Molecular mechanisms of metastasis (original) (raw)

References

1. Paget S: The distribution of secondary growths in cancer of the breast. Lancet 1: 571–573, 1889
   Google Scholar
2. Zlotnik A, Yoshie O: Chemokines: A new classification system and their role in immunity. Immunity 12: 121–127, 2000
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
3. Moser B, Loetscher P: Lymphocyte traffic control by chemokines. Nat Immunol 2: 123–128, 2001
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
4. Lu W, Gersting JA, Maheshwari A, Christensen RD, Calhoun DA: Developmental expression of chemokine receptor genes in the human fetus. Early Hum Dev 81: 489–496, 2005
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
5. Mori T, Kim J, Yamano T, Takeuchi H, Huang S, Umetani N, Koyanagi K, Hoon DS: Epigenetic up-regulation of C-C chemokine receptor 7 and C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 expression in melanoma cells. Cancer Res 65: 1800–1807, 2005
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
6. Takeuchi H, Fujimoto A, Tanaka M, Yamano T, Hsueh E, Hoon DS: CCL21 chemokine regulates chemokine receptor CCR7 bearing malignant melanoma cells. Clin Cancer Res 10: 2351–2358, 2004
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
7. Kato M, Kitayama J, Kazama S, Nagawa H: Expression pattern of CXC chemokine receptor-4 is correlated with lymph node metastasis in human invasive ductal carcinoma. Breast Cancer Res 5: R144–150, 2003
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
8. Rot A, von Andrian UH: Chemokines in innate and adaptive host defense: Basic chemokinese grammar for immune cells. Annu Rev Immunol 22: 891–928, 2004
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
9. Sallusto F, Mackay CR: Chemoattractants and their receptors in homeostasis and inflammation. Curr Opin Immunol 16: 724–731, 2004
   PubMed CAS Google Scholar
10. Hjelmstrom P, Fjell J, Nakagawa T, Sacca R, Cuff CA, Ruddle NH: Lymphoid tissue homing chemokines are expressed in chronic inflammation. Am J Pathol 156: 1133–1138, 2000
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
11. Gunzer M, Schafer A, Borgmann S, Grabbe S, Zanker KS, Brocker EB, Kampgen E, Friedl P: Antigen presentation in extracellular matrix: Interactions of T cells with dendritic cells are dynamic, short lived, and sequential. Immunity 13: 323–332, 2000
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
12. Willimann K, Legler DF, Loetscher M, Roos RS, Delgado MB, Clark-Lewis I, Baggiolini M, Moser B: The chemokine SLC is expressed in T cell areas of lymph nodes and mucosal lymphoid tissues and attracts activated T cells via CCR7. Eur J Immunol 28: 2025–2034, 1998
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
13. Locati M, Bonecchi R, Corsi MM: Chemokines and their receptors: Roles in specific clinical conditions and measurement in the clinical laboratory. Am J Clin Pathol 123 Suppl: S82–95, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
14. Bacon K, Baggiolini M, Broxmeyer H, Horuk R, Lindley I, Mantovani A, Maysushima K, Murphy P, Nomiyama H, Oppenheim J, Rot A, Schall T, Tsang M, Thorpe R, Van Damme J, Wadhwa M, Yoshie O, Zlotnik A, Zoon K: Chemokine/chemokine receptor nomenclature. J Interferon Cytokine Res 22: 1067–1068, 2002
    PubMed Google Scholar
15. Crowson A, Magro C, Mihm M: The melanocytic proliferations: A comprehensive textbook of pigmented lesions. Wisley-Liss, New York, 2001
    Google Scholar
16. Clark WH Jr, From L, Bernardino EA, Mihm MC: The histogenesis and biologic behavior of primary human malignant melanomas of the skin. Cancer Res 29: 705–727, 1969
    PubMed Google Scholar
17. Clark WH Jr, Elder DE, Guerry Dt, Braitman LE, Trock BJ, Schultz D, Synnestvedt M, Halpern AC: Model predicting survival in stage I melanoma based on tumor progression. J Natl Cancer Inst 81: 1893–1904, 1989
    PubMed Google Scholar
18. Elder DE, Guerry Dt, Epstein MN, Zehngebot L, Lusk E, Van Horn M, Clark WH Jr: Invasive malignant melanomas lacking competence for metastasis. Am J Dermatopathol 6(Suppl): 55–61, 1984
    PubMed Google Scholar
19. Gimotty PA, Guerry D, Ming ME, Elenitsas R, Xu X, Czerniecki B, Spitz F, Schuchter L, Elder D: Thin primary cutaneous malignant melanoma: A prognostic tree for 10-year metastasis is more accurate than American Joint Committee on Cancer staging. J Clin Oncol 22: 3668–3676, 2004
    PubMed Google Scholar
20. King R, Googe PB, Weilbaecher KN, Mihm MC Jr, Fisher DE: Microphthalmia transcription factor expression in cutaneous benign, malignant melanocytic, and nonmelanocytic tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 25: 51–57, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
21. Li LX, Crotty KA, Scolyer RA, Thompson JF, Kril JJ, Palmer AA, McCarthy SW: Use of multiple cytometric markers improves discrimination between benign and malignant melanocytic lesions: A study of DNA microdensitometry, karyometry, argyrophilic staining of nucleolar organizer regions and MIB1-Ki67 immunoreactivity. Melanoma Res 13: 581–586, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
22. Piepkorn M: Melanoma genetics: An update with focus on the CDKN2A(p16)/ARF tumor suppressors. J Am Acad Dermatol 42: 705–722, 2000
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
