EUGENE CAIRNCROSS | CPUT - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by EUGENE CAIRNCROSS
South African Medical Journal, Sep 30, 2022
This open-access article is distributed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC 4.0.
South African Medical Journal
This open-access article is distributed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC 4.0.
Water SA, 2005
The public health significance of pesticide pollution of water sources in South Africa has receiv... more The public health significance of pesticide pollution of water sources in South Africa has received little attention from policy-makers and regulators, unlike microbiological quality of potable water. This anomaly is reflected in the current legislation in South Africa which is marked by inadequate regulatory standards for pesticides in water. Due to high costs, technical constraints and shortage of laboratory skills for pesticide analyses in South Africa, the poor regulatory framework has no monitoring data on which to base policy. In contrast, international experience in setting standards for maximum permissible levels of pesticides in water is extensive. The different approaches used by the World Health Organisation, the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union are outlined, as well as the assumptions underlying these different approaches. Drawing on these models, recommendations are made as to how to integrate concerns for pesticide safety in environmental regulation and risk assessment in South Africa. Such measures would ensure consistency with recent developments in environmental management in South Africa that give primacy to a number of key environmental policy principles. A public health perspective should ensure that growing international concerns for longterm adverse health and environmental impacts arising from the presence of pesticides in water are adequately addressed in regulatory controls in South Africa.
Epidemiology, 2005
Aims:(1) To document international and national trends in agricultural policy and in pesticide us... more Aims:(1) To document international and national trends in agricultural policy and in pesticide use and exposure.(2) To develop methodologies to characterise: potential human and environmental exposures; risk-perceptions and decision-making processes of small farmers using pesticides; and health consequences of pesticide exposure for farmers and their families.(3) To develop tools to measure the costs of pesticide usage.
The volume of chemicals manufactured and used continues to grow, with a shift in production from ... more The volume of chemicals manufactured and used continues to grow, with a shift in production from highly industrialized countries towards developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Increased international co-operation is needed to eliminate or reduce the use of toxic chemicals, to promote the development and adoption of safer alternatives, and to build capacity for regulation and management at every stage of the lifecycle of chemicals. It is also important that existing national laws and international agreements for sound chemicals management be fully implemented. Public availability of adequate information about chemicals – including their multi-faceted impacts on health and the environment – is essential to support these efforts. Yet we are lagging further behind with testing chemicals before they become available on the market, while too little is known about many of those already in commerce. To meet the internationally agreed goal to produce and use chemica...
© 2003 Dalvie et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copyin... more © 2003 Dalvie et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL. Background: In South Africa there is little data on environmental pollution of rural water sources by agrochemicals. Methods: This study investigated pesticide contamination of ground and surface water in three intensive agricultural areas in the Western Cape: the Hex River Valley, Grabouw and Piketberg. Monitoring for endosulfan and chlorpyrifos at low levels was conducted as well as screening for other pesticides. Results: The quantification limit for endosulfan was 0.1 µg/L. Endosulfan was found to be widespread in ground water, surface water and drinking water. The contamination was mostly at low levels, but regularly exceeded the European Drinking Water Standard of 0.1 µg/L. The two most contaminated sites were a sub-surface d...
New solutions : a journal of environmental and occupational health policy : NS, 2016
Mining is a source of extraordinary wealth, but its benefits often do not accrue to the workers a... more Mining is a source of extraordinary wealth, but its benefits often do not accrue to the workers and communities most involved. This paper presents two case studies of mining in South Africa to reflect on the history and legacy of mining both through observation and through the voices of affected communities. Interviews and observations on field visits to the platinum and gold mining areas of South Africa in the immediate aftermath of the Marikana massacre highlight this legacy-including vast quantities of tailings dumps and waste rock, lakes of polluted water and a devastated physical and social environment, high unemployment, high rates of occupational injury and disease including silicosis with co-morbidities, absent social security, and disrupted rural and agricultural communities. Exploitative conditions of work and the externalization of the health and environmental costs of mining will require international solidarity, robust independent trade unions, and a commitment to human...
