Pamela Crossley | Dartmouth College (original) (raw)

Papers by Pamela Crossley

The Journal of Asian Studies, 2022

the trilogy of chapters 3, 4, and 5. Focusing on the overlooked and marginalized circuits in post... more the trilogy of chapters 3, 4, and 5. Focusing on the overlooked and marginalized circuits in postwar Taiwan, these chapters remind the reader that the “revolution in miniature” did not unfold evenly. Whether it be the example of forgotten musicals in Taiyu (Taiwanese language), or copies of LP circuits in the marginalized military bases, or folk musicians’ struggle to compete with the global popular music aesthetic, these chapters powerfully illustrate how specific technologies can be simultaneously enabling and constraining. Using transistors in the music industry as a starting point and showing its myriad formats throughout Chinese soundscapes in a global context, Circuit Listening thus emphasizes how technology does not determine music making: the transistor applications were always uneven and chaotic regardless of the country or region, inventing new and unintended circuits. The book analyses, compares, and juxtaposes these different circuits without forcing commonality, but rather positions them all in the global 1960s. Circuit Listening thus provides a bigger picture of coherence in technological developments: geopolitics, culture, sound, technology, and people form a dynamic whole. Most importantly, the outcome of technological applications ultimately depends on the power relations between the industry and music practices.

Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 2008

RésuméLa pluralité de l’empire des Qing se manifestait à la fois dans les rituels de l’empereur, ... more RésuméLa pluralité de l’empire des Qing se manifestait à la fois dans les rituels de l’empereur, sa cour, ses histoires et ses monuments et dans la construction historique des cultures dont l’empire tirait sa légitimation. Le résultat fut, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, l’objectivation par les textes et les rituels d’un nombre fini d’identités historiques, correspondant d’abord aux cultures qui avaient été instrumentalisées dans les conquêtes des Qing de 1616 à 1755. Cependant ces identités objectivées, à la fois historiques et rituelles, existaient parallèlement à des cultures plus subjectives et locales, inscrites dans la vie quotidienne, non seulement pour les Mandchous, les Mongols et les Hans, mais aussi pour les peuples qui n’avaient jamais eu d’existence officielle dans l’historiographie des Qing, en particulier les diverses communautés musulmanes réparties dans l’empire. Au moment de la crise de l’empire, à la fin du XIXe et au début du XXe siècle, les identités objectives produ...

Crossroads Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World, Jul 3, 2012

