The therapeutic modulation of atherogenic dyslipidemia and inflammatory markers in the metabolic syndrome: what is the clinical relevance? (original) (raw)

• Cameron AJ, Shaw JE, Zimmet PZ (2004) The metabolic syndrome: prevalence in worldwide populations. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 33:351–375
  PubMed Google Scholar
• International Diabetes Federation (2006) The IDF consensus worldwide definition of the metabolic syndrome. IDF Executive Office, Brussels, Belgium. www.idf.org. Available at http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/MetS_def_update2006.pdf. Accessed 7 Feb 2008
• Reaven GM (2004) Insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, and the metabolic syndrome: how well do the emperor’s clothes fit? Diabetes Care 27:1011–1012
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Wannamethee SG, Lowe GD, Shaper AG, Rumley A, Lennon L, Whiner PH (2004) Insulin resistance, haemostatic and inflammatory markers and coronary heart disease risk factors in type 2 diabetic men with and without coronary heart disease. Diabetologia 47(9):1557–1565
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Sjoholm A, Nystrom T (2005) Endothelial inflammation in insulin resistance. Lancet 365(9459):610–612
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Ceriello A, Motz E (2004) Is oxidative stress the pathogenic mechanism underlying insulin resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease? The common soil hypothesis revisited. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24:816–823
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Shinozaki K, Kashiwagi A, Masada M, Okamura T (2004) Molecular mechanisms of impaired endothelial function associated with insulin resistance. Curr Drug Targets Cardiovasc Haematol Disord 4:1–11
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Black PH (2003) The inflammatory response is an integral part of the stress response: Implications for atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, type II diabetes and metabolic syndrome X. Brain Behav Immun 17(5):350–364
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Fernandez-Real JM, Ricart W (2003) Insulin resistance and chronic cardiovascular inflammatory syndrome. Endocr Rev 24(3):278–301
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Chan JC, Cheung JC, Stehouwer CD, Emeis JJ, Tong PC, Ko GT, Yudkin JS (2002) The central roles of obesity-associated dyslipidaemia, endothelial activation and cytokines in the metabolic syndrome: an analysis by structural equation modeling. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26(7):994–1008
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Tracy RP (2003) Inflammation, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk. Int J Clin Pract Suppl 134:10–17
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Mallika V, Goswami B, Rajappa M (2007) Atherosclerosis pathophysiology and the role of novel risk factors: a clinicobiochemical perspective. Angiology 58(5):513–522
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Nishida M, Moriyama T, Ishii K, Takashima S, Yoshizaki K, Sugita Y, Yamauchi-Takihara K (2007) Effects of IL-6, adiponectin, CRP and metabolic syndrome on subclinical atherosclerosis. Clin Chim Acta 384(1–2):99–104
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Muntner P, He J, Chen J, Fonseca V, Whelton PK (2004) Prevalence of non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors among persons with impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome: analysis of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Ann Epidemiol 14(9):686–695
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Hsueh WA, Quinones MJ (2003) Role of endothelial dysfunction in insulin resistance. Am J Cardiol 92:10J–17J
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Gustafson B, Hammarstedt A, Andersson CX, Smith U (2007) Inflamed adipose tissue: a culprit underlying the metabolic syndrome and atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 27(11):2276–2283
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ridker PM, Rifai N, Rose L, Buring JE, Cook NR (2002) Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 347:1557–1565
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Danesh J, Wheeler JG, Hirschfield GM et al (2004) C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 350:1387–1397
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Isomaa B, Almgren P, Tuomi T, Forsen B, Lahti K, Nissen M, Taskinen MR, Groop L (2001) Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 24:683–689
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Vlachopoulos C, Rokkas K, Ioakeimidis N, Stefanadis C (2007) Inflammation, metabolic syndrome, erectile dysfunction, and coronary artery disease: common links. Eur Urol 52(6):1590–1600
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ninomiya T, Kiyohara Y (2007) Albuminuria and chronic kidney disease in association with the metabolic syndrome. J Cardiometab Syndr 2(2):104–107
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Dai DF, Lin JW, Kao JH, Hsu CN, Chiang FT, Lin JL, Chou YH, Hsu KL, Tseng CD, Tseng YZ, Hwang JJ (2007) The effects of metabolic syndrome versus infectious burden on inflammation, severity of coronary atherosclerosis, and major adverse cardiovascular events. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(7):2532–2537