Atmospheric Environment, 2008
In an urban environment where reactive pollutants are emitted, it is critically important that at... more In an urban environment where reactive pollutants are emitted, it is critically important that atmospheric chemistry be considered in modeling and air quality management including the evaluation of secondary pollutants such as ozone. This may be achieved through photochemical ...
The Department of Environment Affairs (DEA) recently (December 2012) published, for public commen... more The Department of Environment Affairs (DEA) recently (December 2012) published, for public comment, guidelines for regulatory air quality modelling, including guidance on modelling input requirements, and protocols and procedures to be followed to ensure comparability of results. Due to the relative scarcity of site- representative meteorology, the proposed Regulations propose mainly qualitative criteria for the acceptable use of alternative meteorology, that is meteorology representative of the site but not local to it. Modellers are also not required to validate their modelling but are required to use ambient air quality measurements to evaluate modelling results but only if these measurements are available. We explore the comparability in modelled concentrations when using different sets of surface and upper air data, using a case study of SO2 emissions from a large stationary source (an oil refinery), and compare AERMOD modelled concentrations against monitored values. Cape Town...
The objective of the Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is to combine a meteorologic... more The objective of the Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is to combine a meteorological forecast model and a photochemical dispersion model to predict the ambient concentration of selected pollutants. The Penn State/UCAR MM5 mesoscale model, nested to 1.7 km, is used to predict gridded 12 hour, 24 hour and 36 hour meteorological fields. A comprehensive emission data base comprises emissions from industry, petrol and diesel powered motor vehicles and domestic wood and paraffin burning. It includes information on their physical and chemical characteristics, together with their spatial attributes and temporal variations. Emissions data and forecast meteorological data are input to the Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (CAMx) to estimate air pollutant concentrations over the metropolitan area for the following day. The forecast information is conveyed to the users by means of an Air Pollution Index (API), based on health risk of exposure to individual pollutant...
Climate change and air pollution pose significant short-term and long-term health risks to South ... more Climate change and air pollution pose significant short-term and long-term health risks to South Africans due to the carbon intensity of the national economy, the severe air pollution around coal mining and coal-fired power stations in many widespread populated areas and the particular vulnerability of many subgroups in a country burdened by extreme inequality and a severe quadruple epidemic of acute and chronic disease.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Introduction: Residents of Macassar, South Africa, were exposed to sulphur dioxide vapours (SO2) ... more Introduction: Residents of Macassar, South Africa, were exposed to sulphur dioxide vapours (SO2) caused by an ignited sulphur stockpile, which produced peak hourly SO2 levels of 20–200 ppm. The aim of this study was to assess the risk factors associated with persistent lower respiratory symptoms (LRS) or asthma six years after acute exposure to high SO2 levels. Methods: A case-control study of residents that presented for a health evaluation six years after the incident was conducted. Survey instruments included a questionnaire, clinical examination and medical record review by an expert panel. A “case” was defined as a resident with persistent LRS/asthma. The Industrial Source Complex Short Term Model (ISCST 3) was used to predict time-averaged hourly SO2 levels. Results: A previous history of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) was associated with persistent LRS/asthma (ORudj: 3.49, CI: 1.46–8.35). Cases were more likely to report chest tightness (ORudj: 9.93; CI: 5.15–19.11) at the time...
Science of The Total Environment, 2014
Concerns about pesticide drift from neighbouring vineyards affecting children attending school on... more Concerns about pesticide drift from neighbouring vineyards affecting children attending school on a farm adjacent to an urban suburb of Cape Town, Western Cape in South Africa were investigated. The study involved a before-after design, measuring levels of environmental exposure before and during pesticide application activities on the neighbouring farms. Samples were collected in air, dust and grass cuttings at the preschool and primary school located on the farms during September-December in 2010 and tested for pesticides using multi-pesticide methods. Eleven different pesticides were detected in the various samples. Six of these chemicals (endosulfan, dimethomorph, penconazole, cyprodinil, boscalid and bromopropylate) were on the spraying schedules of the two farms neighbouring the schools and the timing and location of detection were generally consistent with farm application. Three pesticides detected (chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, permethrin) are agents commonly used in household applications and one (pyriproxifen) is used in pet treatment agents. Kresoxim-methyl, the other pesticide detected, is likely to come from drift from other farms in the area. The concentration of pesticides was all lower than 0.1 μg/m(3) in air and 0.1 μg/kg in dust and grass apart from permethrin and cypermethrin. The findings confirm the presence of drift onto the school premises and concentrations found in this study were generally low in comparison to that detected in other studies. Regular monitoring to track the effectiveness of containment and mitigation measures that reduce drift is recommended.
The Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is a modular computer based system that provi... more The Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is a modular computer based system that provides air quality forecasts in an urban environment. DAPPS was established by a South African consortium and has been set up as a pilot study in the City of Cape Town. The key components of DAPPS are a comprehensive spatially and temporally resolved emissions module, a prognostic meteorological module and a photochemical dispersion module. Collectively, this suite provides a predictive and powerful atmospheric chemistry capability that is not readily available in most air quality modelling and information systems. In preliminary validation, modelled concentrations of SO2, NOx and O3 are compared with measured concentrations in the Cape Town monitoring network. Predicted and monitored NOx compare well and the temporal profile is determined largely by motor vehicle activity. The comparison for SO2 confirms that weaknesses exist in the temporal profile assigned to small point sources. Ozone c...
Reviews on environmental health
The first South African National Burden of Disease study quantified the underlying causes of prem... more The first South African National Burden of Disease study quantified the underlying causes of premature mortality and morbidity experienced in South Africa in the year 2000. This was followed by a Comparative Risk Assessment to estimate the contributions of 17 selected risk factors to burden of disease in South Africa. This paper describes the health impact of exposure to four selected environmental risk factors: unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene; indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels; urban outdoor air pollution and lead exposure. The study followed World Health Organization comparative risk assessment methodology. Population-attributable fractions were calculated and applied to revised burden of disease estimates (deaths and disability adjusted life years, [DALYs]) from the South African Burden of Disease study to obtain the attributable burden for each selected risk factor. The burden attributable to the joint effect of the four environmental risk factors was a...
South African Medical Journal, Sep 30, 2022
This open-access article is distributed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC 4.0.
South African Medical Journal
This open-access article is distributed under Creative Commons licence CC-BY-NC 4.0.
Water SA, 2005
The public health significance of pesticide pollution of water sources in South Africa has receiv... more The public health significance of pesticide pollution of water sources in South Africa has received little attention from policy-makers and regulators, unlike microbiological quality of potable water. This anomaly is reflected in the current legislation in South Africa which is marked by inadequate regulatory standards for pesticides in water. Due to high costs, technical constraints and shortage of laboratory skills for pesticide analyses in South Africa, the poor regulatory framework has no monitoring data on which to base policy. In contrast, international experience in setting standards for maximum permissible levels of pesticides in water is extensive. The different approaches used by the World Health Organisation, the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union are outlined, as well as the assumptions underlying these different approaches. Drawing on these models, recommendations are made as to how to integrate concerns for pesticide safety in environmental regulation and risk assessment in South Africa. Such measures would ensure consistency with recent developments in environmental management in South Africa that give primacy to a number of key environmental policy principles. A public health perspective should ensure that growing international concerns for longterm adverse health and environmental impacts arising from the presence of pesticides in water are adequately addressed in regulatory controls in South Africa.
Epidemiology, 2005
Aims:(1) To document international and national trends in agricultural policy and in pesticide us... more Aims:(1) To document international and national trends in agricultural policy and in pesticide use and exposure.(2) To develop methodologies to characterise: potential human and environmental exposures; risk-perceptions and decision-making processes of small farmers using pesticides; and health consequences of pesticide exposure for farmers and their families.(3) To develop tools to measure the costs of pesticide usage.
The volume of chemicals manufactured and used continues to grow, with a shift in production from ... more The volume of chemicals manufactured and used continues to grow, with a shift in production from highly industrialized countries towards developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Increased international co-operation is needed to eliminate or reduce the use of toxic chemicals, to promote the development and adoption of safer alternatives, and to build capacity for regulation and management at every stage of the lifecycle of chemicals. It is also important that existing national laws and international agreements for sound chemicals management be fully implemented. Public availability of adequate information about chemicals – including their multi-faceted impacts on health and the environment – is essential to support these efforts. Yet we are lagging further behind with testing chemicals before they become available on the market, while too little is known about many of those already in commerce. To meet the internationally agreed goal to produce and use chemica...
© 2003 Dalvie et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copyin... more © 2003 Dalvie et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL. Background: In South Africa there is little data on environmental pollution of rural water sources by agrochemicals. Methods: This study investigated pesticide contamination of ground and surface water in three intensive agricultural areas in the Western Cape: the Hex River Valley, Grabouw and Piketberg. Monitoring for endosulfan and chlorpyrifos at low levels was conducted as well as screening for other pesticides. Results: The quantification limit for endosulfan was 0.1 µg/L. Endosulfan was found to be widespread in ground water, surface water and drinking water. The contamination was mostly at low levels, but regularly exceeded the European Drinking Water Standard of 0.1 µg/L. The two most contaminated sites were a sub-surface d...
New solutions : a journal of environmental and occupational health policy : NS, 2016
Mining is a source of extraordinary wealth, but its benefits often do not accrue to the workers a... more Mining is a source of extraordinary wealth, but its benefits often do not accrue to the workers and communities most involved. This paper presents two case studies of mining in South Africa to reflect on the history and legacy of mining both through observation and through the voices of affected communities. Interviews and observations on field visits to the platinum and gold mining areas of South Africa in the immediate aftermath of the Marikana massacre highlight this legacy-including vast quantities of tailings dumps and waste rock, lakes of polluted water and a devastated physical and social environment, high unemployment, high rates of occupational injury and disease including silicosis with co-morbidities, absent social security, and disrupted rural and agricultural communities. Exploitative conditions of work and the externalization of the health and environmental costs of mining will require international solidarity, robust independent trade unions, and a commitment to human...
Atmospheric Environment, 2008
In an urban environment where reactive pollutants are emitted, it is critically important that at... more In an urban environment where reactive pollutants are emitted, it is critically important that atmospheric chemistry be considered in modeling and air quality management including the evaluation of secondary pollutants such as ozone. This may be achieved through photochemical ...
The Department of Environment Affairs (DEA) recently (December 2012) published, for public commen... more The Department of Environment Affairs (DEA) recently (December 2012) published, for public comment, guidelines for regulatory air quality modelling, including guidance on modelling input requirements, and protocols and procedures to be followed to ensure comparability of results. Due to the relative scarcity of site- representative meteorology, the proposed Regulations propose mainly qualitative criteria for the acceptable use of alternative meteorology, that is meteorology representative of the site but not local to it. Modellers are also not required to validate their modelling but are required to use ambient air quality measurements to evaluate modelling results but only if these measurements are available. We explore the comparability in modelled concentrations when using different sets of surface and upper air data, using a case study of SO2 emissions from a large stationary source (an oil refinery), and compare AERMOD modelled concentrations against monitored values. Cape Town...
The objective of the Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is to combine a meteorologic... more The objective of the Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is to combine a meteorological forecast model and a photochemical dispersion model to predict the ambient concentration of selected pollutants. The Penn State/UCAR MM5 mesoscale model, nested to 1.7 km, is used to predict gridded 12 hour, 24 hour and 36 hour meteorological fields. A comprehensive emission data base comprises emissions from industry, petrol and diesel powered motor vehicles and domestic wood and paraffin burning. It includes information on their physical and chemical characteristics, together with their spatial attributes and temporal variations. Emissions data and forecast meteorological data are input to the Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (CAMx) to estimate air pollutant concentrations over the metropolitan area for the following day. The forecast information is conveyed to the users by means of an Air Pollution Index (API), based on health risk of exposure to individual pollutant...
Climate change and air pollution pose significant short-term and long-term health risks to South ... more Climate change and air pollution pose significant short-term and long-term health risks to South Africans due to the carbon intensity of the national economy, the severe air pollution around coal mining and coal-fired power stations in many widespread populated areas and the particular vulnerability of many subgroups in a country burdened by extreme inequality and a severe quadruple epidemic of acute and chronic disease.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Introduction: Residents of Macassar, South Africa, were exposed to sulphur dioxide vapours (SO2) ... more Introduction: Residents of Macassar, South Africa, were exposed to sulphur dioxide vapours (SO2) caused by an ignited sulphur stockpile, which produced peak hourly SO2 levels of 20–200 ppm. The aim of this study was to assess the risk factors associated with persistent lower respiratory symptoms (LRS) or asthma six years after acute exposure to high SO2 levels. Methods: A case-control study of residents that presented for a health evaluation six years after the incident was conducted. Survey instruments included a questionnaire, clinical examination and medical record review by an expert panel. A “case” was defined as a resident with persistent LRS/asthma. The Industrial Source Complex Short Term Model (ISCST 3) was used to predict time-averaged hourly SO2 levels. Results: A previous history of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) was associated with persistent LRS/asthma (ORudj: 3.49, CI: 1.46–8.35). Cases were more likely to report chest tightness (ORudj: 9.93; CI: 5.15–19.11) at the time...
Science of The Total Environment, 2014
Concerns about pesticide drift from neighbouring vineyards affecting children attending school on... more Concerns about pesticide drift from neighbouring vineyards affecting children attending school on a farm adjacent to an urban suburb of Cape Town, Western Cape in South Africa were investigated. The study involved a before-after design, measuring levels of environmental exposure before and during pesticide application activities on the neighbouring farms. Samples were collected in air, dust and grass cuttings at the preschool and primary school located on the farms during September-December in 2010 and tested for pesticides using multi-pesticide methods. Eleven different pesticides were detected in the various samples. Six of these chemicals (endosulfan, dimethomorph, penconazole, cyprodinil, boscalid and bromopropylate) were on the spraying schedules of the two farms neighbouring the schools and the timing and location of detection were generally consistent with farm application. Three pesticides detected (chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, permethrin) are agents commonly used in household applications and one (pyriproxifen) is used in pet treatment agents. Kresoxim-methyl, the other pesticide detected, is likely to come from drift from other farms in the area. The concentration of pesticides was all lower than 0.1 μg/m(3) in air and 0.1 μg/kg in dust and grass apart from permethrin and cypermethrin. The findings confirm the presence of drift onto the school premises and concentrations found in this study were generally low in comparison to that detected in other studies. Regular monitoring to track the effectiveness of containment and mitigation measures that reduce drift is recommended.
The Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is a modular computer based system that provi... more The Dynamic Air Pollution Prediction System (DAPPS) is a modular computer based system that provides air quality forecasts in an urban environment. DAPPS was established by a South African consortium and has been set up as a pilot study in the City of Cape Town. The key components of DAPPS are a comprehensive spatially and temporally resolved emissions module, a prognostic meteorological module and a photochemical dispersion module. Collectively, this suite provides a predictive and powerful atmospheric chemistry capability that is not readily available in most air quality modelling and information systems. In preliminary validation, modelled concentrations of SO2, NOx and O3 are compared with measured concentrations in the Cape Town monitoring network. Predicted and monitored NOx compare well and the temporal profile is determined largely by motor vehicle activity. The comparison for SO2 confirms that weaknesses exist in the temporal profile assigned to small point sources. Ozone c...
Reviews on environmental health
The first South African National Burden of Disease study quantified the underlying causes of prem... more The first South African National Burden of Disease study quantified the underlying causes of premature mortality and morbidity experienced in South Africa in the year 2000. This was followed by a Comparative Risk Assessment to estimate the contributions of 17 selected risk factors to burden of disease in South Africa. This paper describes the health impact of exposure to four selected environmental risk factors: unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene; indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels; urban outdoor air pollution and lead exposure. The study followed World Health Organization comparative risk assessment methodology. Population-attributable fractions were calculated and applied to revised burden of disease estimates (deaths and disability adjusted life years, [DALYs]) from the South African Burden of Disease study to obtain the attributable burden for each selected risk factor. The burden attributable to the joint effect of the four environmental risk factors was a...