This long essay written in the name of the Yongzheng Emperor re-sponded to essentialist challenge... more This long essay written in the name of the Yongzheng Emperor re-sponded to essentialist challenges originating with Lu Liuliang and is re-flected in the writings of Zeng Jing, discovered in 1727. The emperor intended his response to become integrated with examination preparation. In essence the work was a continuation of the early Qing universalism, which proposed that the Manchus and their allies within the empire had undergone a process of perfection through education and self-examination, and as such were the proper protectors of civilization. In this Kangxi-Yongzheng style of universalism, civilization was the absolute and cultural or genealogical particulars were all relative. The essentialistic cosmology of Lu Liuliang, which derived from a late Ming anthropology of moral evolution, which cast certain peoples – including the Jurchen/Manchus — as irremediably barbaric, was the particular target of the emperor’s argument. Cheng-Chu legitimations of rulership and custodianship over tradition, as well as basic theories on the transformative power of education, were employed to excoriate the hua/yi (Chinese/barbarian) distinctions that Lu claimed were rooted in material as well as cosmological processes. Ironically, the Dayi juemi lu was destroyed and its planned incorporation into the examination syllabus was vacated by the Qianlong Emperor, on the apparent grounds that the constructions of civilization as absolute and culture as relative were intolerable to the new emperor, whose cultural absolutism – while different in meaning from Lu Liuliang – established essentializing history, law and ethical discourse as the new fundaments of imperial universalism in the eighteenth century. 《大义觉密录》和清代思想界的宇宙神论 以雍正皇帝署名的长文《大义觉密录》回应了最初由吕留良发起的、并于1727年在曾静著作中发现的对雍正皇帝提出的本质性的挑战。皇帝打算将这一回应与科考的准备有机地整合在一起。从本质上讲，它是对清初流行的宇宙神论的一种延续。文中指出，满清帝国的满族和其协约国通过教育和自学考试经历了一个完善的过程，并正因如此，文明也得到了的适当的保护。在这种康熙、雍正风格的宇宙神论下，文明是绝对，而文化或家族的特殊性都是相对的。吕留良的宇宙论的基本点在于，从明末道德进化的人类学角度导出一些群体，包括女真族、满族等，都是无可救药的野蛮民族。这也是雍正皇帝文中特别针对的问题。用程朱理学对传统意义上统治者和其资格的认定，以及对教育的变革力量的基本理论，来痛斥吕留良所声称的无论是在物质进程还是宇宙的进程中已深深扎根的华夷有别论。具有讽刺意味的是，《大义觉密录》被毁，其将纳入考试大纲的计划被乾隆皇帝取消。其显而易见的理由是其中与吕留良持异见的文明建设的绝对性和文化建设的相对性对这个新登基的文化专制主义皇帝来说是无法容忍的。这种文化专制主义对历史、法律和道德观的影响为十八世纪的皇家宇宙神论奠定了新的基础。 《大義覺密錄》和清代思想界的宇宙神論 以雍正皇帝署名的長文《大義覺密錄》回應了最初由呂留良發起的、並於1727年在曾靜著作中發現的對雍正皇帝提出的本質性的挑戰。皇帝打算將這一回應與科考的準備有機地整合在一起。從本質上講，它是對清初流行的宇宙神論的一種延續。文中指出，滿清帝國的滿族和其協約國通過教育和自學考試經歷了一個完善的過程，並正因如此，文明也得到了的適當的保護。在這種康熙、雍正風格的宇宙神論下，文明是絕對，而文化或家族的特殊性都是相對的。呂留良的宇宙論的基本點在於，從明末道德進化的人類學角度導出一些群體，包括女真族、滿族等，都是無可救藥的野蠻民族。這也是雍正皇帝文中特別針對的問題。用程朱理學對傳統意義上統治者和其資格的認定，以及對教育的變革力量的基本理論，來痛斥呂留良所聲稱的無論是在物質進程還是宇宙的進程中已深深紮根的華夷有別論。具有諷刺意味的是，《大義覺密錄》被毀，其將納入考試大綱的計劃被乾隆皇帝取消。其顯而易見的理由是其中與呂留良持異見的文明建設的絕對性和文化建設的相對性對這個新登基的文化專制主義皇帝來說是無法容忍的。這種文化專制主義對歷史、法律和道德觀的影響為十八世紀的皇家宇宙神論奠定了新的基礎。 『大義覚迷録』と清王朝イデオロギーの普遍主義の変遷 雍正皇帝の権威において書かれたに長編の論文『大義覚迷録』は、本質主義者の挑戦への雍正皇帝の反論である。本質主義者たちの挑戦は、呂留良に端を発したのものであり、この挑戦は1727れた曽静の文書の中にも反映されている。 皇帝は、本質主義者の挑戦に対して皇帝の反論を、取り調べ調書の中に取り入れたのである。本質的には、この『大義覚迷録』は清の初期に発展した普遍主義の延長線上にあり、皇帝の下で満州族とその同盟者たちが、教育と自己反省を介して完成し、そうすることにより、清朝の皇帝たちが文明の正統的な保護者になるというものである。この康熙帝•雍正型の普遍主義では、文明は絶対的であり、文化的または系統的な事柄は、すべて相対的なものとみなされたのである。 呂留良の本質主義的世界観は、特定の民族は－女真族・満州族を含む－矯正できないほどの野蛮人とみなす、明王朝末期の道徳進化論に基ずく人類学に由来するもので、これが、雍正皇帝が行った批判の標的であった。雍正皇帝の議論は、伝統的な支配権や保護任務に対する程朱学派の合法性、および教育を通じた啓発の可能性についての基本的理論を使用しながら、呂留良が唱えている宇宙論的かつ物質的過程に根ざしている「華/夷（中国人/野蛮人）の区別」を厳しく非難しているのである。 皮肉なことに、乾隆帝によって『大義覺密綠』が破棄され、これを取り調べ調書の中へ組み入れようという雍正皇帝の計画は無効にされた。その明らかな理由は、絶対的、文化的、同様に相対的な文明の建設は、新しい皇帝－乾隆帝－には耐えられないものであったからである。乾隆帝は、１８世紀の帝国の普遍主義のための新たな基礎理論として、文化的絶対主義を、呂留良が主張する意味とは違ってはいるが、本質的な歴史、法律、倫理的な理論を確立したのである。 『대의각밀록(大義覺密綠)』과 청왕조(清王朝)데올로기에서의 보편주의의 변천 옹정제 (雍正帝) 의 명의로 쓰여진 이 긴 논평은 본질주의자 (本質主義者; essentialist) 들의 도전에 대한 반론이다. 이 본질주의자 (本質主義者) 들의 도전은 여유량 (呂留良) 이 시작한 것으로, 1727 년에 발견된 증정 (曾靜) 의 문서에도 반영되어 있는 것이었다. 옹정제는 그의 반론을 신문조서 (訊問調書) 에 넣고자 했다. 사실 이 글은 청나라가 초기에 발전시킨 보편주의 (普遍主義; universalism) 의 연장선상에 있는 것인데, 이는 청 제국내의 만주인들과 그들의 동맹자들이 교육과 자기 성찰을 통해 완벽의 과정을 거치게 되었고, 또 그렇게 함으로써 문명의 타당한 보호자가 되었다고 제시하고 있다. 이러한 강희 (康熙)•옹정 형식의 보편주의 하에서 문명은 절대적인 것이고, 문화 또는 계보적인 내용은 모든 상대적인 것이었다. 여유량의 본질주의적 세계관은 명왕조 말기에 특정 민족들 – 여진족/만주족을 포함 – 을 구제 불능의 오랑캐로 간주하는 도덕적 진화의 인류학에서 유래된 것으로, 이는 옹정제의 논의의 특정한 비판 대상이었다. 이 옹정제의 논의는 전통적인 지배권과 보호 임무에 대한 정주(程朱) 학파의 합법성, 및 교육을 통한 교화의 가능성에 대한 기본적 이론들을 사용해서 화이(華夷; 중국/오랑캐)의 구별을 비판했는데, 여유량은 이 화이의 구별이 우주론적이고 물질적인 과정에서 형성된 것이라고 주장했던 것이다. 아이러니하게도, 『대의각밀록』은 파기되고, 이를 신문조서에 넣으려던 옹정제의 시도도 건륭제에 의해서 취소되었는데, 그 명백한 이유는 이 새 황제가 문명의 건설을 절대적인 것으로 보고 문화를 상대적인 것으로 간주하는 것을 받아들일 수 없었기 때문이다. 건륭제는 여유량이 갖고 있던 개념과는 다른 문화적 절대주의의 개념을 가지고 18 세기의 제국의 보편주의를 위한 새로운 기본 이론로서의 본질적인 역사, 법, 윤리 이론을 확립했다.