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Mosca L (2002) C-reactive protein—to screen or not to screen? N Engl J Med 347:1615–1617
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Tall AR (2004) C-reactive protein reassessed. N Engl J Med 350:1450–1452
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ridker PM, Wilson PW, Grundy SM (2004) Should C-reactive protein be added to metabolic syndrome and to assessment of global cardiovascular risk? Circulation 109:2818–2825
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Pearson TA, Mensah GA, Alexander RW et al (2003) Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: application to clinical and public health practice: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association. Circulation 107:499–511
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Yudkin JS, Stehouwer CD, Emeis JJ, Coppack SW (1999) C-reactive protein in healthy subjects: associations with obesity, insulin resistance, and endothelial dysfunction: a potential role for cytokines originating from adipose tissue? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19:972–978
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ridker PM, Buring JE, Cook NR, Rifai N (2003) C-reactive protein, the metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular events: an 8-year follow-up of 14, 719 initially healthy American women. Circulation 107:391–397
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Rutter MK, Meigs JB, Sullivan LM, D’Agostino RB Sr, Wilson PW (2004) C-reactive protein, the metabolic syndrome, and prediction of cardiovascular events in the Framingham Offspring Study. Circulation 110:380–385
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ridker PM, Rifai N, Rose L, Buring JE, Cook NR (2002) Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 347:1557–1565
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• McLaughlin T, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, Liang L, Reaven G, Schaaf P, Reaven P (2002) Differentiation between obesity and insulin resistance in the association with C-reactive protein. Circulation 106:2908–2912
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Pradhan AD, Cook NR, Buring JE, Manson JE, Ridker PM (2003) C-reactive protein is independently associated with fasting insulin in nondiabetic women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23:650–655
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Hackam DG, Anand SS (2003) Emerging risk factors for atherosclerotic vascular disease: a critical review of the evidence. JAMA 290(7):932–940
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Bhatt DL, Topol EJ (2002) Need to test the inflammation hypothesis. Circulation 106:136–140
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Krauss RM, Burke DJ (1982) Identification of multiple subclasses of plasma low density lipoproteins in normal humans. J Lipid Res 23:97–104
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rizzo M, Berneis K (2006) Low-density-lipoproteins size and cardiovascular risk assessment. QJM-Int J Med 99:1–14
  CAS Google Scholar
• Griffin BA, Caslake MJ, Yip B, Tait GW, Packard CJ, Shepherd J (1990) Rapid isolation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) subfractions from plasma by density gradient ultracentrifugation. Atherosclerosis 83:59–67
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rizzo M, Berneis K (2007) Who needs to care about small, dense low density lipoproteins? Int J Clin Pract 61:1949–1956
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) (2002) Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 106:3143–3421
  Google Scholar
• Austin MA, King MC, Vranizan KM, Krauss RM (1990) Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. A proposed genetic marker for coronary heart disease risk. Circulation 82:495–506
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rizzo M, Berneis K (2005) Lipid triad or atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype: a role in cardiovascular prevention? J Atheroscl Thromb 12:237–239
  CAS Google Scholar
• Sattar N, Petrie JR, Jaap AJ (1998) The atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype and vascular endothelial dysfunction. Atherosclerosis 138:229–235
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Superko HR (1996) Beyond LDL cholesterol reduction. Circulation 94:2351–2354
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Barter P (2006) Options for therapeutic intervention: how effective are the different agents? Eur Heart J Suppl 8:F47–F53
  CAS Google Scholar
• Bjornheden T, Babyi A, Bondjers G, Wiklund O (1996) Accumulation of lipoprotein fractions and subfractions in the arterial wall, determined in an in vitro perfusion system. Atherosclerosis 123:43–56
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Galeano NF, Al-Haideri M, Keyserman F, Rumsey SC, Deckelbaum RJ (1998) Small dense low density lipoprotein has increased affinity for LDL receptor-independent cell surface binding sites: a potential mechanism for increased atherogenicity. J Lipid Res 39:1263–1273
