Transgene silencing by the host genome defense: implications for the evolution of epigenetic control mechanisms in plants and vertebrates (original) (raw)
References
Amir, R.E., Van den Veyver, I.B., Wan, M., Tran, C.Q., Franke, U. and Zoghbi, H.Y. et al. 1999. Rett syndrome is caused by mutations in X-linked MECP2, encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2. Nature Genet. 23: 185–188. PubMed Google Scholar
Bender, J. 1998. Cytosine methylation of repeated sequences in eukaryotes: the role of DNA pairing. Trends Biochem. 23: 252–256. PubMed Google Scholar
Bender, J. and Fink, G.R. 1995. Epigenetic control of an endogenous gene family is revealed by a novel blue fluorescent mutant of Arabidopsis. Cell 83: 725–734. PubMed Google Scholar
Bennetzen, J.L. 2000. Transposable element contributions to plant gene and genome evolution. Plant Mol. Biol. 42: 251–269. PubMed Google Scholar
Bestor, T.H., Laudano, A., Mattaliano, R. and Ingram, V. 1988. Cloning and sequencing of a cDNA encoding DNA methyltransferase of mouse cells. J. Mol. Biol. 203: 971–983. PubMed Google Scholar
Bestor, T.H. 1990. DNA methylation: evolution of a bacterial immune function into a regulator of gene expression and genome structure in higher eukaryotes. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 326: 179–187. Google Scholar
Bestor, T.H. and Tycko, B. 1996. Creation of genomic methylation patterns. Nature Genet. 12: 363–367. PubMed Google Scholar
Bird, A.P. and Wolffe, A.P. 1999. Methylation-induced repression: belts, braces, and chromatin. Cell 99: 451–454. PubMed Google Scholar
Bollman, J., Carpenter, R. and Coen, E.S. 1991. Allelic interactions at the nivea locus of Antirrhinum. Plant Cell 3: 1327–1336. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Britten, R.J. 1996. DNA sequence insertion and evolutionary variation in gene regulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 9374–9377. PubMed Google Scholar
Britten, R.J. 1997. Mobile elements inserted in the distant past have taken on important functions. Gene 205: 177–182. PubMed Google Scholar
Bureau, T.E., Ronald, P.C. and Wessler, S.R. 1996. A computerbased systematic survey reveals the predominance of small inverted. repeat elements in wild-type rice genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 8524–8529. PubMed Google Scholar
Casacuberta, E., Casacuberta, J.M., Puigdomènech, P. and Monfort, A. 1998. Presence of miniature inverted-repeat transposable elements (MITEs) in the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana: characterisation of the Emigrant family of elements. Plant J. 16: 79–85. PubMed Google Scholar
Cogoni, C. and Macino, G. 1997a. Conservation of transgeneinduced post-transcriptional gene silencing in plants and fungi. Trends Plant Sci. 2: 438–443. Google Scholar
Cogoni, C. and Macino, G. 1997b. Isolation of quelling-defective (qde) mutants impaired in posttranscriptional transgene-induced gene silencing in Neurospora crassa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 10233–10238. PubMed Google Scholar
Cogoni, C. and Macino, G. 1999a. Gene silencing in Neurospora crassa requires a protein homologous to RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Nature 399: 166–169. PubMed Google Scholar
Cogoni, C. and Macino, G. 1999b. Posttranscriptional gene silencing in Neurospora by a RecQ DNA helicase. Science 286: 2342–2344. PubMed Google Scholar
Cogoni, C. and Macino, G. 1999c. Homology-dependent gene silencing in plants and fungi: a number of variations on the same theme. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 6: 657–662. Google Scholar
Colot, V. and Rossignol, J.-L. 1999. Eukaryotic DNA methylation as an evolutionary device. BioEssays 15: 3153–3163. Google Scholar