Choice Reviews Online, 2014

's 2013 release, now available as an e-book, re ects on one of modern China's most in uential 絃据g... more 's 2013 release, now available as an e-book, re ects on one of modern China's most in uential 絃据gures. The Manchu Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908) is generally thought of as a conservative figure in Chinese history, incapable of defending China's interests in the second half of the 19th century, when China lost its position as the world's largest economy. Against this broad consensus stands Jung Chang's lively biography, first published in 2013 and now available as an ebook, that depicts Cixi (pronounced "Tseshi") as quite the opposite. Chang argues that Cixi, the most important woman in Chinese history, "brought a medieval empire into the modern age." Under Cixi's rule, China built its first railroads (the BeijingCanton railroad remains a key artery in today's economy), installed telegraphs, introduced electricity, steam boats, modern mining, and newspapers, established the state bank, and promoted freedom of religion. The constitutional system Cixi initiated, Chang writes, included modern laws-commercial, civil, criminal, and judicial, and the establishment of law schools. In the early 20th century, she allowed women to appear in public, abolished foot binding, lifted the ban on HanManchu intermarriage, and decreed that girls should be educated. Indeed, Cixi is depicted as unusually wise for her time and age. The author writes that "instinctively she seems to have known that a government needs dissenting voices," turning her into a sort of Chinese counterpart of India's sage Mughal Emperor Akbar, who promoted religious tolerance during his long reign in the 16th and 17th century. Contrary to her predecessor, Cixi believed that trade with the West would strengthen China. In a courageous move, she employed a large number of foreigners in the civil service to modernize the administrative structures. She also tried to introduce science into China's school system, a move that required hiring Western teachers. She promoted Hsu Chishe, the first scholar to argue that China was not the center of the world, but just one of many countries. Unprecedented in China, she urged her temporary successor, Emperor Guangxu, to learn English. All these reforms

Law and History Review, 2012

Late Imperial China, 1985

Late Imperial China, 1989

... In Qingshi yanjiu tongxun 2:36. Crossley, Pamela Kyle. 1989. ... Dennerline, Jerry. 1981. The... more ... In Qingshi yanjiu tongxun 2:36. Crossley, Pamela Kyle. 1989. ... Dennerline, Jerry. 1981. The Chia-ting Loyalists: Confucian Leadership and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century China. New Haven: Yale University Press. Du Jiaji. 1987. ...