23. Wang H, Presland RB, Piepkorn M: A search for CDKN2A/p16INK4a mutations in melanocytic nevi from patients with melanoma and spouse controls by use of laser-captured microdissection. Arch Dermatol 141: 177–180, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
24. Satyamoorthy K, Li G, Gerrero MR, Brose MS, Volpe P, Weber BL, Van Belle P, Elder DE, Herlyn M: Constitutive mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in melanoma is mediated by both BRAF mutations and autocrine growth factor stimulation. Cancer Res 63: 756–759, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
25. Loewe R, Kittler H, Fischer G, Fae I, Wolff K, Petzelbauer P: BRAF kinase gene V599E mutation in growing melanocytic lesions. J Invest Dermatol 123: 733–736, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
26. Christensen C, Guldberg P: Growth factors rescue cutaneous melanoma cells from apoptosis induced by knockdown of mutated (V600E) B-RAF. Oncogene 24: 6292–6302, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
27. Kato Y, Lambert CA, Colige AC, Mineur P, Noel A, Frankenne F, Foidart JM, Baba M, Hata R, Miyazaki K, Tsukuda M: Acidic extracellular pH induces matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in mouse metastatic melanoma cells through the phospholipase D-mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. J Biol Chem 280: 10938–10944, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
28. Nikkola J, Vihinen P, Vlaykova T, Hahka-Kemppinen M, Heino J, Pyrhonen S: Integrin chains beta1 and alphav as prognostic factors in human metastatic melanoma. Melanoma Res 14: 29–37, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
29. Bogenrieder T, Herlyn M: Axis of evil: Molecular mechanisms of cancer metastasis. Oncogene 22: 6524–6536, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
30. Patton EE, Widlund HR, Kutok JL, Kopani KR, Amatruda JF, Murphey RD, Berghmans S, Mayhall EA, Traver D, Fletcher CD, Aster JC, Granter SR, Look AT, Lee C, Fisher DE, Zon LI: BRAF mutations are sufficient to promote nevi formation and cooperate with p53 in the genesis of melanoma. Curr Biol 15: 249–254, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
31. Duncan LM, Deeds J, Hunter J, Shao J, Holmgren LM, Woolf EA, Tepper RI, Shyjan AW: Down-regulation of the novel gene melastatin correlates with potential for melanoma metastasis. Cancer Res 58: 1515–1520, 1998
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
32. Duncan LM, Deeds J, Cronin FE, Donovan M, Sober AJ, Kauffman M, McCarthy JJ: Melastatin expression and prognosis in cutaneous malignant melanoma. J Clin Oncol 19: 568–576, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
33. Deeds J, Cronin F, Duncan LM: Patterns of melastatin mRNA expression in melanocytic tumors. Hum Pathol 31: 1346–1356, 2000
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
34. Kashani-Sabet M, Shaikh L, Miller JR 3rd, Nosrati M, Ferreira CM, Debs RJ, Sagebiel RW: NF-kappa B in the vascular progression of melanoma. J Clin Oncol 22: 617–623, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
35. Kuphal S, Poser I, Jobin C, Hellerbrand C, Bosserhoff AK: Loss of E-cadherin leads to upregulation of NFkappaB activity in malignant melanoma. Oncogene 23: 8509–8519, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
36. Zheng M, Ekmekcioglu S, Walch ET, Tang CH, Grimm EA: Inhibition of nuclear factor-kappaB and nitric oxide by curcumin induces G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in human melanoma cells. Melanoma Res 14: 165–171, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
37. Amiri KI, Richmond A: Role of nuclear factor-kappa B in melanoma. Cancer Metastasis Rev 24: 301–313, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
38. Amiri KI, Horton LW, LaFleur BJ, Sosman JA, Richmond A: Augmenting chemosensitivity of malignant melanoma tumors via proteasome inhibition: Implication for bortezomib (VELCADE, PS-341) as a therapeutic agent for malignant melanoma. Cancer Res 64: 4912–4918, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
39. Hideshima T, Bradner JE, Wong J, Chauhan D, Richardson P, Schreiber SL, Anderson KC: Small-molecule inhibition of proteasome and aggresome function induces synergistic antitumor activity in multiple myeloma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 8567–8572, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
40. Wilhelm SM, Carter C, Tang L, Wilkie D, McNabola A, Rong H, Chen C, Zhang X, Vincent P, McHugh M, Cao Y, Shujath J, Gawlak S, Eveleigh D, Rowley B, Liu L, Adnane L, Lynch M, Auclair D, Taylor I, Gedrich R, Voznesensky A, Riedl B, Post LE, Bollag G, Trail PA: BAY 43-9006 exhibits broad spectrum oral antitumor activity and targets the RAF/MEK/ERK pathway and receptor tyrosine kinases involved in tumor progression and angiogenesis. Cancer Res 64: 7099–7109, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
41. Leader RW, Padgett GA: The genesis and validation of animal models. Am J Pathol 101: S11–16, 1980
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
42. Liotta LA: Mechanisms of cancer invasion and metastasis. Important Adv Oncol 28–41, 1985
43. Fidler IJ: Selection of successive tumour lines for metastasis. Nat New Biol 242: 148–149, 1973
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
44. Fidler I: Molecular biology of cancer: Invasion and metastasis. In DeVita V, Hellman S, Rosenberg S (Eds) Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 135–152, 1997
