Dr. Ruffina Thilakaratne | Chu Hai College of Higher Education (original) (raw)
Papers by Dr. Ruffina Thilakaratne
Procedia Engineering, 2011
Green buildings are increasingly gaining attention in the building industry globally. Green build... more Green buildings are increasingly gaining attention in the building industry globally. Green building rating systems have been instrumental in driving this front. Increasing number of green rated buildings and the national and international level rating systems speak for the importance of green buildings. A majority if not all rating systems are established on the same fundamental principles which are reflected in their credit categories, credit distribution and weighting. Life Cycle Assessment has been adopted in LEED rating system to rationalize the possible impacts and hence the credit weighting. Although the logic is well rationalized, this distribution is not reflected in actual practice due to many reasons such as cost implications, practical limitations and regional variations. Therefore certain credit categories that are most prevalent in LEED rated projects in the US might not be reflected important in LEED rated projects in Asia. Considering the rapidly progressing adaptation of LEED system in Asia, this paper intends to explore adaptation trends in LEED system comparing projects in the US and in Asia. Our study analyses fifty urban office projects in the US and in Asia that have achieved either Gold or Platinum level rating under LEED for New Construction and Major Renovations rating system version 2 and 2.2. Size of the projects will be determined by benchmarks specified by Core & Shell system. Data will be primarily obtained from LEED score sheets. Data will be analysed based on simple statistical analysis methods. Findings are expected to reflect how rating system requirements are adopted in practice, and regional trends and which will lead to suggestions how rating systems should be more encompassing and be inline with practical implementation.
Quality in Higher Education, Nov 1, 2006
IntechOpen eBooks, Oct 19, 2022
This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spac... more This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spaces in high-density cities. Research is often limited to large parks and public squares; studies on open spaces in high-density cities are rare. Hong Kong is a high-density high-rise city where people live in compact living environments small as 12 sqm. In such contexts, open spaces play a pivotal role on human well-being. Hong Kong consists of many pocket open spaces that are intended for passive recreation. Elderly use these public amenities predominantly. Therefore, accessibility, safety and user comfort become significant considerations. Improving existing pocket open spaces is essential since there are no plans for new parks in old districts. This study analysed eight pocket open spaces, adopting for their qualitative attributes. Microclimatic field data, photographic analysis, shadow analysis simulation and user perception survey shed light on spatial design, comfort and functional aspects. This study contributed to knowledge by developing guidelines to promote quality and functionality of pocket open spaces in high-density cities.
IOP conference series, Aug 1, 2019
Hong Kong is one of the densest cities compared to other metropolitan cities with population dens... more Hong Kong is one of the densest cities compared to other metropolitan cities with population density in some districts exceeding 57,250 persons per sqkm. Hong Kong's liveability has been affected by factors such as escalating urban density, lack of open spaces, congested living environments, air pollution concentration and high proneness to pandemics. Due to extremely high land premiums, some residents in Hong Kong live in nano flats small as 15sqm in high-rise towers. Given the congested nature of apartments, open spaces a play a vital role contributing to residents' psychological and physical well-being. Due to peculiar topography and extreme high density, Hong Kong open space per capita is far from the WHO recommended standards of 9 sqm per person. Most urban open spaces are pocket spaces located among developments or adjacent to traffic roads with a high ratio of hardscape compared to vegetation. Due to challenging Summer conditions in Hong Kong with high temperature, humidity and stagnant wind most urban open spaces are underutilized.
Urban Green Spaces [Working Title]
This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spac... more This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spaces in high-density cities. Research is often limited to large parks and public squares; studies on open spaces in high-density cities are rare. Hong Kong is a high-density high-rise city where people live in compact living environments small as 12 sqm. In such contexts, open spaces play a pivotal role on human well-being. Hong Kong consists of many pocket open spaces that are intended for passive recreation. Elderly use these public amenities predominantly. Therefore, accessibility, safety and user comfort become significant considerations. Improving existing pocket open spaces is essential since there are no plans for new parks in old districts. This study analysed eight pocket open spaces, adopting for their qualitative attributes. Microclimatic field data, photographic analysis, shadow analysis simulation and user perception survey shed light on spatial design, comfort and functional ...
Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject are... more Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject areas within construction related professional courses (architecture, surveying, engineering) to teach. Many students think it is peripheral to the main agenda and this is especially true for architectural students who consider their focus to be design. The teaching of Construction Technology has to date been very much an instructor centred didactic exercise. Transmission of information from instructor to student within a lecture theatre is the norm. There is little use made of learner centred pedagogies or of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enliven the courses. Furthermore, within the University, a considerable duplication of content occurs between departments that teach Construction Technology. It was with this picture in mind that a team of academics from the Department of Architecture and the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong joined forces t...
Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are... more Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are the most difficult to teach. This is particularly evident in the teaching of architectural students as many fail to make the link between Construction Technology and the main thrust of architectural education: the Design Studio. The teaching of Construction Technology has, until now, been very much an instructor centred, didactic exercise with little interaction among students or between students. In sharp contrast, Design Studio is dependent on the visual and graphical processes and occurs in settings where students interact informally with their peers and design tutors. If Design Studio can be managed in a student centred and hands on environment, why can’t courses in Construction Technology / Tectonics be delivered in a similar atmosphere? This was the challenge faced by the project team as they undertook a project in changing practice through innovative teaching in Construction Tech...
The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. ... more The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. This paper analyses LEED rated projects in countries without an independent national rating system, and countries with established national rating systems, taking into consideration number of registered projects, type of rating schemes pursued and other governing factors. This study primarily focuses on most widely adopted LEED rating tracks, i.e. New Construction (NC) and Existing Buildings Operation and Maintenance (EBOM), Core & Shell (CS), Commercial Interiors (CI). Results concludes a steady presence and progress of LEED rating scheme in Asia recording over 2750 registered LEED projects from 2006-2013. Trend shows an inclination towards NC, EBOM, CS, and CI rating schemes due to competitive reasons; such as mature and inclusive nature that covers a wide range of projects, international reputation, lifetime valid rating label and resources that supports smooth certification process. Results also indicate an exponential increase even during the fall in the construction industry during the economic downturn.
IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, 2004. Proceedings.
Procedia Engineering, 2011
iadis.net
A long held complaint of university education has been that it produces students that lack real w... more A long held complaint of university education has been that it produces students that lack real world skills. Conceptually, authentic learning stresses a shift of learning aims, from the mastery of passing examinations, to the acquisition of competency (Honebein et al 1993). ...
Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject are... more Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject areas within construction related professional courses (architecture, surveying, engineering) to teach. Many students think it is peripheral to the main agenda and this is especially true for architectural students who consider their focus to be design. The teaching of Construction Technology has to date been very much an instructor centred didactic exercise. Transmission of information from instructor to student within a lecture theatre is the norm. There is little use made of learner centred pedagogies or of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enliven the courses. Furthermore, within the University, a considerable duplication of content occurs between departments that teach Construction Technology. It was with this picture in mind that a team of academics from the Department of Architecture and the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong joined forces to win a substantial UGC funded Teaching Development Grant: Developing an Integrated Construction Technology Teaching Program and Establishment of an Inter-Collegiate Centre of Excellence for the Teaching of Construction Technology. The project aim was to shift the focus of instruction from the instructor to the student. This paper reports on the progress of the project, which is currently near the end of Phase One, the deliverables of which are a farsighted strategic report on teaching Construction Technology in Hong Kong and the production of a pilot modules or proof of concept. The paper highlights some of the challenges faced by the project team as universities move from more traditional to learnercentred processes. These include: cross department sensitivities, dealing with the ‘what do I get out of this’ mentality, addressing pedagogical deficit among academics and helping departments adopt the view that the learner should be central to the process.
Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are... more Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are the most difficult to teach. This is particularly evident in the teaching of architectural students as many fail to make the link between Construction Technology and the main thrust of architectural education: the Design Studio. The teaching of Construction Technology has, until now, been very much an instructor centred, didactic exercise with little interaction among students or between students. In sharp contrast, Design Studio is dependent on the visual and graphical processes and occurs in settings where students interact informally with their peers and design tutors. If Design Studio can be managed in a student centred and hands on environment, why can't courses in Construction Technology / Tectonics be delivered in a similar atmosphere? This was the challenge faced by the project team as they undertook a project in changing practice through innovative teaching in Construction Technology at The University of Hong Kong. This paper reports on the process and progress of this project where there has been an attempt to shift the pedagogical practices in Tectonics. Changes in students' learning of Tectonics, the issues associated with collaboration between instructors and students, between instructors & instructors and across departments are discussed.
Quality in Higher Education, 2006
... RIBA & ARB. 1997. Criteria for Validation , UK: RIBA Publications. View all references) a... more ... RIBA & ARB. 1997. Criteria for Validation , UK: RIBA Publications. View all references) and NAAB (199827. National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). 1998. Assess, Select and Integrate Accreditation , Washington, DC: NAAB. ...
Cutting Edge, Nov 13, 2013
The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. ... more The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. This paper analyses LEED rated projects in countries without an independent national rating system, and countries with established national rating systems, taking into consideration number of registered projects, type of rating schemes pursued and other governing factors. This study primarily focuses on most widely adopted LEED rating tracks, i.e. New Construction (NC) and Existing Buildings Operation and Maintenance (EBOM), Core & Shell (CS), Commercial Interiors (CI). Results concludes a steady presence and progress of LEED rating scheme in Asia recording over 2750 registered LEED projects from 2006-2013. Trend shows an inclination towards NC, EBOM, CS, and CI rating schemes due to competitive reasons; such as mature and inclusive nature that covers a wide range of projects, international reputation, lifetime valid rating label and resources that supports smooth certification process. Results also indicate an exponential increase even during the fall in the construction industry during the economic downturn.
Models are used in architectural design for several purposes. Early in a design cycle, sketch or ... more Models are used in architectural design for several purposes. Early in a design cycle, sketch or study models will be created to examine particular aspects of a design idea. Such models are often assembled rapidly and crudely for it is the immediacy of the feedback that is sought. At later stages in a design cycle, more carefully assembled detailed models may be created to present ideas to colleagues, clients or decision-making bodies. Extending Schön's observation that drawing is a process of conversation, we observe that models also participate in conversations. The introduction of digital media changes the nature of the conversation. This research revisits the role of models in the design conversation. It has been noted that models can be classifi ed in two roles: 'models of' and 'models for'. In architecture, we extend this by adding 'models with' as we employ three and two dimensional representations in the conversations of design. This paper presents experiences with students in the use of Rapid Prototyping technologies and manually made physical models in design tasks.
Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject are... more Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject areas within construction related professional courses (architecture, surveying, engineering) to teach. Many students think it is peripheral to the main agenda and this is especially true for architectural students who consider their focus to be design. The teaching of Construction Technology has to date been very much an instructor centred didactic exercise. Transmission of information from instructor to student within a lecture theatre is the norm. There is little use made of learner centred pedagogies or of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enliven the courses. Furthermore, within the University, a considerable duplication of content occurs between departments that teach Construction Technology. This paper reports on the progress of the project, which is currently near the end of Phase One, the deliverables of which are a farsighted strategic report on teaching Construction Technology in Hong Kong and the production of a pilot modules or proof of concept. The paper highlights some of the challenges faced by the project team as universities move from more traditional to learner-centred processes. These include: cross department sensitivities, dealing with the 'what do I get out of this' mentality, addressing pedagogical deficit among academics and helping departments adopt the view that the learner should be central to the process. 2
Procedia Engineering, 2011
Green buildings are increasingly gaining attention in the building industry globally. Green build... more Green buildings are increasingly gaining attention in the building industry globally. Green building rating systems have been instrumental in driving this front. Increasing number of green rated buildings and the national and international level rating systems speak for the importance of green buildings. A majority if not all rating systems are established on the same fundamental principles which are reflected in their credit categories, credit distribution and weighting. Life Cycle Assessment has been adopted in LEED rating system to rationalize the possible impacts and hence the credit weighting. Although the logic is well rationalized, this distribution is not reflected in actual practice due to many reasons such as cost implications, practical limitations and regional variations. Therefore certain credit categories that are most prevalent in LEED rated projects in the US might not be reflected important in LEED rated projects in Asia. Considering the rapidly progressing adaptation of LEED system in Asia, this paper intends to explore adaptation trends in LEED system comparing projects in the US and in Asia. Our study analyses fifty urban office projects in the US and in Asia that have achieved either Gold or Platinum level rating under LEED for New Construction and Major Renovations rating system version 2 and 2.2. Size of the projects will be determined by benchmarks specified by Core & Shell system. Data will be primarily obtained from LEED score sheets. Data will be analysed based on simple statistical analysis methods. Findings are expected to reflect how rating system requirements are adopted in practice, and regional trends and which will lead to suggestions how rating systems should be more encompassing and be inline with practical implementation.
Quality in Higher Education, Nov 1, 2006
IntechOpen eBooks, Oct 19, 2022
This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spac... more This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spaces in high-density cities. Research is often limited to large parks and public squares; studies on open spaces in high-density cities are rare. Hong Kong is a high-density high-rise city where people live in compact living environments small as 12 sqm. In such contexts, open spaces play a pivotal role on human well-being. Hong Kong consists of many pocket open spaces that are intended for passive recreation. Elderly use these public amenities predominantly. Therefore, accessibility, safety and user comfort become significant considerations. Improving existing pocket open spaces is essential since there are no plans for new parks in old districts. This study analysed eight pocket open spaces, adopting for their qualitative attributes. Microclimatic field data, photographic analysis, shadow analysis simulation and user perception survey shed light on spatial design, comfort and functional aspects. This study contributed to knowledge by developing guidelines to promote quality and functionality of pocket open spaces in high-density cities.
IOP conference series, Aug 1, 2019
Hong Kong is one of the densest cities compared to other metropolitan cities with population dens... more Hong Kong is one of the densest cities compared to other metropolitan cities with population density in some districts exceeding 57,250 persons per sqkm. Hong Kong's liveability has been affected by factors such as escalating urban density, lack of open spaces, congested living environments, air pollution concentration and high proneness to pandemics. Due to extremely high land premiums, some residents in Hong Kong live in nano flats small as 15sqm in high-rise towers. Given the congested nature of apartments, open spaces a play a vital role contributing to residents' psychological and physical well-being. Due to peculiar topography and extreme high density, Hong Kong open space per capita is far from the WHO recommended standards of 9 sqm per person. Most urban open spaces are pocket spaces located among developments or adjacent to traffic roads with a high ratio of hardscape compared to vegetation. Due to challenging Summer conditions in Hong Kong with high temperature, humidity and stagnant wind most urban open spaces are underutilized.
Urban Green Spaces [Working Title]
This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spac... more This study discusses parameters that are important for designing quality and functional open spaces in high-density cities. Research is often limited to large parks and public squares; studies on open spaces in high-density cities are rare. Hong Kong is a high-density high-rise city where people live in compact living environments small as 12 sqm. In such contexts, open spaces play a pivotal role on human well-being. Hong Kong consists of many pocket open spaces that are intended for passive recreation. Elderly use these public amenities predominantly. Therefore, accessibility, safety and user comfort become significant considerations. Improving existing pocket open spaces is essential since there are no plans for new parks in old districts. This study analysed eight pocket open spaces, adopting for their qualitative attributes. Microclimatic field data, photographic analysis, shadow analysis simulation and user perception survey shed light on spatial design, comfort and functional ...
Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject are... more Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject areas within construction related professional courses (architecture, surveying, engineering) to teach. Many students think it is peripheral to the main agenda and this is especially true for architectural students who consider their focus to be design. The teaching of Construction Technology has to date been very much an instructor centred didactic exercise. Transmission of information from instructor to student within a lecture theatre is the norm. There is little use made of learner centred pedagogies or of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enliven the courses. Furthermore, within the University, a considerable duplication of content occurs between departments that teach Construction Technology. It was with this picture in mind that a team of academics from the Department of Architecture and the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong joined forces t...
Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are... more Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are the most difficult to teach. This is particularly evident in the teaching of architectural students as many fail to make the link between Construction Technology and the main thrust of architectural education: the Design Studio. The teaching of Construction Technology has, until now, been very much an instructor centred, didactic exercise with little interaction among students or between students. In sharp contrast, Design Studio is dependent on the visual and graphical processes and occurs in settings where students interact informally with their peers and design tutors. If Design Studio can be managed in a student centred and hands on environment, why can’t courses in Construction Technology / Tectonics be delivered in a similar atmosphere? This was the challenge faced by the project team as they undertook a project in changing practice through innovative teaching in Construction Tech...
The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. ... more The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. This paper analyses LEED rated projects in countries without an independent national rating system, and countries with established national rating systems, taking into consideration number of registered projects, type of rating schemes pursued and other governing factors. This study primarily focuses on most widely adopted LEED rating tracks, i.e. New Construction (NC) and Existing Buildings Operation and Maintenance (EBOM), Core & Shell (CS), Commercial Interiors (CI). Results concludes a steady presence and progress of LEED rating scheme in Asia recording over 2750 registered LEED projects from 2006-2013. Trend shows an inclination towards NC, EBOM, CS, and CI rating schemes due to competitive reasons; such as mature and inclusive nature that covers a wide range of projects, international reputation, lifetime valid rating label and resources that supports smooth certification process. Results also indicate an exponential increase even during the fall in the construction industry during the economic downturn.
IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, 2004. Proceedings.
Procedia Engineering, 2011
iadis.net
A long held complaint of university education has been that it produces students that lack real w... more A long held complaint of university education has been that it produces students that lack real world skills. Conceptually, authentic learning stresses a shift of learning aims, from the mastery of passing examinations, to the acquisition of competency (Honebein et al 1993). ...
Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject are... more Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject areas within construction related professional courses (architecture, surveying, engineering) to teach. Many students think it is peripheral to the main agenda and this is especially true for architectural students who consider their focus to be design. The teaching of Construction Technology has to date been very much an instructor centred didactic exercise. Transmission of information from instructor to student within a lecture theatre is the norm. There is little use made of learner centred pedagogies or of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enliven the courses. Furthermore, within the University, a considerable duplication of content occurs between departments that teach Construction Technology. It was with this picture in mind that a team of academics from the Department of Architecture and the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong joined forces to win a substantial UGC funded Teaching Development Grant: Developing an Integrated Construction Technology Teaching Program and Establishment of an Inter-Collegiate Centre of Excellence for the Teaching of Construction Technology. The project aim was to shift the focus of instruction from the instructor to the student. This paper reports on the progress of the project, which is currently near the end of Phase One, the deliverables of which are a farsighted strategic report on teaching Construction Technology in Hong Kong and the production of a pilot modules or proof of concept. The paper highlights some of the challenges faced by the project team as universities move from more traditional to learnercentred processes. These include: cross department sensitivities, dealing with the ‘what do I get out of this’ mentality, addressing pedagogical deficit among academics and helping departments adopt the view that the learner should be central to the process.
Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are... more Evaluations suggest that, within construction related professional courses, technical aspects are the most difficult to teach. This is particularly evident in the teaching of architectural students as many fail to make the link between Construction Technology and the main thrust of architectural education: the Design Studio. The teaching of Construction Technology has, until now, been very much an instructor centred, didactic exercise with little interaction among students or between students. In sharp contrast, Design Studio is dependent on the visual and graphical processes and occurs in settings where students interact informally with their peers and design tutors. If Design Studio can be managed in a student centred and hands on environment, why can't courses in Construction Technology / Tectonics be delivered in a similar atmosphere? This was the challenge faced by the project team as they undertook a project in changing practice through innovative teaching in Construction Technology at The University of Hong Kong. This paper reports on the process and progress of this project where there has been an attempt to shift the pedagogical practices in Tectonics. Changes in students' learning of Tectonics, the issues associated with collaboration between instructors and students, between instructors & instructors and across departments are discussed.
Quality in Higher Education, 2006
... RIBA & ARB. 1997. Criteria for Validation , UK: RIBA Publications. View all references) a... more ... RIBA & ARB. 1997. Criteria for Validation , UK: RIBA Publications. View all references) and NAAB (199827. National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). 1998. Assess, Select and Integrate Accreditation , Washington, DC: NAAB. ...
Cutting Edge, Nov 13, 2013
The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. ... more The premise of this paper is to explore the future of LEED green building rating scheme in Asia. This paper analyses LEED rated projects in countries without an independent national rating system, and countries with established national rating systems, taking into consideration number of registered projects, type of rating schemes pursued and other governing factors. This study primarily focuses on most widely adopted LEED rating tracks, i.e. New Construction (NC) and Existing Buildings Operation and Maintenance (EBOM), Core & Shell (CS), Commercial Interiors (CI). Results concludes a steady presence and progress of LEED rating scheme in Asia recording over 2750 registered LEED projects from 2006-2013. Trend shows an inclination towards NC, EBOM, CS, and CI rating schemes due to competitive reasons; such as mature and inclusive nature that covers a wide range of projects, international reputation, lifetime valid rating label and resources that supports smooth certification process. Results also indicate an exponential increase even during the fall in the construction industry during the economic downturn.
Models are used in architectural design for several purposes. Early in a design cycle, sketch or ... more Models are used in architectural design for several purposes. Early in a design cycle, sketch or study models will be created to examine particular aspects of a design idea. Such models are often assembled rapidly and crudely for it is the immediacy of the feedback that is sought. At later stages in a design cycle, more carefully assembled detailed models may be created to present ideas to colleagues, clients or decision-making bodies. Extending Schön's observation that drawing is a process of conversation, we observe that models also participate in conversations. The introduction of digital media changes the nature of the conversation. This research revisits the role of models in the design conversation. It has been noted that models can be classifi ed in two roles: 'models of' and 'models for'. In architecture, we extend this by adding 'models with' as we employ three and two dimensional representations in the conversations of design. This paper presents experiences with students in the use of Rapid Prototyping technologies and manually made physical models in design tasks.
Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject are... more Student evaluations suggest that construction technology is one of the most difficult subject areas within construction related professional courses (architecture, surveying, engineering) to teach. Many students think it is peripheral to the main agenda and this is especially true for architectural students who consider their focus to be design. The teaching of Construction Technology has to date been very much an instructor centred didactic exercise. Transmission of information from instructor to student within a lecture theatre is the norm. There is little use made of learner centred pedagogies or of modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enliven the courses. Furthermore, within the University, a considerable duplication of content occurs between departments that teach Construction Technology. This paper reports on the progress of the project, which is currently near the end of Phase One, the deliverables of which are a farsighted strategic report on teaching Construction Technology in Hong Kong and the production of a pilot modules or proof of concept. The paper highlights some of the challenges faced by the project team as universities move from more traditional to learner-centred processes. These include: cross department sensitivities, dealing with the 'what do I get out of this' mentality, addressing pedagogical deficit among academics and helping departments adopt the view that the learner should be central to the process. 2