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1993

Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, 1983

Cooling phase: Towards the end of the maintaining phase doors and windows are opened, the heaters... more Cooling phase: Towards the end of the maintaining phase doors and windows are opened, the heaters are switched off but the axial fans are left running. The effect is a "reversed" heat transmission supporting the cooling of building and installations. Advantages of ThermoNox treatments: − Absolutely non-toxic pest control in sensitive areas − No residue, odourless − Effective against adults, larvae and even eggs − No resistance in insects possible against heat − Deep penetration of cracks and crevices and otherwise inaccessible areas − A secure procedure because of the slow-rising temperature and the maintenance of steady 55-60 °C − Discreet treatment, independent from outside temperatures (year-round method) Limitations: − As all treatment methods, the ThermoNox-System has certain limitations and drawbacks. Some of these are: − Not applicable in locations without a sufficient electrical power source − Temperature sensitive raw material or products − Filled containers, silos and plants inside the treated area (heat does not reach infestation > insects survive > recalls) − Special floor constructions (materials with very different thermal coefficient of extension) − Big, empty concrete silos, high concrete staircases, humid ground-floors − Outer walls with outlying isolation − Insects escaping to an area not heated and survive (barriers!) − ThermoNox requires trained and experiences application technicians (just like modern precision fumigations) − Thermal treatments "as such" do not have a lasting effect, therefore they have to be carefully planned and executed-the aim is eradication (no survivors).

The Journal of Asian Studies, 1997

The Journal of Asian Studies, 1987

During the Qianlong period (1736–95) in China, knowledge of Manchu origins, much of which had bee... more During the Qianlong period (1736–95) in China, knowledge of Manchu origins, much of which had been of a folk or informal character, was given documentary institutionalization—that is, incorporation into the Qing (1636–1912) imperial cultural mosaic by the act of writing something official about it. Much but by no means all of Manchu civilization was derived from Jurchen culture (tenth–seventeenth centuries), which was primarily a folk culture in which oral tradition, shamanic ritual, and clan custom were the mainstays of orderly social life. Inseparable from those folk traditions were elements of tribal rule that affected political life in many ways in the Later Jin (1616–35) and early Qing periods. To the extent that Manchu society retained the archaic forms through the Qing era, the folk heritage was brought into conflict with the political institutions and classical traditions of conquered China, especially the emperorship. The history of the Qing court and its relation to the Ma...

The Journal of Asian Studies, 2014

The Journal of Asian Studies, 2006

China Review International, 2009

Although it is generally believed that the Manchus controlled the Mongols through their patronage... more Although it is generally believed that the Manchus controlled the Mongols through their patronage of Tibetan Buddhism, scant attention has been paid to the Mongol view of the Qing imperial project. In contrast to other accounts of Manchu rule, "Our Great Qing" focuses not only on what images the metropole wished to project into Mongolia, but also on what images the Mongols acknowledged themselves. Rather than accepting the Manchu's use of Buddhism, Johan Elverskog begins by questioning the static, unhistorical, and hegemonic view of political life implicit in the Buddhist explanation. By stressing instead the fluidity of identity and Buddhist practice as processes continually developing in relation to state formations, this work explores how Qing policies were understood by Mongols and how they came to see themselves as Qing subjects. In his investigation of Mongol society on the eve of the Manchu conquest, Elverskog reveals the distinctive political theory of decentralization that fostered the civil war among the Mongols. He explains how it was that the Manchu Great Enterprise was not to win over "Mongolia" but was instead to create a unified Mongol community of which the disparate preexisting communities would merely be component parts. A key element fostering this change was the Qing court's promotion of Gelukpa orthodoxy, which not only transformed Mongol historical narratives and rituals but also displaced the earlier vernacular Mongolian Buddhism. Finally, Elverskog demonstrates how this eighteenth-century conception of a Mongol community, ruled by an aristocracy and nourished by a Buddhist emperor, gave way to a pan-Qing solidarity of all Buddhist people against Muslims and Christians and to local identities that united for the first time aristocrats with commoners in a new Mongol Buddhist identity on the eve of the twentieth century.

The China Quarterly, 2010

The American Historical Review, 2004

The Journal of Asian Studies, 2022

the trilogy of chapters 3, 4, and 5. Focusing on the overlooked and marginalized circuits in post... more the trilogy of chapters 3, 4, and 5. Focusing on the overlooked and marginalized circuits in postwar Taiwan, these chapters remind the reader that the “revolution in miniature” did not unfold evenly. Whether it be the example of forgotten musicals in Taiyu (Taiwanese language), or copies of LP circuits in the marginalized military bases, or folk musicians’ struggle to compete with the global popular music aesthetic, these chapters powerfully illustrate how specific technologies can be simultaneously enabling and constraining. Using transistors in the music industry as a starting point and showing its myriad formats throughout Chinese soundscapes in a global context, Circuit Listening thus emphasizes how technology does not determine music making: the transistor applications were always uneven and chaotic regardless of the country or region, inventing new and unintended circuits. The book analyses, compares, and juxtaposes these different circuits without forcing commonality, but rather positions them all in the global 1960s. Circuit Listening thus provides a bigger picture of coherence in technological developments: geopolitics, culture, sound, technology, and people form a dynamic whole. Most importantly, the outcome of technological applications ultimately depends on the power relations between the industry and music practices.

Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 2008

RésuméLa pluralité de l’empire des Qing se manifestait à la fois dans les rituels de l’empereur, ... more RésuméLa pluralité de l’empire des Qing se manifestait à la fois dans les rituels de l’empereur, sa cour, ses histoires et ses monuments et dans la construction historique des cultures dont l’empire tirait sa légitimation. Le résultat fut, à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, l’objectivation par les textes et les rituels d’un nombre fini d’identités historiques, correspondant d’abord aux cultures qui avaient été instrumentalisées dans les conquêtes des Qing de 1616 à 1755. Cependant ces identités objectivées, à la fois historiques et rituelles, existaient parallèlement à des cultures plus subjectives et locales, inscrites dans la vie quotidienne, non seulement pour les Mandchous, les Mongols et les Hans, mais aussi pour les peuples qui n’avaient jamais eu d’existence officielle dans l’historiographie des Qing, en particulier les diverses communautés musulmanes réparties dans l’empire. Au moment de la crise de l’empire, à la fin du XIXe et au début du XXe siècle, les identités objectives produ...

Crossroads Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World, Jul 3, 2012