    Google Scholar
45. Carr I: Lymphatic metastasis. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2: 307–317, 1983
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
46. Dunnington DJ, Buscarino C, Gennaro D, Greig R, Poste G: Characterization of an animal model of metastatic colon carcinoma. Int J Cancer 39: 248–254, 1987
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
47. Mead MJ, Nathanson SD, Lee M, Peterson E: Prophylactic lymphadenectomy for B16 melanoma in C57/BL6 mice: Survival based on size and heterogeneous variant of the primary. J Surg Res 38: 319–327, 1985
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
48. Stephenson RA, Dinney CP, Gohji K, Ordonez NG, Killion JJ, Fidler IJ: Metastatic model for human prostate cancer using orthotopic implantation in nude mice. J Natl Cancer Inst 84: 951–957, 1992
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
49. Vandendris M, Dumont P, Semal P, Heimann R, Atassi G: Investigation of a new murine model of regional lymph node metastasis: Characteristics of the model and applications. Clin Exp Metastasis 3: 7–19, 1985
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
50. Sleeman JP, Krishnan J, Kirkin V, Baumann P: Markers for the lymphatic endothelium: In search of the holy grail? Microsc Res Tech 55: 61–69, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
51. Lymboussaki A, Achen MG, Stacker SA, Alitalo K: Growth factors regulating lymphatic vessels. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 251: 75–82, 2000
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
52. Eriksson U, Alitalo K: Structure, expression and receptor-binding properties of novel vascular endothelial growth factors. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 237: 41–57, 1999
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
53. Banerji S, Ni J, Wang SX, Clasper S, Su J, Tammi R, Jones M, Jackson DG: LYVE-1, a new homologue of the CD44 glycoprotein, is a lymph-specific receptor for hyaluronan. J Cell Biol 144: 789–801, 1999
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
54. Kaipainen A, Korhonen J, Pajusola K, Aprelikova O, Persico MG, Terman BI, Alitalo K: The related FLT4, FLT1, and KDR receptor tyrosine kinases show distinct expression patterns in human fetal endothelial cells. J Exp Med 178: 2077–2088, 1993
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
55. Kaipainen A, Korhonen J, Mustonen T, van Hinsbergh VW, Fang GH, Dumont D, Breitman M, Alitalo K: Expression of the fms-like tyrosine kinase 4 gene becomes restricted to lymphatic endothelium during development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 3566–3570, 1995
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
56. Weiss L: The pathobiology of metastasis within the lymphatic system. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 5: 15–24, 1996
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
57. Witte MH, Way DL, Witte CL, Bernas M: Lymphangiogenesis: Mechanisms, significance and clinical implications. Exs 79: 65–112, 1997
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
58. Nathanson SD, Zarbo RJ, Wachna DL, Spence CA, Andrzejewski TA, Abrams J: Microvessels that predict axillary lymph node metastases in patients with breast cancer. Arch Surg 135: 586–593; discussion 593–584, 2000
    Google Scholar
59. Alitalo K, Carmeliet P: Molecular mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis in health and disease. Cancer Cell 1: 219–227, 2002
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
60. Minsky BD, Mies C, Rich TA, Recht A: Lymphatic vessel invasion is an independent prognostic factor for survival in colorectal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 17: 311–318, 1989
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
61. Wiley HE, Gonzalez EB, Maki W, Wu MT, Hwang ST: Expression of CC chemokine receptor-7 and regional lymph node metastasis of B16 murine melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 93: 1638–1643, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
62. Jeltsch M, Kaipainen A, Joukov V, Meng X, Lakso M, Rauvala H, Swartz M, Fukumura D, Jain RK, Alitalo K: Hyperplasia of lymphatic vessels in VEGF-C transgenic mice. Science 276: 1423–1425, 1997
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
63. Dvorak HF: Vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial growth factor: A critical cytokine in tumor angiogenesis and a potential target for diagnosis and therapy. J Clin Oncol 20: 4368–4380, 2002
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
64. Nathanson SD, Nelson L: Interstitial fluid pressure in breast cancer, benign breast conditions, and breast parenchyma. Ann Surg Oncol 1: 333–338, 1994
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
65. Boucher Y, Jain RK: Microvascular pressure is the principal driving force for interstitial hypertension in solid tumors: Implications for vascular collapse. Cancer Res 52: 5110–5114, 1992
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
66. Nathanson SD, Anaya P, Avery M, Hetzel FW, Sarantou T, Havstad S: Sentinel lymph node metastasis in experimental melanoma: Relationships among primary tumor size, lymphatic vessel diameter and 99mTc-labeled human serum albumin clearance. Ann Surg Oncol 4: 161–168, 1997
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
