Dennis Braekmans | Cranfield University (original) (raw)

Papers by Dennis Braekmans

Archaeometry, 2019

A total of 119 middle to late second millennium bce pottery samples from six sites in the Kur Riv... more A total of 119 middle to late second millennium bce pottery samples from six sites in the Kur River Basin (Fars, Iran) were examined to characterize these ceramics and reconstruct their manufacturing technology and the origin of the primary materials. For this, a combined study of handheld XRF and thin‐section petrography was performed. The geochemical signatures of these ceramics were defined and interpreted in their archaeological and geological framework, resulting in the determination of different production processes and clay types used for four ceramic wares (Middle Elamite, Qaleh, Shogha and Taimuran) and the identification of possible outcrops used for Shogha–Taimuran production.

Archaeometry, 2016

Analytical ceramic studies offer the opportunity to determine cultural development and change on ... more Analytical ceramic studies offer the opportunity to determine cultural development and change on the basis of origin and use of raw materials. In this particular study, an archaeometric approach on ceramics in central Pisidia contributes to the discussion of contact and exchange between indigenous communities and several cultural spheres of influence on a long-term timescale (eighth to second centuries BCE). Morphological data as well as mineralogical (optical microscopy; n = 273) and chemical composition (by ICP-OES/MS; n = 122) of ceramics and raw materials show distinct resource zones for the production and distribution of ceramics in this connecting region of Anatolia. The use of trace element profiles (REE, HFSE, LILE and TTE) in particular is regarded as instrumental in detailing high-resolution provenancing of ceramics. The ceramic provenance indicates different patterns of material interactions during the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods. A significant increase in regional interaction occurs coinciding with the development of pottery activities at Sagalassos.

Aegyptiaca-like Domitian's obelisk is now decorating Bernini's fountain on Piazza Navona or the E... more Aegyptiaca-like Domitian's obelisk is now decorating Bernini's fountain on Piazza Navona or the Egyptian lions flanking Michelangelo's stairs towards the Capitol figure prominently amidst Rome's cultural heritage. Motivations for the import, contextualization, and copying of these objects during the Imperial Roman period are as heavily debated as they are ill understood. Provenance determination plays an important role in these discussions in terms of a (supposed) dichotomy between Egyptian (real) versus egyptianising (copy) but has only been applied stylistically and never been tested analytically. A scientific characterization of the materials themselves is even lacking altogether, as is an investigation into the cultural and symbolic meaning of the materials used. This paper is a first attempt to address these important lacunae on the basis of an explorative study of a selected sample of Egyptian statues from Rome. The identification and provenance attribution of the materials used for these statues are often problematic due to their relatively finegrained nature and dark color. Therefore, a full nondestructive analysis of Egyptian statues in dark-colored rocks is presented in this study, with the stones evaluated by macroscopic examination and handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. The implemented methodology has allowed a distinction between greywacke and several varieties of granitoid rocks. In order to evaluate the potential for source attribution, a comparison was made between the results of our analyses and geochemical data for several granitoid rocks from Egypt. This has suggested Aswan as most likely source. The results presented here indicate that handheld XRF analysis can be used for the assessment of compositional variability in and potentially for the provenance of granitoid rocks, provided that a fine-grained area of the material can be measured on multiple locations, and if these values can be assessed on (in)consistencies with other published reference materials.

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2011

Within the aim of contributing to the artisanal craft history at Sagalassos (SW-Turkey), an archa... more Within the aim of contributing to the artisanal craft history at Sagalassos (SW-Turkey), an archaeometric programme including thin section analysis, ICP-MS and multivariate statistics was developed to define the variability on a provenance and/or technological scale of the Classical/Hellenistic ceramic assemblage of Sagalassos and Düzen Tepe. The obtained data were used to evaluate the extent and variation of local pottery production. Petrographic and geochemical analysis as a grouping technique proves to be conditional for documenting the variation in ceramic wares present on both archaeological sites. Elemental evidence supports local production activities between Classical and Hellenistic times, documenting a deliberate change in treatment of raw materials during the Late Hellenistic period in function of ware groups.

International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 2020

This paper presents the first archaeometrical data on colonial glazed wares (taches noires) impor... more This paper presents the first archaeometrical data on colonial glazed wares (taches noires) imported in Haiti (Fort Liberté). The analysis evidenced the exclusive presence of Italian taches noires products, dated before 1820 and related to the colonial era. The presence of English wares next to colonial materials demonstrated continuity in the use of landscape after the Independence and the establishment of international trade relationships between the state of Haiti and the British Empire. Results are an important step forward in the understanding of production and movement of the Taches noires ware, which were exported globally between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Microchemical Journal, 2020

This research characterizes and reconstructs clay procurement and production practices through th... more This research characterizes and reconstructs clay procurement and production practices through the integration of in-situ portable XRF and petrographic analysis on ancient ceramics and clay materials recovered from the Mayales river subbasin (central Nicaragua). A particular choice for this study was the largest and arguably most significant archaeological site in the area, Aguas Buenas (cal 400-1250 CE), a pre-Hispanic indigenous agglomeration consisting of 371 human-made mounds of various shapes arranged in geometric patterns. Microanalytical approaches were applied to reconstruct the use of raw mineral resources in the production of ubiquitous pottery materials found at this site and in its immediate surroundings. The resulting compositional analysis produced geochemical and mineralogical data allowing for the characterisation of distinct, geologically-based compositional groups throughout the valley, improving on the limited geological data resolution previously available. The integrated microscopic and compositional analysis (through p-XRF) of archaeological pottery materials and raw clay samples, generates a number of hypotheses and insights about the nature of the Aguas Buenas site, and its role as a shared space amongst groups living in the Mayales river Subbasin. Additionally, this study provides a solid research framework of investigation that can be employed for more detailed and extensive future studies on pre-Hispanic human occupation in this research area or elsewhere.

Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia, 2020

Since 2007, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (PACEN), directed by Alexander Geurds, ... more Since 2007, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (PACEN), directed by Alexander Geurds, has conducted archaeological research in the Río Mayales subbasin, located on the eastern side of Lake Cocibolca in the Chontales province of central Nicaragua. Through the study of procurement strategies of raw materials in the context of archaeological ceramic and lithic industries, the project focuses on understanding pre-Hispanic and contemporary human-environmental relationships in a valley drained by the Río Mayales. This paper provides the results of the first systematic clay-rich soils survey combined with an ethnographic approach to present-day uses of geological resources. Chemical analysis by means of portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF) was applied to characterise geologically-based compositional groups throughout the valley. This resulted in an improvement of the limited geological data resolution previously available and the creation of a reference database of p-XRF values for future research in the area that can potentially link ceramic paste composition with clay outcrops. In addition, the ethnographic study generated valuable data regarding contemporary taxonomic soil knowledge in the area, which is transmitted from generation to generation in the context of declining clay-based production strategies, such as pottery manufacture.

Ceramica 4.0: Nuove Esperienze e tecnologie per la comunicazione, catalogazione e musealizzazione della ceramica, 2019

This research presents non-destructive analyses of Chinese enamelled copper and porcelain decorat... more This research presents non-destructive analyses of Chinese enamelled copper and porcelain decorated with polychrome enamels. This study utilises two key, high-value art works with complex enamelling in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, UK) to elucidate the composition and technology of objects with ruby-backed decoration. These plates date from early Qing dynasty and are associated with the Yongzheng (1723-1735) and early Qianlong (1735-1796) periods. The goal of this research is to investigate the hypothesis that ruby-backed plates in these two mediums are decorated with the same enamels and possibly manufactured in mutual enamelling workshops, which is a current topic of debate among scholars. Ten different enamel colours and the gilding on each plate were analysed and evaluated with micro-X-ray fluorescence to study the opacifiers and pigments. The results show that the enamels on these two works utilise the same opacifier and the consistent pigments in the white, ruby, pink, green, yellow, turquoise green, and blue enamels. Compositional differences were identified in the underdrawings, purple enamels, and gilding. The results demonstrate that Chinese painted enamels and overglazes on porcelain share mutual technology in most, but not all, of the polychrome decoration, which impacts upon our knowledge of technological organisation in the manufacture of these objects. Micro-X-ray fluorescence has been shown to be an effective and robust technique for the nondestructive study of decorative surfaces in these two material types.

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019

The introduction of the Corded Ware Culture (3000–2500 BCE) is considered a formative event in Eu... more The introduction of the Corded Ware Culture (3000–2500 BCE) is considered a formative event in Europe's past. Ancient DNA analyses demonstrate that migrations played a crucial role in this event. However, these analyses approach the issue at a supra-regional scale, leaving questions about the regional and local impact of this event unresolved. This study pilots an approach to ceramics that brings this small-scale impact into focus by using the transmission of ceramic technology as a proxy for social change. It draws on ethno-archaeological studies of the effects of social changes on the transmission of ceramic production techniques to hypothesise the impact of three idealised scenarios that archaeologists have proposed for the introduction of Corded Ware Culture: migration, diffusion, and network interactions. Subsequently, it verifies these hypotheses by integrating geochemical (WDXRF), mineralogical (petrography), and macromorphological analysis of ceramics with network analysis. This method is applied to 30 Late Neolithic ceramic vessels from three sites in the western coastal area of the Netherlands (Hazerswoude-Rijndijk N11, Zandwerven, and Voorschoten-De Donk). This study concludes that the introduction of Corded Ware material culture is a process that varies from site to site in the western coastal area of the Netherlands. Moreover, the introduction of the Corded Ware Culture is characterised by continuity in technological traditions throughout the study area, indicating a degree of social continuity despite typological changes in ceramics.

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019

In 2016, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University... more In 2016, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University) excavated the Barillas site (cal 1255-1391 CE), where a ceramic assemblage including griddles, or comales, was recovered. In this paper, we will discuss the previously understudied occurrence of this vessel shape in ancient central Nicaragua, which has been traditionally considered as a proxy to argue in favor of Mesoamerican migrations. Through a stratigraphic and technological approach to ceramic analysis, this research aims to reconstruct the socially learned practices involved in pottery manufacture. Therefore, macro-fabric analysis and thin section petrography are employed for characterizing clay procurement and preparation practices, as well as firing techniques. Additionally, a macro-trace examination of the sherds revealed fashioning, finishing, surface treatment, and decoration techniques, which were integrated with a morphometric study. The combination of different analytical approaches identifies the production of griddles as local. As a result, the dichotomy between indigenous and exogenous blurs, and innovations in vessel shape might have entangled the interweaving of shared foodways through networked practices, but do not imply arrival or displacement of local populations at Barillas.

Bulletin des Musées royaux d’Art et d’Histoire 87/88 (2016-2017), Bruxelles, p. 5-29, 2018

The Egyptian collection of the RMAH comprises about one hundred figurines made of unbaked clay, b... more The Egyptian collection of the RMAH comprises about one hundred figurines made of unbaked clay, bearing curses written in hieratic script. They represent captured enemies and were buried ritually in order to symbolically neutralise foreign and domestic enemies and general threats. The red and black pigments used to inscribe these four millennia old objects are now, nearly 90 years after their discovery, faded or damaged. With these Egyptian execration figurines as a case-study, an on-going research project aims to develop new imaging techniques (using interactive 2D, 3D and multispectral images) that can improve the legibility of faded inscriptions and decorations. One of the objectives is indeed to identify and evaluate the factors that may affect the reflection of infrared and ultraviolet light. For the development of these techniques, the project sets out from a comprehensive analysis of the state of preservation of the objects. This article therefore presents the preliminary results of a study of the preservation of the surfaces, the composition of the materials, the possible interventions that the artefacts may have undergone and other factors affecting the legibility of the texts. This report will furthermore elaborate on the conservation reports of the objects and their classification in conservation categories, and provides preliminary observations on the clay and the pigments based on the results of X-Ray Fluorescence analyses.

Michrochemical Journal 145 (March 2019), p. 1207-1217, 2019

A collection of Prime Cultural Heritage artefacts consisting of Egyptian late Middle Kingdom figu... more A collection of Prime Cultural Heritage artefacts consisting of Egyptian late Middle Kingdom figurines (c. 1850-1700 BCE), made of unfired clay and covered in inscriptions, is kept at the Royal Museums of Art and History (RMAH) in Brussels, Belgium. Several of these hieratic inscriptions curse enemies of the Egyptian state, including Canaanite, Nubian and Libyan entities; thus providing invaluable information for Middle Bronze topography in ancient Near Eastern studies. What makes the extensive Brussels group even more exceptional, is the fact that these figurines were discovered in a closed archaeological context in Saqqara, Lower Egypt. Defining and classifying clay and ancient ceramic provenance groups in Egypt is highly complex due to variability in Nile and marl clay deposits. Chemical characterization of this figurine assemblage (n=91) allows to effectively study the potential direct use of clays in the vicinity of Saqqara and characterize the nature of the raw materials used. Additionally, it aims to assess the validity of portable XRF spectrometry for this type of materials and its provenance resolution. Analyses show that very similar clays were used to produce the different morphological types of figurines in the assemblage. The chemical profile indicates the use of a mixed source at Saqqara rather than pure marl or Nile clays, which are common for ancient pottery production.

Figuring out: coroplastic art and technè in Agrigento, Sicily: the results of a coroplastic experiment, 2017

Figurines – or terracotta made figurative objects – are a frequently encountered material categor... more Figurines – or terracotta made figurative objects – are a frequently encountered material category in Antiquity. Their importance can be directly linked to an expression of socio-cultural phenomena. To understand the practices and techniques applied in the production of terracotta figurines from Akragas (Agrigento, Sicily), an archaeological experiment was carried out with the aim to reconstruct the full chaîne opératoire. This so-called coroplastic experiment focused on the large variety of female figurines from Akragas dated from the 6th-5th century BC. These form the majority of mould-made objects, which were placed as votives in high numbers at sanctuaries and were also applied as a grave gift. The demand for figurines to be dedicated and the flourishing business of terracotta production in Akragas can be explained by the presence of several nearby high-quality mineral resources, in combination with the craftsmanship of the local workshops. This availability sets the conditions for a strong tradition, resulting in a variety of moulded figurines. In this study, several clays and techniques are selected to re-create the production process with the aim of elucidating the technological capacity and choices made by potters and artisans. The outcome of tests with local clays showed that the materials nearby found fit the workability requirements, but also that by mixing several clays the colour of the figurines could be manipulated. Several generations of a figurine’s genealogy re-created in the experiment show how details fade and explain the common solution to replace the head. The use of different tools, such as round sticks as well as metal blades could be distinguished by an interpretative approach to the traces on reworked figurines. The development of characteristics in both design and technique shows a local style, while moulds and figurines were exchanged with other Sicilian towns, such as Selinous (Selinunte, Sicily). However, the appearance, as well as specific production techniques, shows an influence of a different craft tradition, one which points to an eastern Greek origin. In order to distinguish the technological choices and their effect on stylistic developments, a technical approach was chosen to research the production technique and the use of materials by the workshops in Akragas.

The colors of copper alloys are of particular interest in archaeology and can be characterized qu... more The colors of copper alloys are of particular interest in archaeology and can be characterized quantitatively and systematically. The CIELAB color system can determine different color parameters such as a*, b*, and L* by means of a spectrophotometer that describes the surface color. Additional information such as C* and h values can be calculated from these parameters which allows one to build a set of color composition diagrams that connects chromaticity and alloy composition. With such data it is possible to estimate the color of prehistoric metal artifacts with similar chemical composition. A better understanding of the association between metallurgical composition and color will aid the research of prehistoric metalwork because choices in production and use of metal were likely influenced by this particular quality of metal.

Reports by Dennis Braekmans

http://www.belspo.be/belspo/brain-be/themes\_project\_nl.stm#pp2012 The Egyptian collection of the ... more http://www.belspo.be/belspo/brain-be/themes_project_nl.stm#pp2012
The Egyptian collection of the RMAH comprises about one hundred execration figurines made of unbaked clay, bearing curses written in hieratic script (a cursive writing system related to hieroglyphs) and dating to the Middle Kingdom (c. 1850 BC). These represent captured (foreign) enemies and were buried ritually in order to symbolically neutralise foreign and domestic enemies and general threats. Nearly 90 years after their discovery, the red and black pigments used to inscribe these four millennia old objects are now faded or damaged. The Execration texts on these figurines are regarded as one of the most renowned collections of written sources for ancient Near Eastern studies, Egyptian history and Biblical studies for the early 2nd millennium BCE. When it comes to documenting every characteristic of an object in a highly detailed way, clay artefacts inscribed with ink and other pigments, such as the aforementioned figurines, pose a particular challenge. These three-dimensional media with curved surfaces hold traces of writing that, in some cases, have faded or have disappeared completely. The study of these objects is generally hampered by their poor state of conservation, any handling can result in a considerable loss of material (and therefore also valuable information). The EES project aimed to develop new imaging techniques (using interactive 2D, 3D and multispectral images) that can improve the legibility of faded inscriptions and enhance the decorations on clay objects. Combining 3D digitisation and multispectral imaging in a userfriendly and transportable system, that is also manageable by curators, conservators, researchers and other stakeholders in the museum, is a truly pioneering project. It must facilitate the management of recorded collections and offer numerous possibilities for historical and art-technical studies on these objects, while the future handling is limited to a minimum, thus ensuring their sustainability.

Other by Dennis Braekmans

Usually, the life of an archaeologist is not about finding long-forgotten legendary cities, thoug... more Usually, the life of an archaeologist is not about finding long-forgotten legendary cities, though the sensation of discovery does play an important role. Few things may be more satisfying than finding something new that, as a matter of course, happens very often in archaeology. In the end, of course, it is about what we can learn about people and communities in the past from what we find. For some of us, our research does not deal with ancient theatres, for example, magnificent though these may be. The three of us are somehow strongly drawn to one (though certainly not the only!) of the most common categories of artefacts found during archaeological excavations and surveys: pottery sherds. Now, anyone who has been to an archaeological museum remembers the displays full of complete or beautifully restored vessels. In reality, we are almost always dealing with broken vessels, simply because people back then also broke things, threw these away, which was then carried off as garbage, and so on. But what makes these sherds such an appealing archaeological topic? Besides personal preferences, as archaeologists we assume that in the past things to some degree did not happen accidentally or naturally, simply because there were people involved. What we look for, find and study can help us to understand how these people lived, worked and believed in their social and natural environment. Even something seemingly insignificant as a pottery vessel was made by one or more persons, who put their ideas and efforts into that vessel. We can focus on an oil lamp-which people put in a grave after a loved one passed away, for example-all the way to the 'global' economy of the Roman world. Perhaps you might compare it to studying your own iPhone and Apple's worldwide impact. So, studying pottery helps to understand how people in the past cooked, ate, traded

Book chapters and proceedings by Dennis Braekmans

Miniaci, Gianluca; Alù, Cristina; Saler, Camilla; Forte, Vanessa (eds), Clay Figurines in Context: Crucibles of Egyptian, Nubian, and Levantine Societies in the Middle Bronze Age (2100-1550 BC) and Beyond. Middle Kingdom Studies 17, London, 2024

Archaeometry, 2019

A total of 119 middle to late second millennium bce pottery samples from six sites in the Kur Riv... more A total of 119 middle to late second millennium bce pottery samples from six sites in the Kur River Basin (Fars, Iran) were examined to characterize these ceramics and reconstruct their manufacturing technology and the origin of the primary materials. For this, a combined study of handheld XRF and thin‐section petrography was performed. The geochemical signatures of these ceramics were defined and interpreted in their archaeological and geological framework, resulting in the determination of different production processes and clay types used for four ceramic wares (Middle Elamite, Qaleh, Shogha and Taimuran) and the identification of possible outcrops used for Shogha–Taimuran production.

Archaeometry, 2016

Analytical ceramic studies offer the opportunity to determine cultural development and change on ... more Analytical ceramic studies offer the opportunity to determine cultural development and change on the basis of origin and use of raw materials. In this particular study, an archaeometric approach on ceramics in central Pisidia contributes to the discussion of contact and exchange between indigenous communities and several cultural spheres of influence on a long-term timescale (eighth to second centuries BCE). Morphological data as well as mineralogical (optical microscopy; n = 273) and chemical composition (by ICP-OES/MS; n = 122) of ceramics and raw materials show distinct resource zones for the production and distribution of ceramics in this connecting region of Anatolia. The use of trace element profiles (REE, HFSE, LILE and TTE) in particular is regarded as instrumental in detailing high-resolution provenancing of ceramics. The ceramic provenance indicates different patterns of material interactions during the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods. A significant increase in regional interaction occurs coinciding with the development of pottery activities at Sagalassos.

Aegyptiaca-like Domitian's obelisk is now decorating Bernini's fountain on Piazza Navona or the E... more Aegyptiaca-like Domitian's obelisk is now decorating Bernini's fountain on Piazza Navona or the Egyptian lions flanking Michelangelo's stairs towards the Capitol figure prominently amidst Rome's cultural heritage. Motivations for the import, contextualization, and copying of these objects during the Imperial Roman period are as heavily debated as they are ill understood. Provenance determination plays an important role in these discussions in terms of a (supposed) dichotomy between Egyptian (real) versus egyptianising (copy) but has only been applied stylistically and never been tested analytically. A scientific characterization of the materials themselves is even lacking altogether, as is an investigation into the cultural and symbolic meaning of the materials used. This paper is a first attempt to address these important lacunae on the basis of an explorative study of a selected sample of Egyptian statues from Rome. The identification and provenance attribution of the materials used for these statues are often problematic due to their relatively finegrained nature and dark color. Therefore, a full nondestructive analysis of Egyptian statues in dark-colored rocks is presented in this study, with the stones evaluated by macroscopic examination and handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. The implemented methodology has allowed a distinction between greywacke and several varieties of granitoid rocks. In order to evaluate the potential for source attribution, a comparison was made between the results of our analyses and geochemical data for several granitoid rocks from Egypt. This has suggested Aswan as most likely source. The results presented here indicate that handheld XRF analysis can be used for the assessment of compositional variability in and potentially for the provenance of granitoid rocks, provided that a fine-grained area of the material can be measured on multiple locations, and if these values can be assessed on (in)consistencies with other published reference materials.

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2011

Within the aim of contributing to the artisanal craft history at Sagalassos (SW-Turkey), an archa... more Within the aim of contributing to the artisanal craft history at Sagalassos (SW-Turkey), an archaeometric programme including thin section analysis, ICP-MS and multivariate statistics was developed to define the variability on a provenance and/or technological scale of the Classical/Hellenistic ceramic assemblage of Sagalassos and Düzen Tepe. The obtained data were used to evaluate the extent and variation of local pottery production. Petrographic and geochemical analysis as a grouping technique proves to be conditional for documenting the variation in ceramic wares present on both archaeological sites. Elemental evidence supports local production activities between Classical and Hellenistic times, documenting a deliberate change in treatment of raw materials during the Late Hellenistic period in function of ware groups.

International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 2020

This paper presents the first archaeometrical data on colonial glazed wares (taches noires) impor... more This paper presents the first archaeometrical data on colonial glazed wares (taches noires) imported in Haiti (Fort Liberté). The analysis evidenced the exclusive presence of Italian taches noires products, dated before 1820 and related to the colonial era. The presence of English wares next to colonial materials demonstrated continuity in the use of landscape after the Independence and the establishment of international trade relationships between the state of Haiti and the British Empire. Results are an important step forward in the understanding of production and movement of the Taches noires ware, which were exported globally between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Microchemical Journal, 2020

This research characterizes and reconstructs clay procurement and production practices through th... more This research characterizes and reconstructs clay procurement and production practices through the integration of in-situ portable XRF and petrographic analysis on ancient ceramics and clay materials recovered from the Mayales river subbasin (central Nicaragua). A particular choice for this study was the largest and arguably most significant archaeological site in the area, Aguas Buenas (cal 400-1250 CE), a pre-Hispanic indigenous agglomeration consisting of 371 human-made mounds of various shapes arranged in geometric patterns. Microanalytical approaches were applied to reconstruct the use of raw mineral resources in the production of ubiquitous pottery materials found at this site and in its immediate surroundings. The resulting compositional analysis produced geochemical and mineralogical data allowing for the characterisation of distinct, geologically-based compositional groups throughout the valley, improving on the limited geological data resolution previously available. The integrated microscopic and compositional analysis (through p-XRF) of archaeological pottery materials and raw clay samples, generates a number of hypotheses and insights about the nature of the Aguas Buenas site, and its role as a shared space amongst groups living in the Mayales river Subbasin. Additionally, this study provides a solid research framework of investigation that can be employed for more detailed and extensive future studies on pre-Hispanic human occupation in this research area or elsewhere.

Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia, 2020

Since 2007, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (PACEN), directed by Alexander Geurds, ... more Since 2007, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (PACEN), directed by Alexander Geurds, has conducted archaeological research in the Río Mayales subbasin, located on the eastern side of Lake Cocibolca in the Chontales province of central Nicaragua. Through the study of procurement strategies of raw materials in the context of archaeological ceramic and lithic industries, the project focuses on understanding pre-Hispanic and contemporary human-environmental relationships in a valley drained by the Río Mayales. This paper provides the results of the first systematic clay-rich soils survey combined with an ethnographic approach to present-day uses of geological resources. Chemical analysis by means of portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF) was applied to characterise geologically-based compositional groups throughout the valley. This resulted in an improvement of the limited geological data resolution previously available and the creation of a reference database of p-XRF values for future research in the area that can potentially link ceramic paste composition with clay outcrops. In addition, the ethnographic study generated valuable data regarding contemporary taxonomic soil knowledge in the area, which is transmitted from generation to generation in the context of declining clay-based production strategies, such as pottery manufacture.

Ceramica 4.0: Nuove Esperienze e tecnologie per la comunicazione, catalogazione e musealizzazione della ceramica, 2019

This research presents non-destructive analyses of Chinese enamelled copper and porcelain decorat... more This research presents non-destructive analyses of Chinese enamelled copper and porcelain decorated with polychrome enamels. This study utilises two key, high-value art works with complex enamelling in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, UK) to elucidate the composition and technology of objects with ruby-backed decoration. These plates date from early Qing dynasty and are associated with the Yongzheng (1723-1735) and early Qianlong (1735-1796) periods. The goal of this research is to investigate the hypothesis that ruby-backed plates in these two mediums are decorated with the same enamels and possibly manufactured in mutual enamelling workshops, which is a current topic of debate among scholars. Ten different enamel colours and the gilding on each plate were analysed and evaluated with micro-X-ray fluorescence to study the opacifiers and pigments. The results show that the enamels on these two works utilise the same opacifier and the consistent pigments in the white, ruby, pink, green, yellow, turquoise green, and blue enamels. Compositional differences were identified in the underdrawings, purple enamels, and gilding. The results demonstrate that Chinese painted enamels and overglazes on porcelain share mutual technology in most, but not all, of the polychrome decoration, which impacts upon our knowledge of technological organisation in the manufacture of these objects. Micro-X-ray fluorescence has been shown to be an effective and robust technique for the nondestructive study of decorative surfaces in these two material types.

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019

The introduction of the Corded Ware Culture (3000–2500 BCE) is considered a formative event in Eu... more The introduction of the Corded Ware Culture (3000–2500 BCE) is considered a formative event in Europe's past. Ancient DNA analyses demonstrate that migrations played a crucial role in this event. However, these analyses approach the issue at a supra-regional scale, leaving questions about the regional and local impact of this event unresolved. This study pilots an approach to ceramics that brings this small-scale impact into focus by using the transmission of ceramic technology as a proxy for social change. It draws on ethno-archaeological studies of the effects of social changes on the transmission of ceramic production techniques to hypothesise the impact of three idealised scenarios that archaeologists have proposed for the introduction of Corded Ware Culture: migration, diffusion, and network interactions. Subsequently, it verifies these hypotheses by integrating geochemical (WDXRF), mineralogical (petrography), and macromorphological analysis of ceramics with network analysis. This method is applied to 30 Late Neolithic ceramic vessels from three sites in the western coastal area of the Netherlands (Hazerswoude-Rijndijk N11, Zandwerven, and Voorschoten-De Donk). This study concludes that the introduction of Corded Ware material culture is a process that varies from site to site in the western coastal area of the Netherlands. Moreover, the introduction of the Corded Ware Culture is characterised by continuity in technological traditions throughout the study area, indicating a degree of social continuity despite typological changes in ceramics.

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019

In 2016, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University... more In 2016, the Proyecto Arqueológico Centro de Nicaragua (Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University) excavated the Barillas site (cal 1255-1391 CE), where a ceramic assemblage including griddles, or comales, was recovered. In this paper, we will discuss the previously understudied occurrence of this vessel shape in ancient central Nicaragua, which has been traditionally considered as a proxy to argue in favor of Mesoamerican migrations. Through a stratigraphic and technological approach to ceramic analysis, this research aims to reconstruct the socially learned practices involved in pottery manufacture. Therefore, macro-fabric analysis and thin section petrography are employed for characterizing clay procurement and preparation practices, as well as firing techniques. Additionally, a macro-trace examination of the sherds revealed fashioning, finishing, surface treatment, and decoration techniques, which were integrated with a morphometric study. The combination of different analytical approaches identifies the production of griddles as local. As a result, the dichotomy between indigenous and exogenous blurs, and innovations in vessel shape might have entangled the interweaving of shared foodways through networked practices, but do not imply arrival or displacement of local populations at Barillas.

Bulletin des Musées royaux d’Art et d’Histoire 87/88 (2016-2017), Bruxelles, p. 5-29, 2018

The Egyptian collection of the RMAH comprises about one hundred figurines made of unbaked clay, b... more The Egyptian collection of the RMAH comprises about one hundred figurines made of unbaked clay, bearing curses written in hieratic script. They represent captured enemies and were buried ritually in order to symbolically neutralise foreign and domestic enemies and general threats. The red and black pigments used to inscribe these four millennia old objects are now, nearly 90 years after their discovery, faded or damaged. With these Egyptian execration figurines as a case-study, an on-going research project aims to develop new imaging techniques (using interactive 2D, 3D and multispectral images) that can improve the legibility of faded inscriptions and decorations. One of the objectives is indeed to identify and evaluate the factors that may affect the reflection of infrared and ultraviolet light. For the development of these techniques, the project sets out from a comprehensive analysis of the state of preservation of the objects. This article therefore presents the preliminary results of a study of the preservation of the surfaces, the composition of the materials, the possible interventions that the artefacts may have undergone and other factors affecting the legibility of the texts. This report will furthermore elaborate on the conservation reports of the objects and their classification in conservation categories, and provides preliminary observations on the clay and the pigments based on the results of X-Ray Fluorescence analyses.

Michrochemical Journal 145 (March 2019), p. 1207-1217, 2019

A collection of Prime Cultural Heritage artefacts consisting of Egyptian late Middle Kingdom figu... more A collection of Prime Cultural Heritage artefacts consisting of Egyptian late Middle Kingdom figurines (c. 1850-1700 BCE), made of unfired clay and covered in inscriptions, is kept at the Royal Museums of Art and History (RMAH) in Brussels, Belgium. Several of these hieratic inscriptions curse enemies of the Egyptian state, including Canaanite, Nubian and Libyan entities; thus providing invaluable information for Middle Bronze topography in ancient Near Eastern studies. What makes the extensive Brussels group even more exceptional, is the fact that these figurines were discovered in a closed archaeological context in Saqqara, Lower Egypt. Defining and classifying clay and ancient ceramic provenance groups in Egypt is highly complex due to variability in Nile and marl clay deposits. Chemical characterization of this figurine assemblage (n=91) allows to effectively study the potential direct use of clays in the vicinity of Saqqara and characterize the nature of the raw materials used. Additionally, it aims to assess the validity of portable XRF spectrometry for this type of materials and its provenance resolution. Analyses show that very similar clays were used to produce the different morphological types of figurines in the assemblage. The chemical profile indicates the use of a mixed source at Saqqara rather than pure marl or Nile clays, which are common for ancient pottery production.

Figuring out: coroplastic art and technè in Agrigento, Sicily: the results of a coroplastic experiment, 2017

Figurines – or terracotta made figurative objects – are a frequently encountered material categor... more Figurines – or terracotta made figurative objects – are a frequently encountered material category in Antiquity. Their importance can be directly linked to an expression of socio-cultural phenomena. To understand the practices and techniques applied in the production of terracotta figurines from Akragas (Agrigento, Sicily), an archaeological experiment was carried out with the aim to reconstruct the full chaîne opératoire. This so-called coroplastic experiment focused on the large variety of female figurines from Akragas dated from the 6th-5th century BC. These form the majority of mould-made objects, which were placed as votives in high numbers at sanctuaries and were also applied as a grave gift. The demand for figurines to be dedicated and the flourishing business of terracotta production in Akragas can be explained by the presence of several nearby high-quality mineral resources, in combination with the craftsmanship of the local workshops. This availability sets the conditions for a strong tradition, resulting in a variety of moulded figurines. In this study, several clays and techniques are selected to re-create the production process with the aim of elucidating the technological capacity and choices made by potters and artisans. The outcome of tests with local clays showed that the materials nearby found fit the workability requirements, but also that by mixing several clays the colour of the figurines could be manipulated. Several generations of a figurine’s genealogy re-created in the experiment show how details fade and explain the common solution to replace the head. The use of different tools, such as round sticks as well as metal blades could be distinguished by an interpretative approach to the traces on reworked figurines. The development of characteristics in both design and technique shows a local style, while moulds and figurines were exchanged with other Sicilian towns, such as Selinous (Selinunte, Sicily). However, the appearance, as well as specific production techniques, shows an influence of a different craft tradition, one which points to an eastern Greek origin. In order to distinguish the technological choices and their effect on stylistic developments, a technical approach was chosen to research the production technique and the use of materials by the workshops in Akragas.

The colors of copper alloys are of particular interest in archaeology and can be characterized qu... more The colors of copper alloys are of particular interest in archaeology and can be characterized quantitatively and systematically. The CIELAB color system can determine different color parameters such as a*, b*, and L* by means of a spectrophotometer that describes the surface color. Additional information such as C* and h values can be calculated from these parameters which allows one to build a set of color composition diagrams that connects chromaticity and alloy composition. With such data it is possible to estimate the color of prehistoric metal artifacts with similar chemical composition. A better understanding of the association between metallurgical composition and color will aid the research of prehistoric metalwork because choices in production and use of metal were likely influenced by this particular quality of metal.

http://www.belspo.be/belspo/brain-be/themes\_project\_nl.stm#pp2012 The Egyptian collection of the ... more http://www.belspo.be/belspo/brain-be/themes_project_nl.stm#pp2012
The Egyptian collection of the RMAH comprises about one hundred execration figurines made of unbaked clay, bearing curses written in hieratic script (a cursive writing system related to hieroglyphs) and dating to the Middle Kingdom (c. 1850 BC). These represent captured (foreign) enemies and were buried ritually in order to symbolically neutralise foreign and domestic enemies and general threats. Nearly 90 years after their discovery, the red and black pigments used to inscribe these four millennia old objects are now faded or damaged. The Execration texts on these figurines are regarded as one of the most renowned collections of written sources for ancient Near Eastern studies, Egyptian history and Biblical studies for the early 2nd millennium BCE. When it comes to documenting every characteristic of an object in a highly detailed way, clay artefacts inscribed with ink and other pigments, such as the aforementioned figurines, pose a particular challenge. These three-dimensional media with curved surfaces hold traces of writing that, in some cases, have faded or have disappeared completely. The study of these objects is generally hampered by their poor state of conservation, any handling can result in a considerable loss of material (and therefore also valuable information). The EES project aimed to develop new imaging techniques (using interactive 2D, 3D and multispectral images) that can improve the legibility of faded inscriptions and enhance the decorations on clay objects. Combining 3D digitisation and multispectral imaging in a userfriendly and transportable system, that is also manageable by curators, conservators, researchers and other stakeholders in the museum, is a truly pioneering project. It must facilitate the management of recorded collections and offer numerous possibilities for historical and art-technical studies on these objects, while the future handling is limited to a minimum, thus ensuring their sustainability.

Usually, the life of an archaeologist is not about finding long-forgotten legendary cities, thoug... more Usually, the life of an archaeologist is not about finding long-forgotten legendary cities, though the sensation of discovery does play an important role. Few things may be more satisfying than finding something new that, as a matter of course, happens very often in archaeology. In the end, of course, it is about what we can learn about people and communities in the past from what we find. For some of us, our research does not deal with ancient theatres, for example, magnificent though these may be. The three of us are somehow strongly drawn to one (though certainly not the only!) of the most common categories of artefacts found during archaeological excavations and surveys: pottery sherds. Now, anyone who has been to an archaeological museum remembers the displays full of complete or beautifully restored vessels. In reality, we are almost always dealing with broken vessels, simply because people back then also broke things, threw these away, which was then carried off as garbage, and so on. But what makes these sherds such an appealing archaeological topic? Besides personal preferences, as archaeologists we assume that in the past things to some degree did not happen accidentally or naturally, simply because there were people involved. What we look for, find and study can help us to understand how these people lived, worked and believed in their social and natural environment. Even something seemingly insignificant as a pottery vessel was made by one or more persons, who put their ideas and efforts into that vessel. We can focus on an oil lamp-which people put in a grave after a loved one passed away, for example-all the way to the 'global' economy of the Roman world. Perhaps you might compare it to studying your own iPhone and Apple's worldwide impact. So, studying pottery helps to understand how people in the past cooked, ate, traded