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Camejo G, Lopez A, Lopez F, Quinones J (1985) Interaction of low density lipoproteins with arterial proteoglycans. The role of charge and sialic acid content. Atherosclerosis 55:93–105
  CAS Google Scholar
• Tribble DL, Rizzo M, Chait A, Lewis DM, Blanche PJ, Krauss RM (2001) Enhanced oxidative susceptibility and reduced antioxidant content of metabolic precursors of small, dense low-density lipoproteins. Am J Med 110:103–110
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Tribble DL, Holl LG, Wood PD, Krauss RM (1992) Variations in oxidative susceptibility among six low density lipoprotein subfractions of differing density and particle size. Atherosclerosis 93:189–199
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• de Graaf J, Hak-Lemmers HL, Hectors MP, Demacker PN, Hendriks JC, Stalenhoef AF (1991) Enhanced susceptibility to in vitro oxidation of the dense low density lipoprotein subfraction in healthy subjects. Arterioscler Thromb 11:298–306
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Sacks FM, Campos H (2003) Low-density lipoprotein size and cardiovascular disease: a reappraisal. J Clin Endocr Metab 88:4525–4532
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Wierzbicki T (2008) Detection of small, dense LDL-cholesterol: is it necessary to determine particle size? Future Lipidol 3:23–25
  CAS Google Scholar
• Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, Donato KA, Eckel RH, Franklin BA, Gordon DJ, Krauss RM, Savage PJ, Smith SC Jr, Spertus JA, Costa F (2005) American Heart Association; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation 112:2735–2752
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Haffner SM, Mykkanen L, Robbins D, Valdez R, Miettinen H, Howard BV, Stern MP, Bowsher R (1995) A preponderance of small dense LDL is associated with specific insulin, proinsulin and the components of the insulin resistance syndrome in non-diabetic subjects. Diabetologia 38:1328–1336
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Hulthe J, Bokemark L, Wikstrand J, Fagerberg B (2000) The metabolic syndrome, LDL particle size, and atherosclerosis: the Atherosclerosis and Insulin Resistance (AIR) study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20:2140–2147
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (1999) Definition, diagnosis, and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications: report of a WHO consultation. World Health Org, Geneva
  Google Scholar
• Garin MC, Kalix B, Morabia A, James RW (2005) Small, dense lipoprotein particles and reduced paraoxonase-1 in patients with the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:2264–2269
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Slapikas R, Luksiene D, Slapikiene B, Babarskiene MR, Grybauskiene R, Linoniene L (2005) Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in coronary heart disease patients with different low-density lipoprotein phenotypes. Medicina (Kaunas) 41:925–931
  Google Scholar
• Gazi I, Tsimihodimos V, Filippatos T, Bairaktari E, Tselepis AD, Elisaf M (2006) Concentration and relative distribution of low-density lipoprotein subfractions in patients with metabolic syndrome defined according to the National Cholesterol Education Program criteria. Metabolism 55:885–891
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Julius U, Dittrich M, Pietzsch J (2007) Factors influencing the formation of small dense low-density lipoprotein particles in dependence on the presence of the metabolic syndrome and on the degree of glucose intolerance. Int J Clin Pract 61:1798–1804
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Gentile M, Panico S, Jossa F, Mattiello A, Ubaldi S, Marotta G, Pauciullo P, Rubba P (2008) Small dense LDL particles and metabolic syndrome in a sample of middle-aged women. Findings from Progetto Atena. Clin Chim Acta 388:179–183
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Nesto RW (2005) Beyond low-density lipoprotein: addressing the atherogenic lipid triad in type 2 diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 5:379–387
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Davidson MH, Toth PP (2004) Comparative effects of lipid-lowering therapies. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 47: 73–104
  Google Scholar
• Rizzo M, Berneis K (2007) The clinical significance of the size of low-density-lipoproteins and the modulation of subclasses by fibrates. Curr Med Res Opin 23:1103–1111
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Towne SP, Thara E (2008) Do statins reduce events in patients with metabolic syndrome? Curr Atheroscler Rep 10(1):39–44
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rizzo M, Berneis K (2006) The clinical relevance of low-density-lipoproteins size modulation by statins. Cardiovasc Drug Ther 20:205–217
  CAS Google Scholar
• Rosenson RS, Otvos JD, Freedman DS (2002) Relations of lipoprotein subclass levels and low-density lipoprotein size to progression of coronary artery disease in the Pravastatin Limitation of Atherosclerosis in the Coronary Arteries (PLAC-I) trial. Am J Cardiol 90(2):89–94
