Neural basis of deciding, choosing and acting (original) (raw)

References

  1. Mellers, B. A., Schwartz, A. & Crooke, A. D. J. Judgment and decision making. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 49, 447–477 (1998).A balanced survey of the current psychological perspective on deciding.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  2. Ryle, G. The Concept of Mind (Hutchinson's Univ. Library, London, 1949).
    Google Scholar
  3. Nowell-Smith, P. H. Choosing, deciding and doing. Analysis 18, 63–69 (1958).
    Google Scholar
  4. Evans, L. L. Choice. Phil. Quart. 5, 303– 315 (1955).
    Google Scholar
  5. Kowler, E. Eye Movements and their Role in Visual and Cognitive Processes (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990).
    Google Scholar
  6. Dennett, D. C. Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984).
    Google Scholar
  7. Goldman, A. I. A Theory of Human Action (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1970).
    Google Scholar
  8. Parker, A. J. & Newsome, W. T. Sense and the single neuron: Probing the physiology of perception. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 21, 227–277 (1998). A comprehensive and enlightening review of the neural processes in the cerebral cortex that underlie sensation and perception.
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  9. Schall, J. D. & Thompson, K. G. Neural selection and control of visually guided eye movements. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 22, 241–259 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  10. Romo, R. & Salinas, E. Sensing and deciding in the somatosensory system. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 9, 487– 493 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  11. Leon, M. I. & Shadlen, M. N. Exploring the neurophysiology of decisions. Neuron 21, 669– 672 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  12. Wolfe, J. M. in Attention (ed. Pashler, H.) 13–74 (Psychological Press, Hove, East Sussex, UK, 1998).
    Google Scholar
  13. Schall, J. D. & Hanes, D. P. Neural basis of saccade target selection in frontal eye field during visual search. Nature 366, 467–469 (1993).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  14. Gottlieb, J. P., Kusunoki, M. & Goldberg, M. E. The representation of visual salience in monkey parietal cortex. Nature 391, 481– 484 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  15. Basso, M. A. & Wurtz, R. H. Modulation of neuronal activity in superior colliculus by changes in target probability. J. Neurosci. 18, 7519–7534 ( 1998).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  16. Lamme, V. A., Super, H., Landman, R., Roelfsema, P. R. & Spekreijse, H. The role of primary visual cortex (V1) in visual awareness . Vision Res. 40, 1507– 1521 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  17. Ito, M. & Gilbert, C. D. Attention modulates contextual influences in the primary visual cortex of alert monkeys. Neuron 22, 593–604 ( 1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  18. Schall, J. D., Hanes, D. P., Thompson, K. & King, D. J. Saccade target selection in frontal eye field of macaque I: Visual and premovement activation. J. Neurosci. 15, 6905– 6918 (1995).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  19. Thompson, K. G., Hanes, D. P., Bichot, N. P. & Schall, J. D. Perceptual and motor processing stages identified in the activity of macaque frontal eye field neurons during visual search. J. Neurophysiol. 76, 4040–4055 ( 1996).This paper describes the time course of the neural process of discriminating the target in a visual search array. It is the first to relate the time of target selection to the time of saccade initiation.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  20. Burman, D. D. & Segraves, M. A. Primate frontal eye field activity during natural scanning eye movements. J. Neurophysiol. 71, 1266–1271 (1994).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  21. Thompson, K. G., Bichot, N. P. & Schall, J. D. Dissociation of target selection from saccade planning in macaque frontal eye field. J. Neurophysiol. 77, 1046–1050 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  22. Murthy, A., Thompson, K. G. & Schall, J. D. Neural control of saccade target selection during visual search. Soc. Neurosci. Abst. 25, 806 (1999).
    Google Scholar
  23. Bichot, N. P. & Schall, J. D. Effects of similarity and history on neural mechanisms of visual selection. Nature Neurosci. 2, 549–554 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  24. Kim, M. S. & Cave, K. R. Spatial attention in search for features and feature conjunctions. Psychonomic Sci. 6, 376–380 (1995).
    Google Scholar
  25. Findlay, J. M. Saccade target selection during visual search. Vision Res. 37, 617–631 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  26. Motter, B. C. & Belky, E. J. The guidance of eye movements during active visual search. Vision Res. 38, 1805 –1815 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  27. Bichot, N. P., Schall, J. D. & Thompson, K. G. Visual feature selectivity in frontal eye fields induced by experience in mature macaques. Nature 381 , 697–699 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  28. Asaad, W. F., Rainer, G. & Miller, E. K. Neural activity in the primate prefrontal cortex during associative learning. Neuron 21, 1399–1407 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  29. Wise, S. P. & Murray, E. A. Arbitrary associations between antecedents and actions. Trends Neurosci. 23, 271–276 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  30. Chen, L. L. & Wise, S. P. Neuronal activity in the supplementary eye field during acquisition of conditional oculomotor associations. J. Neurophysiol. 73, 1101–1121 (1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  31. Mitz, A. R., Godschalk, M. & Wise, S. P. Learning-dependent neuronal activity in the premotor cortex: Activity during the acquisition of conditional motor associations . J. Neurosci. 11, 1855– 1872 (1991).A demonstration of how the premotor cortex is involved in learning arbitrary associations of stimulus to response.
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  32. White, I. M. & Wise, S. P. Rule-dependent neuronal activity in the prefrontal cortex. Exp. Brain Res. 126, 315–335 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  33. Newsome, W. T. The King Solomon Lectures in Neuroethology. Deciding about motion: linking perception to action. J. Comp. Physiol. A 181, 5–12 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  34. Britten, K. H., Newsome, W. T., Shadlen, M. N., Celebrini, S. & Movshon, J. A. A relationship between behavioral choice and the visual responses of neurons in macaque MT. Vis. Neurosci. 13, 87–100 ( 1996).This paper describes in quantitative terms the relationship between neural activity and the perceptual report when the discriminative stimulus is weak or absent. Even when no sensory evidence was provided, a weak correlation was observed between the report of the monkeys and the discharge rate of the neurons in area MT of the extrastriate visual cortex.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  35. Shadlen, M. N., Britten, K. H., Newsome, W. T. & Movshon, J. A. A computational analysis of the relationship between neuronal and behavioral responses to visual motion. J. Neurosci. 16, 1486–1510 (1996).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  36. Romo, R., Merchant, H., Zainos, A. & Hernandez, A. Categorization of somaesthetic stimuli: Sensorimotor performance and neuronal activity in primary somatic sensory cortex of awake monkeys. NeuroReport 7, 1273–1279 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  37. Hernandez, A., Zainos, A. & Romo, R. Neuronal correlates of sensory discrimination in the somatosensory cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 6191 –6196 (2000).This paper shows the quantitative relationship between the firing rate of neurons in somatosensory cortex and a monkey's report of the frequency of mechanical vibrations applied to the fingertips. The somatosensory cortex, like the visual system, produces decisions that are based on the activity of just a few neurons.
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  38. Shadlen, M. N. & Newsome, W. T. Motion perception: seeing and deciding. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 93, 628–633 (1996).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  39. Kim, J. N. & Shadlen, M. N. Neural correlates of a decision in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the macaque. Nature Neurosci. 2, 176–185 ( 1999).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  40. Horwitz, G. D. & Newsome, W. T. Separate signals for target selection and movement specification in the superior colliculus . Science 284, 1158–1161 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  41. Thompson, K. G. & Schall, J. D. The detection of visual signals by macaque frontal eye field during masking. Nature Neurosci. 2, 283–288 (1999).The first study of the neural correlates of visual masking that related perceptual reports to neural activity on a trial-by-trial basis. Differences in activity amounting to one or two spikes were amplified into positive reports of the presence of a masked stimulus.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  42. Thompson, K. G. & Schall, J. D. Antecedents and correlates of visual detection and awareness in macaque prefrontal cortex . Vision Res. 40, 1523– 1538 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  43. Salinas, E. & Romo, R. Conversion of sensory signals into motor commands in primary motor cortex. J. Neurosci. 18, 499–511 (1998).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  44. Romo, R., Merchant, H., Zainos, A. & Hernandez, A. Categorical perception of somaesthetic stimuli: Psychophysical measurements correlated with neuronal events in primate medial premotor cortex. Cereb. Cortex 7, 317–326 ( 1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  45. Logothetis, N. K. & Schall, J. D. Neuronal correlates of subjective visual perception. Science 245, 761–763 (1989).Binocular rivalry with moving gratings was used to create an ambiguous stimulus that could support two distinct perceptual states. The activity of some neurons in area MT was associated with the perceptual report and not the retinal stimulation. This is the first paper to report an explicit association between the activity of neurons in the visual system and the perceptual state of monkeys.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  46. Romo, R., Hernàndez, A., Zainos, A. & Salinas, E. Sensing without touching: Psychophysical performance based on cortical microstimulation . Neuron 26, 1–20 (2000).
    Google Scholar
  47. Salzman, C. D. & Newsome, W. T. Neural mechanisms for forming a perceptual decision. Science 264, 231–237 (1994).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  48. Salzman, C. D., Murasugi, C. M., Britten, K. H. & Newsome, W. T. Microstimulation in visual area MT: Effects on direction discrimination performance . J. Neurosci. 12, 2331– 2355 (1992).This paper shows that electrical stimulation of area MT influences monkeys' decisions about the direction of motion in a display.
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  49. Seidemann, E., Zohary, E. & Newsome, W. T. Temporal gating of neural signals during performance of a visual discrimination task. Nature 394, 72–75 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  50. Gold, J. I. & Shadlen, M. N. Representation of a perceptual decision in developing oculomotor commands. Nature 404, 390–394 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  51. Davidson, D. Actions, reasons and causes. J. Phil. 60, 685–700 (1963).
    Google Scholar
  52. Sterelny, K. in Where Biology Meets Psychology: Philosophical Essays (ed. Hardcastle, V. G.) 203–219 (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999).
    Google Scholar
  53. Schueler, G. F. Desire: Its Role in Practical Reason and the Explanation of Action (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1995).
    Google Scholar
  54. Kahneman, D., Wakker, P. P. & Sarin, R. Back to Bentham? Explorations of experienced utility . Quart. J. Econ. 112, 375– 405 (1997).
    Google Scholar
  55. Rachlin, H. & Laibson, D. I. (eds) The Matching Law: Papers in Psychology and Economics. (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1997).
    Google Scholar
  56. Olds, J. & Milner, P. M. Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 47, 419– 427 (1954).A finding that spawned a new field of inquiry.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  57. Shizgal, P. Neural basis of utility estimation. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7, 198–208 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  58. Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning or incentive salience? Brain Res. Rev. 28, 309– 369 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  59. Robbins, T. W. & Everitt, B. J. Neurobehavioral mechanisms of reward and motivation. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6, 228–236 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  60. Platt, M. L. & Glimcher, P. W. Neural correlates of decision variables in parietal cortex. Nature 400, 233–238 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  61. Leon, M. I. & Shadlen, M. N. Effect of expected reward magnitude on the response of neurons in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of the macaque . Neuron 24, 415–425 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  62. Kawagoe, R., Takikawa, Y. & Hikosaka, O. Expectation of reward modulates cognitive signals in the basal ganglia. Nature Neurosci. 1, 411 –416 (1998).References 60 62 show how the activity of neurons that had been thought to be involved in visual motor coordination is influenced by the likelihood and amount of reinforcement that monkeys receive.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  63. Watanabe, M. Reward expectancy in primate prefrontal neurons. Nature 382, 629–632 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  64. Hikosaka, K. & Watanabe, M. Delay activity of orbital and lateral prefrontal neurons of the monkey varying with different rewards. Cereb. Cortex 10, 263–271 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  65. Shima, K. & Tanji, J. Role for cingulate motor area cells in voluntary movement selection based on reward. Science 282, 1335–1338 (1998). Monkeys were required to change their behaviour to continue obtaining reinforcement. The cue to change behaviours was a change in the reinforcement. Neurons in anterior cingulate cortex signalled the transitions.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  66. Schultz, W. Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 1, 199–207 (2000).
    CAS Google Scholar
  67. Tremblay, L. & Schultz, W. Modifications of reward expectation-related neuronal activity during learning in primate orbitofrontal cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 83, 1877–1885 (1999).
    Google Scholar
  68. Schultz, W., Dayan, P. & Montague, P. R. A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 275, 1593–1599 ( 1997).This paper proposes a mechanistic model for how behaviour is shaped by reinforcement contingencies.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  69. Brown, J., Bullock, D. & Grossberg, S. How the basal ganglia use parallel excitatory and inhibitory learning pathways to selectively respond to unexpected rewarding cues. J. Neurosci. 19, 10502–10511 (1999).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  70. Gallistel, C. R. Foraging for brain stimulation: toward a neurobiology of computation. Cognition 50, 151–170 ( 1994).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  71. Aston-Jones, G., Rajkowski, J. & Cohen, J. Role of locus coeruleus in attention and behavioral flexibility. Biol. Psychiat. 46, 1309– 1320 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  72. Egelman, D. M., Person, C. & Montague, P. R. A computational role for dopamine delivery in human decision making. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 10, 673–630 (1998).
    Google Scholar
  73. Montague, P. R., Dayan, P. & Sejnowski, T. J. A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning. J. Neurosci. 16, 1936–1947 (1996).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  74. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A. R. Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science 275 , 1293–1295 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  75. Donders, F. C. translated in Attention and Performance II (ed. Koster, W. G.) 412–431 (North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1868/1969).
    Google Scholar
  76. Luce, R. D. Response Times: Their Role in Inferring Elementary Mental Organization (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1986).
    Google Scholar
  77. Posner, M. I. Chronometric Explorations of Mind (Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, USA, 1978).
    Google Scholar
  78. Meyer, D. E., Osman, A. M., Irwin, D. E. & Yantis, S. Modern mental chronometry. Biol. Psychol. 26, 3–67 (1988).An informative review that is still timely.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  79. Munoz, D. P. & Wurtz, R. H. Saccade-related activity in monkey superior colliculus. I. Characteristics of burst and buildup cells. J. Neurophysiol. 73, 2313–2333 (1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  80. Bruce, C. J. & Goldberg, M. E. Primate frontal eye fields. I. Single neurons discharging before saccades. J. Neurophysiol. 53, 603–635 ( 1985).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  81. Munoz, D. P. & Wurtz, R. H. Fixation cells in monkey superior colliculus. I. Characteristics of cell discharge. J. Neurophysiol. 70, 559–575 ( 1993).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  82. Munoz, D. P. & Wurtz, R. H. Fixation cells in monkey superior colliculus. II. Reversible activation and deactivation. J. Neurophysiol. 70, 576–589 ( 1993).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  83. Hanes, D. P. & Schall, J. D. Neural control of voluntary movement initiation. Science 274, 427– 430 (1996).This paper provides neurophysiological evidence contradicting one model and supporting an alternative model of response time. Movement-related neural activity in the frontal eye field corresponds to a race or diffusion with a variable rate to a fixed threshold.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  84. Lecas, J.-C., Requin, J., Anger, C. & Vitton, N. Changes in neuronal activity of the monkey precentral cortex during preparation for movement. J. Neurophysiol. 56, 1680–1702 (1986).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  85. Everling, S. & Munoz, D. P. Neuronal correlates for preparatory set associated with pro-saccades and anti-saccades in the primate frontal eye field. J. Neurosci. 20, 387– 400 (2000).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  86. Dorris, M. C., Paré, M. & Munoz, D. P. Neuronal activity in monkey superior colliculus related to the initiation of saccadic eye movements. J. Neurosci. 17, 8566–8579 (1997).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  87. Gratton, G., Coles, M. G. H., Sirevaag, E. J., Eriksen, C. J. & Donchin, E. Pre- and poststimulus activation of response channels: A psychophysiological analysis. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 14, 331–344 (1988).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  88. Carpenter, R. H. S. & Williams, M. L. L. Neural computation of log likelihood in the control of saccadic eye movements. Nature 377, 59–62 ( 1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  89. Ratcliff, R., Van Zandt, T. & McKoon, G. Connectionist and diffusion models of reaction time . Psychol. Rev. 106, 261– 300.
  90. Usher, M. & McClelland, J. L. On the time course of perceptual choice: The leaky competing accumulator model. Psych. Rev. (submitted).
  91. Hanes, D. P., Patterson, W. F. & Schall, J. D. The role of frontal eye field in countermanding saccades: Visual, movement and fixation activity. J. Neurophysiol. 79, 817–834 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  92. Logan, G. D. in Inhibitory Processes in Attention, Memory and Language (eds. Dagenbach, D. & Carr, T. H.) 189–239 (Academic, San Diego, 1994).
    Google Scholar
  93. Logan, G. D. & Cowan, W. B. On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychol. Rev. 91, 295–327 (1984).
    Google Scholar
  94. Hanes, D. P. & Schall, J. D. Countermanding saccades in macaque . Vis. Neurosci. 12, 929– 937 (1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  95. DeJong, R., Coles, M. G. H., Logan, G. D. & Gratton, G. In search of the point of no return: The control of response processes. J. Exp. Psychol. Human Percept. Perform. 16, 164– 182 (1990).
    Google Scholar
  96. DeJong, R., Coles, M. G. H. & Logan, G. D. Strategies and mechanisms in nonselective and selective inhibitory motor control. J. Exp. Psychol. Human Percept. Perform. 21, 498–511 ( 1995).
    CAS Google Scholar
  97. Logan, G. D. Executive control of thought and action. Acta Psychologica 60, 193–210 (1985).
    Google Scholar
  98. Norman, M. & Shallice, T. in Consciousness and Self-Regulation: Advances in Research and Theory Vol. 4 (eds Davidson, R. J., Schwartz, D. & Shapiro, D.) 1–18 (Plenum, New York, 1986).
    Google Scholar
  99. Cohen, J. D., Braver, T. S. & O'Reilly, R. C. A computational approach to prefrontal cortex, cognitive control and schizophrenia: Recent developments and current challenges. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 351, 1515– 1527 (1996). PubMed
    CAS Google Scholar
  100. Meyer, D. E. & Kieras, D. E. A computational theory of executive cognitive processes and multiple-task performance: Part 1. Basic mechanisms . Psychol. Rev. 104, 3– 65 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  101. Stuphorn, V., Taylor, T. L. & Schall, J. D. Performance monitoring by supplementary eye field . Nature (in the press).Surprising observations show that the supplementary eye field does not produce signals sufficient to control gaze but instead produces signals appropriate to monitor behaviour.
  102. Falkenstein, M., Hohnsbein, J., Hoormann, J. & Blanke, L. Effects of crossmodal divided attention on late ERP components. II. Error processing in choice reaction tasks. Electroencephal. Clin. Neurophysiol. 78, 447–455 ( 1991).
    CAS Google Scholar
  103. Gehring, W. J., Goss, B., Coles, M. G. & Meyer, D. E. A neural system for error detection and compensation. Psych. Sci. 4 , 385–390 (1993). This paper describes the error-related negativity, a scalp potential that appears when human subjects make errors. The brain's ability to detect errors is a prerequisite to exerting executive control over behaviour.
    Google Scholar
  104. Miltner, W. H. R., Braun, C. H. & Coles, M. G. H. Event-related brain potentials following incorrect feedback in a time-estimation task: Evidence for a 'generic' neural system for error detection. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 9, 788–798 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  105. Scheffers, M. K., Coles, M. G., Bernstein, P., Gehring, W. J. & Donchin, E. Event-related brain potentials and error-related processing: An analysis of incorrect responses to go and no-go stimuli. Psychophysiology 33, 42– 53 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  106. Falkenstein, M., Koshlykova, N. A., Kiroj, V. N., Hoormann, J. & Hohnsbein, J. Late ERP components in visual and auditory Go/Nogo tasks. Electroencephal. Clin. Neurophysiol. 96, 36–43 ( 1995).
    CAS Google Scholar
  107. Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S. & Cohen, J. D. Evaluating the demand for control: Anterior cingulate cortex and cross–talk monitoring. Psychol. Rev. (in the press).A review covering the means by which, and the conditions under which, executive control is required. It is proposed that the brain detects the need for control by monitoring the extent of co-activation of mutually incompatible modules or processes.
  108. Carter, C. S. et al. Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection and the on-line monitoring of performance. Science 280, 747–749 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  109. MacDonald, A. W. III, Cohen, J. D., Stenger, V. A. & Carter, C. S. Dissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive control. Science 288, 1835–1838 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  110. Carter, C. S. et al. Parsing executive processes: strategic vs. evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 1944–1948 (2000).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  111. Botvinick, M., Nystrom, L. E., Fissell, K., Carter, C. S. & Cohen, J. D. Conflict monitoring versus selection-for-action in anterior cingulate cortex. Nature 402, 179–181 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  112. Amador, N., Schlag–Rey, M. & Schlag, J. Reward-predicting and reward-detecting neuronal activity in the primate supplementary eye field. J. Neurophysiol. 84, 2166–2170 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  113. Penfield, W. The Mystery of the Mind: a Critical Study of Consciousness and the Human Brain (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1975 ).
    Google Scholar
  114. Editorial. Does neuroscience threaten human values? Nature Neurosci. 1, 535 (1998 ).
  115. Ball, P. Transitions still to be made. Nature 402, C37–C76 (1999).
    Google Scholar
  116. van Vreeswijk, C. & Sompolinsky, H. Chaos in neuronal networks with balanced excitatory and inhibitory activity. Science 274, 1724–1726 ( 1996).The well-known irregularity of neural activity can arise from the deterministic but unpredictable dynamics of neural networks.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  117. Wilson, H. Spikes, Decisions and Actions: Dynamical Foundations of Neuroscience. (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1999).
    Google Scholar
  118. