Angela Gapa | California State University, Chico (original) (raw)

Papers by Angela Gapa

The Extractive Industries and Society, 2020

The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with t... more The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with the prevailing consensus being the "resource curse," and its negative effect on social, economic and political development worldwide. The curse is significantly worse for traditional and indigenous communities where tribal land rests atop valuable subterranean resources without much leverage to negotiate for their use or ownership. Some of the poorest indigenous people live in the most resource-rich regions of the world, a condition that is true in both the developed and developing worlds alike. The Royal Bafokeng Nation of South Africa, however, provides a strong counterpoint. Deemed Africa's richest ethnic group, the nation was able to leverage its political clout to establish a community investment company which administers a lucrative financial portfolio that consists of assets in a diverse range of economic sectors all stemming from platinum resources on Bafokeng tribal land. The case of the Royal Bafokeng Nation provides a stark anomaly to the literature on indigenous access to subterranean resources and begs the question "how do communities navigate leverage with their respective state governments in order to benefit from their subterranean natural resources on their indigenous land?" To examine this question, this paper borrows insights from examples in former Anglophone colonies of settlement for structural context and argues that the Bafokeng's political culture evidenced by its political mobilization, inclinations to litigate and its shrewd politicking provided levers of success in negotiating for communal access to platinum resources.

The Palgrave Handbook of African Political Economy, 2020

There is a paradoxical relationship between Africa’s development and its natural resources. On th... more There is a paradoxical relationship between Africa’s development and its natural resources. On the one hand, natural resources have signified Africa’s place in the global capitalist order and its strategic importance in world politics. Most foreign direct investments in African economies stem from oil and mineral multinationals, and many economies are dominated by resource-reliant primary industries such as mining, agriculture and ecotourism. On the other hand, natural resources are also the continent’s main hindrance to economic development. Many conflicts in the region are fought over non-renewable natural resources, many resource-rich countries have elites who pursue “spoils politics”, rent-seeking, state capture and self-enrichment, thus strengthening authoritarianism; and most countries are likely to remain dependent on their extractive industries for decades to come. This chapter surveys the political economy of natural resources in Africa and maps out the opportunities and challenges presented by the abundance of natural resources in African states.

Journal of Global South Studies

Introduction The relationships between African states and multinational corporations have been ho... more Introduction The relationships between African states and multinational corporations have been hotly debated. Proponents of multinational activity in developing states contend that states whose policies do not actively promote foreign direct investment are often less developed than their open-market counterparts. As a result, states have become heavily reliant on multinationals to integrate their economies into the world market in order to boost economic development. However, one of the main problems created by the growing influence and power of multinational corporations is the erosion of state sovereignty. Multinational corporations are among the greatest threats to the sovereignty and autonomy of small states. Due to their capital sway and being profit-making in nature, multinationals usually lobby and manipulate governments to maintain obstructive measures so they can secure maximal benefits from distorted markets. In addition, certain companies have been embroiled in accounting scandals and allegations of egregious labor practices, (1) suggesting that multinational corporations do not always encourage development, but sometimes seek to corrupt governments and destroy domestic economies in the name of profit. Multinational corporations are money-making entities that have indubitably shaped the economic and political development of many African countries. In contemporary Africa, military and diplomatic interventions, foreign direct investment, and external aid have all reinforced the continent's dependence on outside agents to address their current developmental problems. As a result, African states suffer from a crisis of sovereignty. Botswana is no exception. At the time of independence in 1966, the country faced the daunting task of crafting an autonomous development policy. Its economy was dwarfed by Apartheid South Africa, the regional powerhouse that controlled a significant amount of trade through its hegemony within the Southern African Customs Union. The Botswana economy was still highly dependent on external aid from its former colonizer, Britain, bolstered by preferential beef export arrangements. (2) The discovery of diamonds soon after independence, however, became a great challenge to Botswana's autonomy with the introduction of the powerful diamond multinational corporation De Beers into the arena. This would profoundly transform the state and catapult it to a position as one of the fastest growing economies in the developing world for over 40 years, a feat that the country could not have achieved alone. The relationship between De Beers and the Botswana government has been lauded as a strategic, mutually beneficial partnership. (3) However, De Beers' influence in Botswana has not remained apolitical. At various pivotal moments in the country's political history, De Beers has intervened and seemingly "called the shots," begging the question, exactly what is the nature of this relationship? This paper analyzes the asymmetrical relationship between the Botswana government and De Beers and challenges the prevalent literature contending that the relationship is a strategic mutual partnership. It argues that at many crucial points in the country's history this highly intrusive multinational maintained significant control of both economic and political choices. Although Botswana possessed leverage as the world's premier producer of rough gem diamonds, it remained the more passive actor within the partnership. De Beers used its means and access to influence Botswana's political and economic development to make the country a better investment environment for cartel behavior and profit-maximization. As a result, the relationship between De Beers and Botswana was one of manipulation of government policies in favor of maintaining the economic and political status quo. Conceptual Framework The Developing State and the Multinational--An Asymmetric Relationship The relationship between small states and large multinational corporations can best be described as asymmetric. …

African Studies Quarterly, 2017

Introduction Botswana's escape from the "resource curse" is an anomaly in the Afric... more Introduction Botswana's escape from the "resource curse" is an anomaly in the African trend toward low economic growth and political instability in economies heavily skewed toward exports of nonrenewable natural resources. (1) This trend is largely explained through analyses of ethnic fault lines. One idea is that in order to maintain power, political incumbents use natural resource wealth to establish patron-client relationships with members of their ethnic groups. (2) Another is that violent conflicts arise due to grievances about the unequal distribution of resource wealth among ethnic clusters. (3) Botswana is widely cited as an anomaly to this "resource curse" and is branded an "African miracle," a designation it has held since its independence in 1966. (4) Botswana's good institutions, particularly in the private property area, its political leadership's choice of sound policies, and its elite's motivation to reinforce strong insti...

The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with t... more The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with the prevailing consensus being the "resource curse," and its negative effect on social, economic and political development worldwide. The curse is significantly worse for traditional and indigenous communities where tribal land rests atop valuable subterranean resources without much leverage to negotiate for their use or ownership. Some of the poorest indigenous people live in the most resource-rich regions of the world, a condition that is true in both the developed and developing worlds alike. The Royal Bafokeng Nation of South Africa, however, provides a strong counterpoint. Deemed Africa's richest ethnic group, the nation was able to leverage its political clout to establish a community investment company which administers a lucrative financial portfolio that consists of assets in a diverse range of economic sectors all stemming from platinum resources on Bafokeng tribal land. The case of the Royal Bafokeng Nation provides a stark anomaly to the literature on indigenous access to subterranean resources and begs the question "how do communities navigate leverage with their respective state governments in order to benefit from their subterranean natural resources on their indigenous land?" To examine this question, this paper borrows insights from examples in former Anglophone colonies of settlement for structural context and argues that the Bafokeng's political culture evidenced by its political mobilization, inclinations to litigate and its shrewd politicking provided levers of success in negotiating for communal access to platinum resources.

Botswana has garnered analytic attention in the past few decades as

Botswana's escape from the " resource curse " is an anomaly in the trend toward low economic grow... more Botswana's escape from the " resource curse " is an anomaly in the trend toward low economic growth and political instability in resource-rich developing economies. In literature on the resource curse, distributive injustices of resource wealth have traditionally been understood to occur along ethno-linguistic and sectarian lines and potentially cause weak institutions, social unrest, and, at times, violent conflict. Because of their high levels of ethnic diversity and abundant natural resource wealth, African countries are especially prone to these effects. The present article argues that part of the reason Botswana escaped the resource curse was a bid by Botswana elites to buffer the negative effects of ethnicity on resource distribution through identity management, specifically assimilation, at various points in the country's history. This was mainly achieved through the political entrepreneurship of pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial elites, and through social and colonial discourses predicated upon materialistic production and exchange, that led to the establishment of a new identity category. In doing so, Botswana elites created a new criterion for resource access based on successful assimilation that largely excluded those who failed to assimilate.

Botswana has recently garnered analytic attention as an anomaly of the "resource curse" phenomeno... more Botswana has recently garnered analytic attention as an anomaly of the "resource curse" phenomenon. Worldwide, countries whose economies are highly skewed towards a dependence on the export of non-renewable natural resources such as oil, diamonds and uranium, have been among the most troubled, authoritarian, poverty-stricken and conflict-prone; a phenomenon widely regarded as the "resource curse". The resource curse explains the varying fortunes of countries based on their resource wealth, with resource-rich countries faring much worse than their resource-poor counterparts.

The Extractive Industries and Society, 2020

The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with t... more The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with the prevailing consensus being the "resource curse," and its negative effect on social, economic and political development worldwide. The curse is significantly worse for traditional and indigenous communities where tribal land rests atop valuable subterranean resources without much leverage to negotiate for their use or ownership. Some of the poorest indigenous people live in the most resource-rich regions of the world, a condition that is true in both the developed and developing worlds alike. The Royal Bafokeng Nation of South Africa, however, provides a strong counterpoint. Deemed Africa's richest ethnic group, the nation was able to leverage its political clout to establish a community investment company which administers a lucrative financial portfolio that consists of assets in a diverse range of economic sectors all stemming from platinum resources on Bafokeng tribal land. The case of the Royal Bafokeng Nation provides a stark anomaly to the literature on indigenous access to subterranean resources and begs the question "how do communities navigate leverage with their respective state governments in order to benefit from their subterranean natural resources on their indigenous land?" To examine this question, this paper borrows insights from examples in former Anglophone colonies of settlement for structural context and argues that the Bafokeng's political culture evidenced by its political mobilization, inclinations to litigate and its shrewd politicking provided levers of success in negotiating for communal access to platinum resources.

The Palgrave Handbook of African Political Economy, 2020

There is a paradoxical relationship between Africa’s development and its natural resources. On th... more There is a paradoxical relationship between Africa’s development and its natural resources. On the one hand, natural resources have signified Africa’s place in the global capitalist order and its strategic importance in world politics. Most foreign direct investments in African economies stem from oil and mineral multinationals, and many economies are dominated by resource-reliant primary industries such as mining, agriculture and ecotourism. On the other hand, natural resources are also the continent’s main hindrance to economic development. Many conflicts in the region are fought over non-renewable natural resources, many resource-rich countries have elites who pursue “spoils politics”, rent-seeking, state capture and self-enrichment, thus strengthening authoritarianism; and most countries are likely to remain dependent on their extractive industries for decades to come. This chapter surveys the political economy of natural resources in Africa and maps out the opportunities and challenges presented by the abundance of natural resources in African states.

Journal of Global South Studies

Introduction The relationships between African states and multinational corporations have been ho... more Introduction The relationships between African states and multinational corporations have been hotly debated. Proponents of multinational activity in developing states contend that states whose policies do not actively promote foreign direct investment are often less developed than their open-market counterparts. As a result, states have become heavily reliant on multinationals to integrate their economies into the world market in order to boost economic development. However, one of the main problems created by the growing influence and power of multinational corporations is the erosion of state sovereignty. Multinational corporations are among the greatest threats to the sovereignty and autonomy of small states. Due to their capital sway and being profit-making in nature, multinationals usually lobby and manipulate governments to maintain obstructive measures so they can secure maximal benefits from distorted markets. In addition, certain companies have been embroiled in accounting scandals and allegations of egregious labor practices, (1) suggesting that multinational corporations do not always encourage development, but sometimes seek to corrupt governments and destroy domestic economies in the name of profit. Multinational corporations are money-making entities that have indubitably shaped the economic and political development of many African countries. In contemporary Africa, military and diplomatic interventions, foreign direct investment, and external aid have all reinforced the continent's dependence on outside agents to address their current developmental problems. As a result, African states suffer from a crisis of sovereignty. Botswana is no exception. At the time of independence in 1966, the country faced the daunting task of crafting an autonomous development policy. Its economy was dwarfed by Apartheid South Africa, the regional powerhouse that controlled a significant amount of trade through its hegemony within the Southern African Customs Union. The Botswana economy was still highly dependent on external aid from its former colonizer, Britain, bolstered by preferential beef export arrangements. (2) The discovery of diamonds soon after independence, however, became a great challenge to Botswana's autonomy with the introduction of the powerful diamond multinational corporation De Beers into the arena. This would profoundly transform the state and catapult it to a position as one of the fastest growing economies in the developing world for over 40 years, a feat that the country could not have achieved alone. The relationship between De Beers and the Botswana government has been lauded as a strategic, mutually beneficial partnership. (3) However, De Beers' influence in Botswana has not remained apolitical. At various pivotal moments in the country's political history, De Beers has intervened and seemingly "called the shots," begging the question, exactly what is the nature of this relationship? This paper analyzes the asymmetrical relationship between the Botswana government and De Beers and challenges the prevalent literature contending that the relationship is a strategic mutual partnership. It argues that at many crucial points in the country's history this highly intrusive multinational maintained significant control of both economic and political choices. Although Botswana possessed leverage as the world's premier producer of rough gem diamonds, it remained the more passive actor within the partnership. De Beers used its means and access to influence Botswana's political and economic development to make the country a better investment environment for cartel behavior and profit-maximization. As a result, the relationship between De Beers and Botswana was one of manipulation of government policies in favor of maintaining the economic and political status quo. Conceptual Framework The Developing State and the Multinational--An Asymmetric Relationship The relationship between small states and large multinational corporations can best be described as asymmetric. …

African Studies Quarterly, 2017

Introduction Botswana's escape from the "resource curse" is an anomaly in the Afric... more Introduction Botswana's escape from the "resource curse" is an anomaly in the African trend toward low economic growth and political instability in economies heavily skewed toward exports of nonrenewable natural resources. (1) This trend is largely explained through analyses of ethnic fault lines. One idea is that in order to maintain power, political incumbents use natural resource wealth to establish patron-client relationships with members of their ethnic groups. (2) Another is that violent conflicts arise due to grievances about the unequal distribution of resource wealth among ethnic clusters. (3) Botswana is widely cited as an anomaly to this "resource curse" and is branded an "African miracle," a designation it has held since its independence in 1966. (4) Botswana's good institutions, particularly in the private property area, its political leadership's choice of sound policies, and its elite's motivation to reinforce strong insti...

The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with t... more The strategic management of resources have recently garnered widespread analytic attention with the prevailing consensus being the "resource curse," and its negative effect on social, economic and political development worldwide. The curse is significantly worse for traditional and indigenous communities where tribal land rests atop valuable subterranean resources without much leverage to negotiate for their use or ownership. Some of the poorest indigenous people live in the most resource-rich regions of the world, a condition that is true in both the developed and developing worlds alike. The Royal Bafokeng Nation of South Africa, however, provides a strong counterpoint. Deemed Africa's richest ethnic group, the nation was able to leverage its political clout to establish a community investment company which administers a lucrative financial portfolio that consists of assets in a diverse range of economic sectors all stemming from platinum resources on Bafokeng tribal land. The case of the Royal Bafokeng Nation provides a stark anomaly to the literature on indigenous access to subterranean resources and begs the question "how do communities navigate leverage with their respective state governments in order to benefit from their subterranean natural resources on their indigenous land?" To examine this question, this paper borrows insights from examples in former Anglophone colonies of settlement for structural context and argues that the Bafokeng's political culture evidenced by its political mobilization, inclinations to litigate and its shrewd politicking provided levers of success in negotiating for communal access to platinum resources.

Botswana has garnered analytic attention in the past few decades as

Botswana's escape from the " resource curse " is an anomaly in the trend toward low economic grow... more Botswana's escape from the " resource curse " is an anomaly in the trend toward low economic growth and political instability in resource-rich developing economies. In literature on the resource curse, distributive injustices of resource wealth have traditionally been understood to occur along ethno-linguistic and sectarian lines and potentially cause weak institutions, social unrest, and, at times, violent conflict. Because of their high levels of ethnic diversity and abundant natural resource wealth, African countries are especially prone to these effects. The present article argues that part of the reason Botswana escaped the resource curse was a bid by Botswana elites to buffer the negative effects of ethnicity on resource distribution through identity management, specifically assimilation, at various points in the country's history. This was mainly achieved through the political entrepreneurship of pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial elites, and through social and colonial discourses predicated upon materialistic production and exchange, that led to the establishment of a new identity category. In doing so, Botswana elites created a new criterion for resource access based on successful assimilation that largely excluded those who failed to assimilate.

Botswana has recently garnered analytic attention as an anomaly of the "resource curse" phenomeno... more Botswana has recently garnered analytic attention as an anomaly of the "resource curse" phenomenon. Worldwide, countries whose economies are highly skewed towards a dependence on the export of non-renewable natural resources such as oil, diamonds and uranium, have been among the most troubled, authoritarian, poverty-stricken and conflict-prone; a phenomenon widely regarded as the "resource curse". The resource curse explains the varying fortunes of countries based on their resource wealth, with resource-rich countries faring much worse than their resource-poor counterparts.