This long essay written in the name of the Yongzheng Emperor re-sponded to essentialist challenge... more This long essay written in the name of the Yongzheng Emperor re-sponded to essentialist challenges originating with Lu Liuliang and is re-flected in the writings of Zeng Jing, discovered in 1727. The emperor intended his response to become integrated with examination preparation. In essence the work was a continuation of the early Qing universalism, which proposed that the Manchus and their allies within the empire had undergone a process of perfection through education and self-examination, and as such were the proper protectors of civilization. In this Kangxi-Yongzheng style of universalism, civilization was the absolute and cultural or genealogical particulars were all relative. The essentialistic cosmology of Lu Liuliang, which derived from a late Ming anthropology of moral evolution, which cast certain peoples – including the Jurchen/Manchus — as irremediably barbaric, was the particular target of the emperor’s argument. Cheng-Chu legitimations of rulership and custodianship over tradition, as well as basic theories on the transformative power of education, were employed to excoriate the hua/yi (Chinese/barbarian) distinctions that Lu claimed were rooted in material as well as cosmological processes. Ironically, the Dayi juemi lu was destroyed and its planned incorporation into the examination syllabus was vacated by the Qianlong Emperor, on the apparent grounds that the constructions of civilization as absolute and culture as relative were intolerable to the new emperor, whose cultural absolutism – while different in meaning from Lu Liuliang – established essentializing history, law and ethical discourse as the new fundaments of imperial universalism in the eighteenth century. 《大义觉密录》和清代思想界的宇宙神论 以雍正皇帝署名的长文《大义觉密录》回应了最初由吕留良发起的、并于1727年在曾静著作中发现的对雍正皇帝提出的本质性的挑战。皇帝打算将这一回应与科考的准备有机地整合在一起。从本质上讲，它是对清初流行的宇宙神论的一种延续。文中指出，满清帝国的满族和其协约国通过教育和自学考试经历了一个完善的过程，并正因如此，文明也得到了的适当的保护。在这种康熙、雍正风格的宇宙神论下，文明是绝对，而文化或家族的特殊性都是相对的。吕留良的宇宙论的基本点在于，从明末道德进化的人类学角度导出一些群体，包括女真族、满族等，都是无可救药的野蛮民族。这也是雍正皇帝文中特别针对的问题。用程朱理学对传统意义上统治者和其资格的认定，以及对教育的变革力量的基本理论，来痛斥吕留良所声称的无论是在物质进程还是宇宙的进程中已深深扎根的华夷有别论。具有讽刺意味的是，《大义觉密录》被毁，其将纳入考试大纲的计划被乾隆皇帝取消。其显而易见的理由是其中与吕留良持异见的文明建设的绝对性和文化建设的相对性对这个新登基的文化专制主义皇帝来说是无法容忍的。这种文化专制主义对历史、法律和道德观的影响为十八世纪的皇家宇宙神论奠定了新的基础。 《大義覺密錄》和清代思想界的宇宙神論 以雍正皇帝署名的長文《大義覺密錄》回應了最初由呂留良發起的、並於1727年在曾靜著作中發現的對雍正皇帝提出的本質性的挑戰。皇帝打算將這一回應與科考的準備有機地整合在一起。從本質上講，它是對清初流行的宇宙神論的一種延續。文中指出，滿清帝國的滿族和其協約國通過教育和自學考試經歷了一個完善的過程，並正因如此，文明也得到了的適當的保護。在這種康熙、雍正風格的宇宙神論下，文明是絕對，而文化或家族的特殊性都是相對的。呂留良的宇宙論的基本點在於，從明末道德進化的人類學角度導出一些群體，包括女真族、滿族等，都是無可救藥的野蠻民族。這也是雍正皇帝文中特別針對的問題。用程朱理學對傳統意義上統治者和其資格的認定，以及對教育的變革力量的基本理論，來痛斥呂留良所聲稱的無論是在物質進程還是宇宙的進程中已深深紮根的華夷有別論。具有諷刺意味的是，《大義覺密錄》被毀，其將納入考試大綱的計劃被乾隆皇帝取消。其顯而易見的理由是其中與呂留良持異見的文明建設的絕對性和文化建設的相對性對這個新登基的文化專制主義皇帝來說是無法容忍的。這種文化專制主義對歷史、法律和道德觀的影響為十八世紀的皇家宇宙神論奠定了新的基礎。 『大義覚迷録』と清王朝イデオロギーの普遍主義の変遷 雍正皇帝の権威において書かれたに長編の論文『大義覚迷録』は、本質主義者の挑戦への雍正皇帝の反論である。本質主義者たちの挑戦は、呂留良に端を発したのものであり、この挑戦は1727れた曽静の文書の中にも反映されている。 皇帝は、本質主義者の挑戦に対して皇帝の反論を、取り調べ調書の中に取り入れたのである。本質的には、この『大義覚迷録』は清の初期に発展した普遍主義の延長線上にあり、皇帝の下で満州族とその同盟者たちが、教育と自己反省を介して完成し、そうすることにより、清朝の皇帝たちが文明の正統的な保護者になるというものである。この康熙帝•雍正型の普遍主義では、文明は絶対的であり、文化的または系統的な事柄は、すべて相対的なものとみなされたのである。 呂留良の本質主義的世界観は、特定の民族は－女真族・満州族を含む－矯正できないほどの野蛮人とみなす、明王朝末期の道徳進化論に基ずく人類学に由来するもので、これが、雍正皇帝が行った批判の標的であった。雍正皇帝の議論は、伝統的な支配権や保護任務に対する程朱学派の合法性、および教育を通じた啓発の可能性についての基本的理論を使用しながら、呂留良が唱えている宇宙論的かつ物質的過程に根ざしている「華/夷（中国人/野蛮人）の区別」を厳しく非難しているのである。 皮肉なことに、乾隆帝によって『大義覺密綠』が破棄され、これを取り調べ調書の中へ組み入れようという雍正皇帝の計画は無効にされた。その明らかな理由は、絶対的、文化的、同様に相対的な文明の建設は、新しい皇帝－乾隆帝－には耐えられないものであったからである。乾隆帝は、１８世紀の帝国の普遍主義のための新たな基礎理論として、文化的絶対主義を、呂留良が主張する意味とは違ってはいるが、本質的な歴史、法律、倫理的な理論を確立したのである。 『대의각밀록(大義覺密綠)』과 청왕조(清王朝)데올로기에서의 보편주의의 변천 옹정제 (雍正帝) 의 명의로 쓰여진 이 긴 논평은 본질주의자 (本質主義者; essentialist) 들의 도전에 대한 반론이다. 이 본질주의자 (本質主義者) 들의 도전은 여유량 (呂留良) 이 시작한 것으로, 1727 년에 발견된 증정 (曾靜) 의 문서에도 반영되어 있는 것이었다. 옹정제는 그의 반론을 신문조서 (訊問調書) 에 넣고자 했다. 사실 이 글은 청나라가 초기에 발전시킨 보편주의 (普遍主義; universalism) 의 연장선상에 있는 것인데, 이는 청 제국내의 만주인들과 그들의 동맹자들이 교육과 자기 성찰을 통해 완벽의 과정을 거치게 되었고, 또 그렇게 함으로써 문명의 타당한 보호자가 되었다고 제시하고 있다. 이러한 강희 (康熙)•옹정 형식의 보편주의 하에서 문명은 절대적인 것이고, 문화 또는 계보적인 내용은 모든 상대적인 것이었다. 여유량의 본질주의적 세계관은 명왕조 말기에 특정 민족들 – 여진족/만주족을 포함 – 을 구제 불능의 오랑캐로 간주하는 도덕적 진화의 인류학에서 유래된 것으로, 이는 옹정제의 논의의 특정한 비판 대상이었다. 이 옹정제의 논의는 전통적인 지배권과 보호 임무에 대한 정주(程朱) 학파의 합법성, 및 교육을 통한 교화의 가능성에 대한 기본적 이론들을 사용해서 화이(華夷; 중국/오랑캐)의 구별을 비판했는데, 여유량은 이 화이의 구별이 우주론적이고 물질적인 과정에서 형성된 것이라고 주장했던 것이다. 아이러니하게도, 『대의각밀록』은 파기되고, 이를 신문조서에 넣으려던 옹정제의 시도도 건륭제에 의해서 취소되었는데, 그 명백한 이유는 이 새 황제가 문명의 건설을 절대적인 것으로 보고 문화를 상대적인 것으로 간주하는 것을 받아들일 수 없었기 때문이다. 건륭제는 여유량이 갖고 있던 개념과는 다른 문화적 절대주의의 개념을 가지고 18 세기의 제국의 보편주의를 위한 새로운 기본 이론로서의 본질적인 역사, 법, 윤리 이론을 확립했다.

Choice Reviews Online, 2014

's 2013 release, now available as an e-book, re ects on one of modern China's most in uential 絃据g... more 's 2013 release, now available as an e-book, re ects on one of modern China's most in uential 絃据gures. The Manchu Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908) is generally thought of as a conservative figure in Chinese history, incapable of defending China's interests in the second half of the 19th century, when China lost its position as the world's largest economy. Against this broad consensus stands Jung Chang's lively biography, first published in 2013 and now available as an ebook, that depicts Cixi (pronounced "Tseshi") as quite the opposite. Chang argues that Cixi, the most important woman in Chinese history, "brought a medieval empire into the modern age." Under Cixi's rule, China built its first railroads (the BeijingCanton railroad remains a key artery in today's economy), installed telegraphs, introduced electricity, steam boats, modern mining, and newspapers, established the state bank, and promoted freedom of religion. The constitutional system Cixi initiated, Chang writes, included modern laws-commercial, civil, criminal, and judicial, and the establishment of law schools. In the early 20th century, she allowed women to appear in public, abolished foot binding, lifted the ban on HanManchu intermarriage, and decreed that girls should be educated. Indeed, Cixi is depicted as unusually wise for her time and age. The author writes that "instinctively she seems to have known that a government needs dissenting voices," turning her into a sort of Chinese counterpart of India's sage Mughal Emperor Akbar, who promoted religious tolerance during his long reign in the 16th and 17th century. Contrary to her predecessor, Cixi believed that trade with the West would strengthen China. In a courageous move, she employed a large number of foreigners in the civil service to modernize the administrative structures. She also tried to introduce science into China's school system, a move that required hiring Western teachers. She promoted Hsu Chishe, the first scholar to argue that China was not the center of the world, but just one of many countries. Unprecedented in China, she urged her temporary successor, Emperor Guangxu, to learn English. All these reforms

Law and History Review, 2012

Late Imperial China, 1985

Late Imperial China, 1989

... In Qingshi yanjiu tongxun 2:36. Crossley, Pamela Kyle. 1989. ... Dennerline, Jerry. 1981. The... more ... In Qingshi yanjiu tongxun 2:36. Crossley, Pamela Kyle. 1989. ... Dennerline, Jerry. 1981. The Chia-ting Loyalists: Confucian Leadership and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century China. New Haven: Yale University Press. Du Jiaji. 1987. ...