Colot, V., Maloisel, L. and Rossignol, J.-L. 1997. Interchromosomal transfer of epigenetic states in Ascobolus: transfer of DNA methylation is mechanistically related to homologous recombination. Cell 86: 855–864. Google Scholar
Coppin-Raynal, E., Picard, M. and Arnaise, S. 1989. Transformation by integration in Podospora anserina. Mol. Gen. Genet. 219: 270–276. PubMed Google Scholar
Craig, N.L 1997. Target site selection in transposition. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 66: 437–474. PubMed Google Scholar
Ding, D. and Lipschutz, H.D. 1994. Spatially regulated expression of retrovirus-like transposons during Drosophila melanogaster embryogenesis. Genet. Res. Camb. 64: 167–181. Google Scholar
Elmayan, T., Balzergue, S., Béon, F., Bourdon, V., Daubremet, J., Guénet, Y., Mourrain, P., Palauqui, J.-C., Vernhettes, S., Vialle, T., Wostrikoff, K. and Vaucheret, H. 1998. Arabidopsis mutants impaired in cosuppression. Plant Cell 10: 1747–1757. PubMed Google Scholar
Finnegan, E.J., Genger, R.K., Peacock, W.J. and Dennis, E.S. 1998. DNA methylation in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 49: 223-248. Fire, A. 1999. RNA-triggered gene silencing. Trends Genet. 15: 358–363. Google Scholar
Fuks, F., Burgers, W.A., Brehm, A., Hughes-Davies, L. and Kouzarides. 2000. DNA methyltransferase Dnmt1 associates with histone deacetylase activity. Nature Genet. 24: 88–91. PubMed Google Scholar
Genger, R.K., Kovac, K.A., Dennis, E.S., Peacock, W.J. and Finnegan, E.J. 1999. Multiple DNA methyltransferase genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Mol. Biol. 41: 269–278. PubMed Google Scholar
Girard, L. and Freeling, M. 1999. Regulatory changes as a consequence of transposon insertion. Dev. Genet. 25: 291–296. PubMed Google Scholar
Gonzalgo, M.L. and Jones, P.A. 1997. Mutagenic and epigenetic effects of DNA methylation. Mut. Res. 386: 107–118. Google Scholar
Hamilton, A.J., Brown, S., Yuanhai, H., Ishizuka, M., Lowe, A., Alpuche Solis, A. and Grierson, D. 1998. A transgene with repeated DNA causes high frequency, post-transcriptional suppression of ACC-oxidase gene expression in tomato. Plant J. 15: 737–746. Google Scholar
Hansen, R.S., Wijmenga, C., Luo, P., Stanek, A.M., Canfield, T.K., Weemaes, C.M.R. and Gartler, S.M. 1999. The DNMT3B DNA methyltransferase gene is mutated in the ICF immunodeficiency syndrome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96: 14412–14417. PubMed Google Scholar
Hendrich, B., Hardeland, U., Ng, H.-H., Jiricny, J. and Bird, A. 1999. The thymine glycosylase MBD4 can bind to the product of deamination at methylated CpG sites. Nature 401: 301–304. PubMed Google Scholar
Henikoff, S. and Comai, L. 1998. A DNA methyltransferase homolog with a chromodomain exists in multiple polymorphic forms in Arabidopsis. Genetics 149: 307–318. PubMed Google Scholar
Holland, P.W.H. 1999. The future of evolutionary developmental biology. Nature 402: C41–C44. PubMed Google Scholar
Holliday, R. and Pugh, J.E. 1975. DNA modification mechanisms and gene activity during development. Science 187: 226–232. PubMed Google Scholar
Huang, M.-S., Karthikeyan, N., Huang, B., Koo, H.-C., Kiger, J. and Shen, C.-K. 1999. Drosophila proteins related to vertebrate DNA (5–cytosine) methyltransferases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96: 11940–11945. PubMed Google Scholar
Iglesias, V.A., Moscone, E.A., Papp, I., Neuhuber, F., Michalowski, S., Phelan, T., Spiker, S., Matzke, M. and Matzke, A.J.M. 1997. Molecular and cytogenetic analyses of stably and unstably expressed transgene loci in tobacco. Plant Cell 9: 1251–1264. PubMed Google Scholar
Jacobsen, S.E. and Meyerowitz, E.M. 1997. Hypermethylated SUPERMAN epigenetic alleles in Arabidopsis. Science 277: 1100–1103. PubMed Google Scholar