67. Avery M, Nathanson SD, Hetzel FW: Lymph flow from murine footpad tumors before and after sublethal hyperthermia. Radiat Res 132: 50–53, 1992
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
68. Nathanson SD, Haas GP, Bobrowski R, Lee M, Tilley B, Schultz L, Hetzel F: Regional lymph node and pulmonary metastases after local hyperthermia of melanomas in C57BL/6 mice. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 13: 243–249, 1987
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
69. Boardman KC, Swartz MA: Interstitial flow as a guide for lymphangiogenesis. Circ Res 92: 801–808, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
70. Liotta LA, Kohn EC: The microenvironment of the tumour-host interface. Nature 411: 375–379, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
71. Padera TP, Kadambi A, di Tomaso E, Carreira CM, Brown EB, Boucher Y, Choi NC, Mathisen D, Wain J, Mark EJ, Munn LL, Jain RK: Lymphatic metastasis in the absence of functional intratumor lymphatics. Science 296: 1883–1886, 2002
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
72. Mattila MM, Ruohola JK, Karpanen T, Jackson DG, Alitalo K, Harkonen PL: VEGF-C induced lymphangiogenesis is associated with lymph node metastasis in orthotopic MCF-7 tumors. Int J Cancer 98: 946–951, 2002
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
73. Skobe M, Hawighorst T, Jackson DG, Prevo R, Janes L, Velasco P, Riccardi L, Alitalo K, Claffey K, Detmar M: Induction of tumor lymphangiogenesis by VEGF-C promotes breast cancer metastasis. Nat Med 7: 192–198, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
74. Chang L, Farnebo F, Mulligan R, Folkman J, Kaipainen A: A mechanism for regulation of lymphangiogenesis independent of angiogenesis. In: Amer Assoc Canc Research Annual Meeting, San Francisco, April 6–10, 2002
75. Diperna CA, Bart RD, Sievers EM, Ma Y, Starnes VA, Bremner RM: Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition decreases primary and metastatic tumor burden in a murine model of orthotopic lung adenocarcinoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 126: 1129–1133, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
76. Qian CN, Takahashi M, Kahnoski RJ, Teh BT: Effect of sildenafil citrate on an orthotopic prostate cancer growth and metastasis model. J Urol 170: 994–997, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
77. Nathanson SD: Insights into the mechanisms of lymph node metastasis. Cancer 98: 413–423, 2003
    PubMed Google Scholar
78. Jain RK: Barriers to drug delivery in solid tumors. Sci Am 271: 58–65, 1994
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
79. Boucher Y, Baxter LT, Jain RK: Interstitial pressure gradients in tissue-isolated and subcutaneous tumors: Implications for therapy. Cancer Res 50: 4478–4484, 1990
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
80. Gullino P: Angiogenesis, tumor vascularization, and potential interference with tumor growth. In: Mihich E (ed), Biological responses to cancer, Plenum Press, New York, pp 1–20, 1985
    Google Scholar
81. Lee FC, Tilghman RC: Lymph vessels in rabbit carcinoma with a note on the normal lymph vessel structure of the testis. Archives of Surgery 26: 602–616, 1933
    Google Scholar
82. Leu AJ, Berk DA, Lymboussaki A, Alitalo K, Jain RK: Absence of functional lymphatics within a murine sarcoma: A molecular and functional evaluation. Cancer Res 60: 4324–4327, 2000
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
83. Pepper MS: Lymphangiogenesis and tumor metastasis: Myth or reality? Clin Cancer Res 7: 462–468, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
84. de Waal RM, van Altena MC, Erhard H, Weidle UH, Nooijen PT, Ruiter DJ: Lack of lymphangiogenesis in human primary cutaneous melanoma. Consequences for the mechanism of lymphatic dissemination. Am J Pathol 150: 1951–1957, 1997
    PubMed Google Scholar
85. Achen MG, McColl BK, Stacker SA: Focus on lymphangiogenesis in tumor metastasis. Cancer Cell 7: 121–127, 2005
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
86. Jain RK, Fenton BT: Intratumoral lymphatic vessels: A case of mistaken identity or malfunction? J Natl Cancer Inst 94: 417–421, 2002
    PubMed Google Scholar
87. Pepper MS, Tille JC, Nisato R, Skobe M: Lymphangiogenesis and tumor metastasis. Cell Tissue Res 314: 167–177, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
88. Saharinen P, Tammela T, Karkkainen MJ, Alitalo K: Lymphatic vasculature: Development, molecular regulation and role in tumor metastasis and inflammation. Trends Immunol 25: 387–395, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
89. Padera TP, Stoll BR, So PT, Jain RK: Conventional and high-speed intravital multiphoton laser scanning microscopy of microvasculature, lymphatics, and leukocyte-endothelial interactions. Mol Imaging 1: 9–15, 2002
    PubMed Google Scholar
90. Williams CS, Leek RD, Robson AM, Banerji S, Prevo R, Harris AL, Jackson DG: Absence of lymphangiogenesis and intratumoural lymph vessels in human metastatic breast cancer. J Pathol 200: 195–206, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
91. Maula SM, Luukkaa M, Grenman R, Jackson D, Jalkanen S, Ristamaki R: Intratumoral lymphatics are essential for the metastatic spread and prognosis in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck region. Cancer Res 63: 1920–1926, 2003
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