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1993

Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, 1983

Cooling phase: Towards the end of the maintaining phase doors and windows are opened, the heaters... more Cooling phase: Towards the end of the maintaining phase doors and windows are opened, the heaters are switched off but the axial fans are left running. The effect is a "reversed" heat transmission supporting the cooling of building and installations. Advantages of ThermoNox treatments: − Absolutely non-toxic pest control in sensitive areas − No residue, odourless − Effective against adults, larvae and even eggs − No resistance in insects possible against heat − Deep penetration of cracks and crevices and otherwise inaccessible areas − A secure procedure because of the slow-rising temperature and the maintenance of steady 55-60 °C − Discreet treatment, independent from outside temperatures (year-round method) Limitations: − As all treatment methods, the ThermoNox-System has certain limitations and drawbacks. Some of these are: − Not applicable in locations without a sufficient electrical power source − Temperature sensitive raw material or products − Filled containers, silos and plants inside the treated area (heat does not reach infestation > insects survive > recalls) − Special floor constructions (materials with very different thermal coefficient of extension) − Big, empty concrete silos, high concrete staircases, humid ground-floors − Outer walls with outlying isolation − Insects escaping to an area not heated and survive (barriers!) − ThermoNox requires trained and experiences application technicians (just like modern precision fumigations) − Thermal treatments "as such" do not have a lasting effect, therefore they have to be carefully planned and executed-the aim is eradication (no survivors).

The Journal of Asian Studies, 1997

The Journal of Asian Studies, 1987

During the Qianlong period (1736–95) in China, knowledge of Manchu origins, much of which had bee... more During the Qianlong period (1736–95) in China, knowledge of Manchu origins, much of which had been of a folk or informal character, was given documentary institutionalization—that is, incorporation into the Qing (1636–1912) imperial cultural mosaic by the act of writing something official about it. Much but by no means all of Manchu civilization was derived from Jurchen culture (tenth–seventeenth centuries), which was primarily a folk culture in which oral tradition, shamanic ritual, and clan custom were the mainstays of orderly social life. Inseparable from those folk traditions were elements of tribal rule that affected political life in many ways in the Later Jin (1616–35) and early Qing periods. To the extent that Manchu society retained the archaic forms through the Qing era, the folk heritage was brought into conflict with the political institutions and classical traditions of conquered China, especially the emperorship. The history of the Qing court and its relation to the Ma...

The Journal of Asian Studies, 2014

The Journal of Asian Studies, 2006

China Review International, 2009

Although it is generally believed that the Manchus controlled the Mongols through their patronage... more Although it is generally believed that the Manchus controlled the Mongols through their patronage of Tibetan Buddhism, scant attention has been paid to the Mongol view of the Qing imperial project. In contrast to other accounts of Manchu rule, "Our Great Qing" focuses not only on what images the metropole wished to project into Mongolia, but also on what images the Mongols acknowledged themselves. Rather than accepting the Manchu's use of Buddhism, Johan Elverskog begins by questioning the static, unhistorical, and hegemonic view of political life implicit in the Buddhist explanation. By stressing instead the fluidity of identity and Buddhist practice as processes continually developing in relation to state formations, this work explores how Qing policies were understood by Mongols and how they came to see themselves as Qing subjects. In his investigation of Mongol society on the eve of the Manchu conquest, Elverskog reveals the distinctive political theory of decentralization that fostered the civil war among the Mongols. He explains how it was that the Manchu Great Enterprise was not to win over "Mongolia" but was instead to create a unified Mongol community of which the disparate preexisting communities would merely be component parts. A key element fostering this change was the Qing court's promotion of Gelukpa orthodoxy, which not only transformed Mongol historical narratives and rituals but also displaced the earlier vernacular Mongolian Buddhism. Finally, Elverskog demonstrates how this eighteenth-century conception of a Mongol community, ruled by an aristocracy and nourished by a Buddhist emperor, gave way to a pan-Qing solidarity of all Buddhist people against Muslims and Christians and to local identities that united for the first time aristocrats with commoners in a new Mongol Buddhist identity on the eve of the twentieth century.

The China Quarterly, 2010

The American Historical Review, 2004