Jakowitsch, J., Papp, I., Matzke, M.A. and Matzke, A.J.M. 1998. Identification of a new family of highly repetitive DNA, NTS9, that is located predominantly on the S9 chromosome of tobacco. Chrom. Res. 6: 649–659. PubMed Google Scholar
Jakowitsch, J., Mette, M.F., van der Winden, J., Matzke, M.A. and Matzke, A.J.M. 1999a. Integrated pararetroviral sequences define a unique class of dispersed repetitive DNA in plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96: 13241–13246. PubMed Google Scholar
Jakowitsch, J., Papp, I., Moscone, E.A., van der Winden, J., Matzke, M. and Matzke, A.J.M. 1999b. Molecular and cytogenetic characterization of a transgene locus that induces silencing and methylation of homologous promoters in trans. Plant J. 17: 131–140. PubMed Google Scholar
Jeddeloh, J.A., Stokes, T.L. and Richards, E.J. 1999. Maintenance of genomic methylation requires a SWI2/SNF2–like protein. Nature Genet. 21: 209–212. PubMed Google Scholar
Jensen, S., Gassama, M.-P. and Heidmann, T. 1999. Cosuppression of I transposon activity by I-containing sense and antisense transgenes. Genetics 153: 1767–1774. PubMed Google Scholar
Jones, A.L., Thomas, C.L. and Maule, A.J. 1998. De novo methylation and cosuppression induced by a cytoplasmically replicating plant RNA virus. EMBO J. 17: 6385–6393. PubMed Google Scholar
Jones, L., Hamilton, A.J., Voinnet, O., Thomas, C.L., Maule, A.J. and Baulcombe, D.C. 1999. RNA-DNA interaction and DNA methylation in post-transcriptional gene silencing. Plant Cell 11: 2291–2301. PubMed Google Scholar
Jones, P., Veenstra, G., Wade, P.A., Vermaak, D., Kass, S.U., Landsberger, N., Strouboulis, J. and Wolffe, A.P. 1998. Methylated DNA and MeCP2 recruit histone deacetylases to repress transcription. Nature Genet. 19: 187–191. PubMed Google Scholar
Jurka, J. 1998. Repeats in genomic DNA: mining and meaning. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 8: 333–337. PubMed Google Scholar
Ketting, R.F., Haverkamp, T.H., van Luenen, H.G. and Plasterk, R.H. 1999. mut-7 of C. elegans, required for transposon silencing and RNA interference, is a homolog of Werner syndrome helicase and RNase D. Cell 99: 133–141. PubMed Google Scholar
Kidwell, M. and Lisch, D. 1997. Transposable elements as sources of variation in animals and plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 7704–7711. PubMed Google Scholar
Kiefer, M.C., Owens, R.A. and Diener, T.O. 1983. Structural similarities between viroids and transposable genetic elements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 6234–6238. PubMed Google Scholar
Kooter, J., Matzke, M.A. and Meyer, P. 1999. Listening to the silent genes: transgene silencing, gene regulation and pathogen control. Trends Plant Sci. 4: 340–347. PubMed Google Scholar
Leitch, I.J. and Bennett, M.D. 1997. Polyploidy in angiosperms. Trends Plant Sci. 2: 470–476. Google Scholar
Li, E., Bestor, T.H. and Jaenisch, R. 1992. Targeted mutation of the DNA methyltransferase gene results in embryonic lethality. Cell 69: 915–926. PubMed Google Scholar
Luff, B., Pawlowski, L. and Bender, J. 1999. An inverted repeat triggers cytosine methylation of identical sequences in Arabidopsis. Mol. Cell 3: 505–511. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Lyko, F., Ramsahoye, B.H., Kaxhevsky, H., Tudor, M., Mastrangelo, M.-A., Orr-Weaver, T.L. and Jaenisch, R. 1999. Mammalian (cytosine-5) methyltransferases cause genomic DNA methylation and lethality in Drosophila. Nature Genet. 23: 363–366. PubMed Google Scholar
Malagnac, F., Wendel, F., Goyon, C., Faugeron, G., Zickler, D., Rossignol, J.-L., Noyer-Weldner, M., Trautner, T. and Walter, J. 1997. A gene essential for de novo methylation and development in Ascobolus reveals a novel type of eukaryotic DNA methyltransferase structure. Cell 91: 1–20. PubMed Google Scholar
Martienssen, R. 1996. Epigenetic phenomena: paramutation and gene silencing in plants. Curr. Biol. 6: 810–813. PubMed Google Scholar
Masterson, J. 1994. Stomatal size in fossil plants: evidence for polyploidy in the majority of angiosperms. Science 264: 421–424. Google Scholar
Matzke, A.J.M. and Matzke, M.A. 1998. Position effects and epigenetic silencing of plant transgenes. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 1: 142–148. PubMed Google Scholar
Matzke, A.J.M., Varga, F., Gruendler, P., Unfried, I., Berger, H., Mayr, B. and Matzke, M.A. 1992. Characterization of a new repetitive sequence that is enriched on microchromosomes of turkey. Chromosoma 102: 9–14. PubMed Google Scholar
Matzke, M.A., Matzke, A.J.M. and Eggleston, W. 1996. Transgene silencing and paramutation: a common response to invasive DNA? Trends Plant Sci. 1: 382–388. Google Scholar
Matzke, M.A., Mette, M.F., Kunz, C., Jakowitsch, J. and Matzke, A.J.M. 2000a. Homology-dependent gene silencing in transgenic plants: links to cellular defense responses and genome evolution. In: J.P. Gustafson (Ed.) Stadler Genetics Symposium, Plenum, New York, in press. Google Scholar
Matzke, M.A., Mette. M.F., Aufsatz, W., Jakowitsch, J. and Matzke, A.J.M. 2000b. Host defenses to parasitic sequences and the evolution of epigenetic control mechanisms. In: J.F. McDonald (Ed.) Transposable Elements and Evolution, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, in press. Google Scholar
McDonald, J.F. 1990. Macroevolution and retroviral elements. BioScience 40: 183–191. Google Scholar
McDonald, J.F. 1995. Transposable elements: possible catalysts of organismic evolution. Trends Ecol Evol. 10: 123–126. Google Scholar
Melquist, S., Luff, B. and Bender, J. 1999. Arabidopsis PAI gene rearrangements, cytosine methylation and expression. Genetics 153: 401–413. PubMed Google Scholar
Mette, M.F., van der Winden, J., Matzke, M.A. and Matzke, A.J.M. 1999. Production of aberrant promoter transcripts contributes to methylation and silencing of unlinked homologous promoters in trans. EMBO J. 18: 241–248. PubMed Google Scholar
Meyer, A. and Schartl, M. 1999. Gene and genome duplications in vertebrates: the one-to-four (-to-eight in fish) rule and the evolution of novel gene functions. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 11: 699–704. PubMed Google Scholar
Mittelsten Scheid, O., Afsar, K. and Paszkowski, J. 1998. Release of epigenetic silencing by _trans_-acting mutations in Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 632–637. PubMed Google Scholar
Nan, X., Ng, H.-H., Johnson, C.A., Laherty, C.D., Turner, B.M., Eisenman, R.N. and Bird, A. 1998. Transcriptional repression by the methyl-CpG-binding protein MeCP2 involves a histone deacetylase complex. Nature 393: 386–389. PubMed Google Scholar
Ng, H.-H., Zhang, Y., Hendrich, B., Johnson, C.A., Turner, B.M., Erdjument-Bromage, H., Tempst, P., Reinberg, D. and Bird, A. 1999. MBD2 is a transcriptional repressor belonging to the MeCP1 histone deacetylase complex. Nature Genet. 23: 58–61. PubMed Google Scholar
Okano, M., Bell, D.W., Haber, D.A. and Li, E. 1999. DNA methyltransferases Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b are essential for de novo methylation and mammalian development. Cell 99: 247–257. PubMed Google Scholar
Papp, I., Iglesias, V.A., Moscone, E.A., Michalowski, S., Spiker, S., Park, Y.-D., Matzke, M.A. and Matzke, A.J.M. 1996. Structural instability of a transgene locus in tobacco is associated with aneuploidy. Plant J. 10: 469–478. PubMed Google Scholar
Pélissier, T., Tutois, S., Deragon, J.M., Tourmente, S., Genestier, S. and Picard, G. 1995. Athila, a new retroelement from Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Mol. Biol. 29: 441–452. PubMed Google Scholar
Pélissier, T., Thalmeir, S., Kempe, D., Sänger, H.-L. and Wassenegger, M. 1999. Heavy de novo methylation at symmetrical and non-symmetrical sites is a hallmark of RNA-directed DNA methylation. Nucl. Acids Res. 27: 1625–1634. PubMed Google Scholar
Pélissier, T. and Wassenegger, M. 2000. A DNA target of 30 bp is sufficient for RNA-directed DNA methylation. RNA 6: 55–65. PubMed Google Scholar
Pinarbasi, E., Elliot, J. and Hornby, D.P. 1996. Activation of a yeast pseudo DNA methyltransferase by deletion of a single amino acid. J. Mol. Biol. 257: 804–813. PubMed Google Scholar
Pröls, F. and Meyer, P. 1992. The methylation patterns of chromosomal integration regions influence gene activity of transferred DNA in Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 2: 465–475. PubMed Google Scholar
Regev, A., Lamb, M. and Jablonka, E. 1998. The role of DNA methylation in invertebrates: developmental regulation of genome defense? Mol. Biol. Evol. 15: 880–891. Google Scholar
Richards, E. 1997. DNA methylation and plant development. Trends Genet. 13: 319–322. PubMed Google Scholar
Riggs, A.D. 1975. X chromosome inactivation, differentiation and DNA methylation. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 14: 9–25. PubMed Google Scholar
Rossignol, J.-L. and Faugeron, G. 1994. Gene inactivation triggered by recognition between DNA repeats. Experientia 50: 307–317. PubMed Google Scholar
Sandmeyer, S.B., Hansen, L.J. and Chalker, D.L. 1990. Integration specificity of retrotransposons and retroviruses. Annu. Rev. Genet. 24: 491–518. PubMed Google Scholar
SanMiguel, P. Tikhonov, A., Jin, Y., Motchoulskaia, N., Zakharov, D., Melake-Berhan, A., Springer, P.S., Edwards, K.J., Lee, M., Avramova, Z. and Bennetzen, J.L. 1996. Nested retrotransposons in the intergenic regions of the maize genome. Science 274: 765–768. PubMed Google Scholar
SanMiguel, P., Gaut, B.S., Tikhonov, A., Nakajima, Y. and Bennetzen, J.L. 1998. The paleontology of intergene retrotransposons of maize. Nature Genet. 20: 43–45. PubMed Google Scholar
Scrable, H. and Stambrook, P.J. 1997. Activation of the lac repressor in the transgenic mouse. Genetics 147: 297–304. PubMed Google Scholar
Scrable, H. and Stambrook, P.J. 1999. A genetic program for deletion of foreign DNA from the mammalian genome. Mut. Res. 429: 225–237. Google Scholar
Selker, E.U. 1990. Premeiotic instability of repeated sequences in Neurospora. Annu. Rev. Genet. 24: 579–614. PubMed Google Scholar
Selker, E.U. 1997. Epigenetic phenomena in filamentous fungi: useful paradigms or repeat-induced confusion? Trends Genet. 13: 296–310. PubMed Google Scholar
Shimeld, S.M. 1999. Gene function, gene networks and the fate of duplicated genes. Sem. Cell Dev. Biol. 10: 549–553. Google Scholar
Singer, M., Marcotte, B. and Selker, E.U. 1995. DNA methylation associated with repeat-induced point mutation in Neurospora crassa. Mol. Cell Biol. 15: 5586–5597. PubMed Google Scholar
Smit, A.F. 1999. Interspersed repeats and other mementos of transposable elements in mammalian genomes. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 9: 657–663. PubMed Google Scholar
Soltis, D.E. and Soltis, P.S. 1999. Polyploidy: recurrent formation and genome evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol 14: 348–352. PubMed Google Scholar
Spring, J. 1997. Vertebrate evolution by interspecific hybridization: are we polyploid? FEBS Lett. 400: 2–8. PubMed Google Scholar
Stam, M., Viterbo, A., Mol, J.N.M. and Kooter, J.M. 1998. Position-dependent methylation and transcriptional silencing of transgenes in inverted T-DNA repeats: implications for posttranscriptional silencing of homologous host genes in plants. Mol. Cell Biol. 18: 6165–6177. PubMed Google Scholar
Tabara, H., Sarkissian, M., Kelly, W.G., Fleenor, J., Grishok, A., Timmons, L., Fire, A. and Mello, C.C. 1999. The rde-1 gene, RNA interference, and transposon silencing in C. elegans. Cell 99: 123–132. PubMed Google Scholar
ten Lohuis, M., Müller, A., Heidmann, I., Niedenhof, I. and Meyer, P. 1995. A repetitive DNA fragment carrying a hot spot for de novo DNA methylation enhances expression variegation in tobacco and petunia. Plant J. 8: 919–932. PubMed Google Scholar
Turker, M.S. and Bestor, T.H. 1997. Formation of methylation patterns in the mammalian genome. Mut. Res. 386: 119–130. Google Scholar
Tweedie, S., Ng, H.-H., Barlow, A.L., Turner, B.M., Hendrich, B. and Bird, A. 1999. Vestiges of a DNA methylation system in Drosophila melanogaster? Nature Genet. 23: 389–390. PubMed Google Scholar
VanderWiel, P. Voytas, D.F. and Wendel, J.F. 1993. _Copia_-like retrotransposable element evolution in diploid and polyploid cotton (Gossypium L.). J. Mol. Evol. 36: 429–447. PubMed Google Scholar
Vaucheret, H., Béclin, C., Elmayan, T., Feuerbach, F., Gordon, C., Morel, J.-B., Mourrain, P., Palauqui, J.-C. and Vernhettes, S. 1998. Transgene-induced gene silencing in plants. Plant J. 16: 651–659. PubMed Google Scholar
Wade, P.A., Gegonne, A., Jones, P.L., Ballestar, E., Aubry, F. and Wolffe, A.P. 1999. Mi-2 complex couples DNA methylation to chromatin remodelling and histone deacetylation. Nature Genet. 23: 62–66. PubMed Google Scholar
Waldman, A.S., Tran, H., Goldsmith, E.C. and Resnick, M.A. 1999. Long inverted repeats are an at-risk motif for recombination in mammalian cells. Genetics 153: 1873–1883. PubMed Google Scholar
Walsh, C.P. and Bestor, T.H. 1999. Cytosine methylation and mammalian development. Genes Devel. 13: 26–34. PubMed Google Scholar
Wassenegger, M., Himes, S., Riedel, L. and Sänger, H. 1994. RNAdirected de novo methylation of genomic sequences in plants. Cell 76: 567–576. PubMed Google Scholar
Waterhouse, P.M., Graham, H.W. and Wang, M.B. 1998. Virus resistance and gene silencing in plants can be induced by simultaneous expression of sense and antisense RNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 13959–13964. PubMed Google Scholar
Waterhouse, P.M., Smith, N.A. and Wang, M.-B. 1999. Virus resistance and gene silencing: killing the messenger. Trends Plant Sci. 4: 452–457. PubMed Google Scholar
Wenck, A., Czakó, M., Kanevski, I. and Márton, L. 1997. Frequent collinear long transfer of DNA inclusive of the whole binary vector during _Agrobacterium_-mediated transformation. Plant Mol. Biol. 43: 913–922. Google Scholar
Wessler, S. 1998. Transposable elements associated with normal plant genes. Physiol. Plant. 103: 581–586. Google Scholar
White, S.E., Habera, L.F. and Wessler, S.R. 1994. Retrotranspsons in the flanking regions of normal plant genes: a role for _copia_like elements in the evoution of gene structure and expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 11792–11796. PubMed Google Scholar
Wilkinson, C.R., Bartlett, R., Nurse, P. and Bird, A.P. 1995. The fission yeast gene pmt1 encodes a DNA methyltransferase homolog. Nucl. Acids Res. 23: 203–210. PubMed Google Scholar
Wolffe, A.P. and Matzke, M.A. 1999. Epigenetics: regulation through repression. Science 286: 481–486. PubMed Google Scholar
Xu, G.-L-. Bestor, T.H., Bourc'his, D., Hsieh, C.-L., Tommerup, N., Bugge, M., Hulten, M., Qu, X., Russo, J.J. and Viegas-Péquignot, E. 1999. Chromosome instability and immunodeficienty syndrome caused by mutations in a DNA methyltransferase gene. Nature 402: 187–191. PubMed Google Scholar
Yoder, J.A. and Bestor, T.H. 1998. A candidate mammalian DNA methyltransferase related to pmt1p of fission yeast. Hum. Mol. Genet. 7: 279–284. PubMed Google Scholar
Yoder, J.A., Walsh, C. and Bestor, T.H. 1997. Cytosine methylation and the ecology of intragenomic parasites. Trends Genet. 13: 335–339. PubMed Google Scholar