92. Dadras SS, Paul T, Bertoncini J, Brown LF, Muzikansky A, Jackson DG, Ellwanger U, Garbe C, Mihm MC, Detmar M: Tumor lymphangiogenesis: A novel prognostic indicator for cutaneous melanoma metastasis and survival. Am J Pathol 162: 1951–1960, 2003
    PubMed Google Scholar
93. Padera TP, Boucher Y, Jain RK: Correspondence re: Maula S, et al.: Intratumoral lymphatics are essential for the metastatic spread and prognosis in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Cancer Res 63: 1920–1926, 2003; Cancer Res 63: 8555–8556; author reply 8558, 2003
    Google Scholar
94. Griffon-Etienne G, Boucher Y, Brekken C, Suit HD, Jain RK: Taxane-induced apoptosis decompresses blood vessels and lowers interstitial fluid pressure in solid tumors: Clinical implications. Cancer Res 59: 3776–3782, 1999
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
95. Schmid-Schonbein GW: The second valve system in lymphatics. Lymphat Res Biol 1: 25–29; discussion 29–31, 2003
    PubMed Google Scholar
96. Trzewik J, Mallipattu SK, Artmann GM, Delano FA, Schmid-Schonbein GW: Evidence for a second valve system in lymphatics: Endothelial microvalves. Faseb J 15: 1711–1717, 2001
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
97. Leunig M, Yuan F, Menger MD, Boucher Y, Goetz AE, Messmer K, Jain RK: Angiogenesis, microvascular architecture, microhemodynamics, and interstitial fluid pressure during early growth of human adenocarcinoma LS174T in SCID mice. Cancer Res 52: 6553–6560, 1992
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
98. Isaka N, Padera TP, Hagendoorn J, Fukumura D, Jain RK: Peritumor lymphatics induced by vascular endothelial growth factor-C exhibit abnormal function. Cancer Res 64: 4400–4404, 2004
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
99. Gashev AA, Davis MJ, Zawieja DC: Inhibition of the active lymph pump by flow in rat mesenteric lymphatics and thoracic duct. J Physiol 540: 1023–1037, 2002
    PubMed CAS Google Scholar
100. Shirasawa Y, Ikomi F, Ohhashi T: Physiological roles of endogenous nitric oxide in lymphatic pump activity of rat mesentery in vivo. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 278: G551–556, 2000
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
101. von der Weid PY: ATP-sensitive K+ channels in smooth muscle cells of guinea-pig mesenteric lymphatics: Role in nitric oxide and beta-adrenoceptor agonist-induced hyperpolarizations. Br J Pharmacol 125: 17–22, 1998
     PubMed Google Scholar
102. Mizuno R, Koller A, Kaley G: Regulation of the vasomotor activity of lymph microvessels by nitric oxide and prostaglandins. Am J Physiol 274: R790–796, 1998
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
103. Hagendoorn J, Padera TP, Kashiwagi S, Isaka N, Noda F, Lin MI, Huang PL, Sessa WC, Fukumura D, Jain RK: Endothelial nitric oxide synthase regulates microlymphatic flow via collecting lymphatics. Circ Res 95: 204–209, 2004
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
104. Leu AJ, Berk DA, Yuan F, Jain RK: Flow velocity in the superficial lymphatic network of the mouse tail. Am J Physiol 267: H1507–1513, 1994
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
105. Hagendoorn J, Padera TP, Fukumura D, Jain RK: Molecular regulation of microlymphatic formation and function: Role of nitric oxide. Trends Cardiovasc Med 15: 169–173, 2005
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
106. Nemoto T, Vana J, Bedwani RN, Baker HW, McGregor FH, Murphy GP: Management and survival of female breast cancer: Results of a national survey by the American College of Surgeons. Cancer 45: 2917–2924, 1980
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
107. McGuire WL: Prognostic factors for recurrence and survival in human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 10: 5–9, 1987
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
108. Singletary SE, Allred C, Ashley P, Bassett LW, Berry D, Bland KI, Borgen PI, Clark GM, Edge SB, Hayes DF, Hughes LL, Hutter RV, Morrow M, Page DL, Recht A, Theriault RL, Thor A, Weaver DL, Wieand HS, Greene FL: Staging system for breast cancer: Revisions for the 6th edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. Surg Clin North Am 83: 803–819, 2003
     PubMed Google Scholar
109. Thor A: A revised staging system for breast cancer. Breast J 10 (Suppl 1): S15–18, 2004
     PubMed Google Scholar
110. MacDonald IC, Groom AC, Chambers AF: Cancer spread and micrometastasis development: Quantitative approaches for in vivo models. Bioessays 24: 885–893, 2002
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
111. Chambers AF, Groom AC, MacDonald IC: Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites. Nat Rev Cancer 2: 563–572, 2002
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
112. Pantel K, Brakenhoff RH: Dissecting the metastatic cascade. Nat Rev Cancer 4: 448–456, 2004
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
113. Price JE, Polyzos A, Zhang RD, Daniels LM: Tumorigenicity and metastasis of human breast carcinoma cell lines in nude mice. Cancer Res 50: 717–721, 1990
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
114. Price JE, Zhang RD: Studies of human breast cancer metastasis using nude mice. Cancer Metastasis Rev 8: 285–297, 1990
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
115. Zhang RD, Fidler IJ, Price JE: Relative malignant potential of human breast carcinoma cell lines established from pleural effusions and a brain metastasis. Invasion Metastasis 11: 204–215, 1991
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
116. Vantyghem SA, Allan AL, Postenka CO, Al-Katib W, Keeney M, Tuck AB, Chambers AF: A New Model for Lymphatic Metastasis: Development of a Variant of the MDA-MB-468 human Breast Cancer Cell Line that Aggressively Metastasizes to Lymph Nodes. Clin Exp Metastasis 22: 351–361, 2005
     PubMed Google Scholar
117. Savagner P: Leaving the neighborhood: Molecular mechanisms involved during epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Bioessays 23: 912–923, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
118. Tuck AB, Chambers AF: The role of osteopontin in breast cancer: Clinical and experimental studies. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 6: 419–429, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
119. Cook AC, Tuck AB, McCarthy S, Turner JG, Irby RB, Bloom GC, Yeatman TJ, Chambers AF: Osteopontin induces multiple changes in gene expression that reflect the six “hallmarks of cancer” in a model of breast cancer progression. Mol Carcinog 43: 225–236, 2005
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
120. Furger KA, Allan AL, Wilson SM, Hota C, Vantyghem SA, Postenka CO, Al-Katib W, Chambers AF, Tuck AB: Beta(3) integrin expression increases breast carcinoma cell responsiveness to the malignancy-enhancing effects of osteopontin. Mol Cancer Res 1: 810–819, 2003
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
121. Varghese HJ, MacKenzie LT, Groom AC, Ellis CG, Chambers AF, MacDonald IC: Mapping of the functional microcirculation in vital organs using contrast-enhanced in vivo video microscopy. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 288: H185–193, 2005
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
122. MacDonald IC, Steinman DA, Groom AC, Chambers AF: Lymphatic changes during early tumor development. In: 3rd Era of Hope Meeting, Department of Defense Breast Cancer Research Program, Orlando, FL, Sept 26–28, 2002
123. Koop S, MacDonald IC, Luzzi K, Schmidt EE, Morris VL, Grattan M, Khokha R, Chambers AF, Groom AC: Fate of melanoma cells entering the microcirculation: Over 80 survive and extravasate. Cancer Res 55: 2520–2523, 1995
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
124. Koop S, Schmidt EE, MacDonald IC, Morris VL, Khokha R, Grattan M, Leone J, Chambers AF, Groom AC: Independence of metastatic ability and extravasation: Metastatic ras-transformed and control fibroblasts extravasate equally well. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 11080–11084, 1996
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
125. Morris VL, Schmidt EE, MacDonald IC, Groom AC, Chambers AF: Sequential steps in hematogenous metastasis of cancer cells studied by in vivo videomicroscopy. Invasion Metastasis 17: 281–296, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
126. Naumov GN, Wilson SM, MacDonald IC, Schmidt EE, Morris VL, Groom AC, Hoffman RM, Chambers AF: Cellular expression of green fluorescent protein, coupled with high-resolution in vivo videomicroscopy, to monitor steps in tumor metastasis. J Cell Sci 112(Pt 12): 1835–1842, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
127. Varghese HJ, Mackenzie LT, Groom AC, Ellis CG, Ryan A, MacDonald IC, Chambers AF: In vivo videomicroscopy reveals differential effects of the vascular-targeting agent ZD6126 and the anti-angiogenic agent ZD6474 on vascular function in a liver metastasis model. Angiogenesis 7: 157–164, 2004
     PubMed Google Scholar
128. Reintgen D, Cruse CW, Wells K, Berman C, Fenske N, Glass F, Schroer K, Heller R, Ross M, Lyman G, et al.: The orderly progression of melanoma nodal metastases. Ann Surg 220: 759–767, 1994
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
129. Morton DL, Wen DR, Wong JH, Economou JS, Cagle LA, Storm FK, Foshag LJ, Cochran AJ: Technical details of intraoperative lymphatic mapping for early stage melanoma. Arch Surg 127: 392–399, 1992
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
130. Morton DL, Thompson JF, Essner R, Elashoff R, Stern SL, Nieweg OE, Roses DF, Karakousis CP, Mozzillo N, Reintgen D, Wang HJ, Glass EC, Cochran AJ: Validation of the accuracy of intraoperative lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for early-stage melanoma: A multicenter trial. Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial Group. Ann Surg 230: 453–463; discussion 463–455, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
131. Giuliano AE, Dale PS, Turner RR, Morton DL, Evans SW, Krasne DL: Improved axillary staging of breast cancer with sentinel lymphadenectomy. Ann Surg 222: 394–399; discussion 399–401, 1995
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
132. Messina JL, Glass LF, Cruse CW, Berman C, Ku NK, Reintgen DS: Pathologic examination of the sentinel lymph node in malignant melanoma. Am J Surg Pathol 23: 686–690, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
133. Shivers SC, Wang X, Li W, Joseph E, Messina J, Glass LF, DeConti R, Cruse CW, Berman C, Fenske NA, Lyman GH, Reintgen DS: Molecular staging of malignant melanoma: Correlation with clinical outcome. Jama 280: 1410–1415, 1998
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
134. Cochran AJ, Morton DL, Stern S, Lana AM, Essner R, Wen DR: Sentinel lymph nodes show profound downregulation of antigen-presenting cells of the paracortex: Implications for tumor biology and treatment. Mod Pathol 14: 604–608, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
135. Essner R, Kojima M: Dendritic cell function in sentinel nodes. Oncology (Williston Park) 16: 27–31, 2002
     Google Scholar
136. Movassagh M, Spatz A, Davoust J, Lebecque S, Romero P, Pittet M, Rimoldi D, Lienard D, Gugerli O, Ferradini L, Robert C, Avril MF, Zitvogel L, Angevin E: Selective accumulation of mature DC-Lamp + dendritic cells in tumor sites is associated with efficient T-cell-mediated antitumor response and control of metastatic dissemination in melanoma. Cancer Res 64: 2192–2198, 2004
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
137. Schule J, Bergkvist L, Hakansson L, Gustafsson B, Hakansson A: Down-regulation of the CD3-zeta chain in sentinel node biopsies from breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat 74: 33–40, 2002
     PubMed Google Scholar
138. Leong SP, Peng M, Zhou YM, Vaquerano JE, Chang JW: Cytokine profiles of sentinel lymph nodes draining the primary melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol 9: 82–87, 2002
     PubMed Google Scholar
139. Sato K, Tamaki K, Bunnell CA, Hiraide H, Mochizuki H: [Advances in sentinel node biopsy for breast cancer]. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho 31: 1601–1607, 2004
     PubMed Google Scholar
140. Van den Eynde BJ, Boon T: Tumor antigens recognized by T lymphocytes. Int J Clin Lab Res 27: 81–86, 1997
     PubMed Google Scholar
141. Wang RF, Rosenberg SA: Human tumor antigens for cancer vaccine development. Immunol Rev 170: 85–100, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
142. Mackensen A, Carcelain G, Viel S, Raynal MC, Michalaki H, Triebel F, Bosq J, Hercend T: Direct evidence to support the immunosurveillance concept in a human regressive melanoma. J Clin Invest 93: 1397–1402, 1994
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
143. Yamshchikov GV, Barnd DL, Eastham S, Galavotti H, Patterson JW, Deacon DH, Teates D, Neese P, Grosh WW, Petroni G, Engelhard VH, Slingluff CL Jr.: Evaluation of peptide vaccine immunogenicity in draining lymph nodes and peripheral blood of melanoma patients. Int J Cancer 92: 703–711, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
144. Janssen-Heijnen ML, Gatta G, Forman D, Capocaccia R, Coebergh JW: Variation in survival of patients with lung cancer in Europe, 1985–1989. EUROCARE Working Group. Eur J Cancer 34: 2191–2196, 1998
     CAS Google Scholar
145. Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ: Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin 55: 10–30, 2005
     PubMed Google Scholar
146. el-Torky M, el-Zeky F, Hall JC: Significant changes in the distribution of histologic types of lung cancer. A review of 4928 cases. Cancer 65: 2361–2367, 1990
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
147. Martini N, Bains MS, Burt ME, Zakowski MF, McCormack P, Rusch VW, Ginsberg RJ: Incidence of local recurrence and second primary tumors in resected stage I lung cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 109: 120–129, 1995
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
148. Mountain CF, Dresler CM: Regional lymph node classification for lung cancer staging. Chest 111: 1718–1723, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
149. Okada M, Nishio W, Sakamoto T, Harada H, Uchino K, Tsubota N: Long-term survival and prognostic factors of five-year survivors with complete resection of non-small cell lung carcinoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 126: 558–562, 2003
     PubMed Google Scholar
150. Kubuschok B, Passlick B, Izbicki JR, Thetter O, Pantel K: Disseminated tumor cells in lymph nodes as a determinant for survival in surgically resected non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 17: 19–24, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
151. Latza U, Niedobitek G, Schwarting R, Nekarda H, Stein H: Ber-EP4: New monoclonal antibody which distinguishes epithelia from mesothelial. J Clin Pathol 43: 213–219, 1990
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
152. Momburg F, Moldenhauer G, Hammerling GJ, Moller P: Immunohistochemical study of the expression of a Mr 34,000 human epithelium-specific surface glycoprotein in normal and malignant tissues. Cancer Res 47: 2883–2891, 1987
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
153. Oosterhuis JW, Theunissen PH, Bollen EC: Improved pre-operative mediastinal staging in non-small-cell lung cancer by serial sectioning and immunohistochemical staining of lymph-node biopsies. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 20: 335–338, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
154. Lugo TG, Braun S, Cote RJ, Pantel K, Rusch V: Detection and measurement of occult disease for the prognosis of solid tumors. J Clin Oncol 21: 2609–2615, 2003
     PubMed Google Scholar
155. El-Hefnawy T, Raja S, Kelly L, Bigbee WL, Kirkwood JM, Luketich JD, Godfrey TE: Characterization of amplifiable, circulating RNA in plasma and its potential as a tool for cancer diagnostics. Clin Chem 50: 564–573, 2004
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
156. Zippelius A, Kufer P, Honold G, Kollermann MW, Oberneder R, Schlimok G, Riethmuller G, Pantel K: Limitations of reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analyses for detection of micrometastatic epithelial cancer cells in bone marrow. J Clin Oncol 15: 2701–2708, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
157. Salerno CT, Frizelle S, Niehans GA, Ho SB, Jakkula M, Kratzke RA, Maddaus MA: Detection of occult micrometastases in non-small cell lung carcinoma by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Chest 113: 1526–1532, 1998
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
158. D'Cunha J, Corfits AL, Herndon JE 2nd, Kern JA, Kohman LJ, Patterson GA, Kratzke RA, Maddaus MA: Molecular staging of lung cancer: Real-time polymerase chain reaction estimation of lymph node micrometastatic tumor cell burden in stage I non-small cell lung cancer–preliminary results of Cancer and Leukemia Group B Trial 9761. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 123: 484–491; discussion 491, 2002
     PubMed Google Scholar
159. Wang XT, Sienel W, Eggeling S, Ludwig C, Stoelben E, Mueller J, Klein CA, Passlick B: Detection of disseminated tumor cells in mediastinoscopic lymph node biopsies and lymphadenectomy specimens of patients with NSCLC by quantitative RT-PCR. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 28: 26–32, 2005
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
160. Mountain CF: Revisions in the International System for Staging Lung Cancer. Chest 111: 1710–1717, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
161. Chen ZL, Perez S, Holmes EC, Wang HJ, Coulson WF, Wen DR, Cochran AJ: Frequency and distribution of occult micrometastases in lymph nodes of patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 85: 493–498, 1993
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
162. Maruyama R, Sugio K, Mitsudomi T, Saitoh G, Ishida T, Sugimachi K: Relationship between early recurrence and micrometastases in the lymph nodes of patients with stage I non-small-cell lung cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 114: 535–543, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
163. Dobashi K, Sugio K, Osaki T, Oka T, Yasumoto K: Micrometastatic P53-positive cells in the lymph nodes of non-small-cell lung cancer: Prognostic significance. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 114: 339–346, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
164. Ahrendt SA, Yang SC, Wu L, Roig CM, Russell P, Westra WH, Jen J, Brock MV, Heitmiller RF, Sidransky D: Molecular assessment of lymph nodes in patients with resected stage I non-small cell lung cancer: Preliminary results of a prospective study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 123: 466–473; discussion 473–464, 2002
     PubMed Google Scholar
165. Le Pimpec-Barthes F, Danel C, Lacave R, Ricci S, Bry X, Lancelin F, Leber C, Milleron B, Fleury-Feith J, Riquet M, Bernaudin JF: Association of CK19 mRNA detection of occult cancer cells in mediastinal lymph nodes in non-small cell lung carcinoma and high risk of early recurrence. Eur J Cancer 41: 306–312, 2005
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
166. Kawano R, Hata E, Ikeda S, Sakaguchi H: Micrometastasis to lymph nodes in stage I left lung cancer patients. Ann Thorac Surg 73: 1558–1562, 2002
     PubMed Google Scholar
167. Scheunemann P, Izbicki JR, Pantel K: Tumorigenic potential of apparently tumor-free lymph nodes. N Engl J Med 340: 1687, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
168. Klein CA, Schmidt-Kittler O, Schardt JA, Pantel K, Speicher MR, Riethmuller G: Comparative genomic hybridization, loss of heterozygosity, and DNA sequence analysis of single cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 4494–4499, 1999
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
169. Pantel K, Schlimok G, Braun S, Kutter D, Lindemann F, Schaller G, Funke I, Izbicki JR, Riethmuller G: Differential expression of proliferation-associated molecules in individual micrometastatic carcinoma cells. J Natl Cancer Inst 85: 1419–1424, 1993
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
170. Uhr JW, Scheuermann RH, Street NE, Vitetta ES: Cancer dormancy: Opportunities for new therapeutic approaches. Nat Med 3: 505–509, 1997
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
171. Passlick B, Sienel W, Seen-Hibler R, Wockel W, Thetter O, Pantel K: The 17-1A antigen is expressed on primary, metastatic and disseminated non-small cell lung carcinoma cells. Int J Cancer 87: 548–552, 2000
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
172. Wu J, Ohta Y, Minato H, Tsunezuka Y, Oda M, Watanabe Y, Watanabe G: Nodal occult metastasis in patients with peripheral lung adenocarcinoma of 2.0 cm or less in diameter. Ann Thorac Surg 71: 1772–1777; discussion 1777–1778, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
173. Ohta Y, Oda M, Wu J, Tsunezuka Y, Hiroshi M, Nonomura A, Watanabe G: Can tumor size be a guide for limited surgical intervention in patients with peripheral non-small cell lung cancer? Assessment from the point of view of nodal micrometastasis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 122: 900–906, 2001
     PubMed CAS Google Scholar
174. Gu CD, Osaki T, Oyama T, Inoue M, Kodate M, Dobashi K, Oka T, Yasumoto K: Detection of micrometastatic tumor cells in pN0 lymph nodes of patients with completely resected nonsmall cell lung cancer: Impact on recurrence and Survival. Ann Surg 235: 133–139, 2002
     PubMed Google Scholar

Download references