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Miller BD, Alderman EL, Haskell WL, Fair JM, Krauss RM (1996) Predominance of dense low-density lipoprotein particles predicts angiographic benefit of therapy in the Stanford Coronary Risk Intervention Project. Circulation 94:2146–2153
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Zambon A, Hokanson JE, Brown BG, Brunzell JD (1999) Evidence for a new pathophysiological mechanism for coronary artery disease regression: hepatic lipase-mediated changes in LDL density. Circulation 99:1959–1964
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Marais AD (2000) Therapeutic modulation of low-density lipoprotein size. Curr Opin Lipidol 11:597–602
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Manninen V, Tenkanen L, Koskinen P et al (1992) Joint effects of serum triglyceride and LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations on coronary heart disease risk in the Helsinki Heart Study. Circulation 85:37–45
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Tenkanen L, Manttari M, Manninen V (1995) Some coronary risk factors related to the insulin resistance syndrome and the treatment with gemfibrozil. Experience from the Helsinki Heart Study. Circulation 92:1779–1785
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D et al (1999) Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol: Veterans affairs high-density lipoprotein cholesterol intervention trials study group. N Engl J Med 341:410–418
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Tavridou A, Manolopoulos VG (2008) Novel molecules targeting dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Curr Med Chem 15(8):792–802
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Drexler AJ, Nesto RW, Abrahamson MJ et al (2005) Evaluating the cardiovascular effects of the thiazolidinediones and their place in the management of type 2 diabetes in relation to the metabolic syndrome. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 3(2):147–173
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Krauss RM (2004) Lipids and lipoproteins in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27:1496–1504
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Aronoff S, Rosenblatt S, Braithwaite S et al (2000) Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes: a 6-month randomized placebo-controlled dose-response study. Diabetes Care 23:1605–1611
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Gomez-Perez FJ, Fanghanel-Salmon G, Barbosa JA et al (2002) Efficacy and safety of rosiglitazone plus metformin in Mexicans with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 18:127–134
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Goldberg RB, Kendall DM, Deeg MA et al (2005) A comparison of lipid and glycemic effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care 28:1547–1554
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Chiquette E, Ramirez G, Defronzo R (2004) A meta-analysis comparing the effect of thiazolidinediones on cardiovascular risk factors. Arch Intern Med 164:2097–2104
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Deeg MA, Buse JB, Goldberg RB et al (2007) On behalf of the GLAI Study Investigators. Pioglitazone and rosiglitazone have different effects on serum lipoprotein particle concentrations and sizes in patients with type 2 diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care 30:2458–2464
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Berneis K, Rizzo M, Stettler C, Chappuis B, Braun M, Diem P, Christ ER (2008) Comparative effects of rosiglitazone and pioglitazone on fasting and postprandial low-density lipoprotein size and subclasses in patients with type-2 diabetes. Expert Opin Pharmacother 9:343–349
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Pritchett AM, Foreyt JP, Mann DL (2005) Treatment of the metabolic syndrome: the impact of lifestyle modification. Curr Atheroscler Rep 7(2):95–102
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Chu JW, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, McLaughlin T, Reaven GM, Tsao PS (2005) Effect of rosiglitazone treatment on circulating vascular and inflammatory markers in insulin-resistant subjects. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2(1):37–41
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Arner P (2003) The adipocyte in insulin reistance: key molecules and the impact of the thiazolidinediones. TRENDS in Endocrinol Metab 14(3):137–145
  CAS Google Scholar
• Iushibashi M, Egashira K, Hiasa K, Inoue S, Ni W, Zhao Q, Usui M, Kitamoto S, Ichiki T, Takeshita A (2002) Antiinflammatory and antiarteriosclerotic effects of pioglitazone. Hypertension 40:687–693
  Google Scholar
• Staels B (2007) PPAR agonists and the metabolic syndrome. Therapie 62(4):319–326
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Plutzky J (2007) Preventing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in metabolic syndrome: the role of PPAR-alpha. Diab Vasc Dis Res 4(Suppl 3):S12–S14
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Maki KC (2004) Fibrates for treatment of the metabolic syndrome. Curr Atheroscler Rep J 6(1):45–51
  Google Scholar
• Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group (1994) Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4,444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian simvastatin survival study (4S). Lancet 344:1383–1389
  Google Scholar
• Kinjo K, Sato H, Sakata Y, Nakatani D, Mizuno H, Shimizu M, Nishino M, Ito H, Tanouchi J, Nanto S, Hori M, Osaka Acute Coronary Insufficiency Study (OACIS) Group (2005) Relation of C-reactive protein and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction with versus without statin therapy. Am J Cardiol 96(5):617–621
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Elrod JW, Lefer DJ (2005) The effects of statins on endothelium, inflammation, and cardioprotection. Drugs News Perspect 18(4):229–236
  CAS Google Scholar
• Jialal I, Stein D, Balis D, Grundy SM, Adams-Huet B, Devaraj S (2001) Effects of hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor therapy on high sensitive C-reactive protein levels. Circulation 103:1933–1935
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Bougoulia M, Triantos A, Koliakos G (2006) Effect of weight loss with or without orlistat treatment on adipocytokines, inflammation, and oxidative markers in obese women. Hormones (Athens) 5(4):259–269
  Google Scholar
• Valsamakis G, McTernan PG, Chetty R et al (2004) Modest weight loss and reduction in waist circumference after medical treatment are associated with favorable changes in serum adipocytokines. Metabolism 53(4):430–434
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Van Gaal L, Pi-Sunyer X, Després JP, McCarthy C, Scheen A (2008) Efficacy and safety of rimonabant for improvement of multiple cardiometabolic risk factors in overweight/obese patients: pooled 1-year data from the Rimonabant in Obesity (RIO) program. Diabetes Care 31(Suppl 2):S229–S240
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Perkins JM, Davis SN (2008) Endocannabinoid system overactivity and the metabolic syndrome: prospects for treatment. Curr Diab Rep 8(1):12–19
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Dagenais NJ, Jamali F (2005) Protective effects of angiotensin II interruption: evidence for antiinflammatory actions. Pharmacotherapy 25(9):1213–1229
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Sierra C, de la Sierra A (2005) Antihypertensive, cardiovascular, and pleiotropic effects of angiotensin-receptor blockers. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 14(5):435–441
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• American College of Endocrinology (ACE) (2003) Position statement on the insulin resistance syndrome. Endocr Pract 9(No. 3):236–252
  Google Scholar
• van Oostrom AJ, van Wijk J, Cabezas MC (2004) Lipaemia, inflammation and atherosclerosis: novel opportunities in the understanding and treatment of atherosclerosis. Drugs 64(Suppl 2):19–41
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Garg R, Tripathy D, Dandona P (2003) Insulin resistance as a proinflammatory state: mechanisms, mediators, and therapeutic interventions. Curr Drug Targets 4(6):487–492
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Hughes S (2000) Novel risk factors for coronary heart disease: emerging connections. J Cardiovasc Nurs 14(2):91–103
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Muzzio ML, Berg G, Zago V et al (2007) Circulating small dense LDL, endothelial injuring factors and fibronectin in healthy postmenopausal women. Clin Chim Acta 381(2):157–163
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Guldiken B, Guldiken S, Turgut B et al (2008) The roles of oxidized low-density lipoprotein and interleukin-6 levels in acute atherothrombotic and lacunar ischemic stroke. Angiology 59(2):224–229
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Van Guilder GP, Hoetzer GL, Greiner JJ, Stauffer BL, Desouza CA (2006) Influence of metabolic syndrome on biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation in obese adults. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14(12):2127–2131
  Google Scholar
• Dandona P (2008) Effects of antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic agents on C-reactive protein. Mayo Clin Proc 83(3):333–342
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Paumelle R, Staels B (2008) Cross-talk between statins and PPAR-alpha in cardiovascular diseases: clinical evidence and basic mechanisms. Trends Cardiovasc Med 18(3):73–78
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Okopien B, Krysiak R, Kowalski J et al (2004) The effect of statins and fibrates on interferon-gamma and interleukin-2 release in patients with primary type II dyslipidemia. Atherosclerosis 176:327–335
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Paumelle R, Blanquart C, Briand O et al (2006) Acute antiinflammatory properties of statins involve peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha via inhibition of the protein kinase C signaling pathway. Circ Res 98:361–369
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Yano M, Matsumura T, Senokuchi T et al (2007) Statins activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma through extracellular signal-regulated kinase ½ and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent cyclooxygenase-2 expression in macrophages. Circ Res 100:1442–1451
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar