the current project will be proposed.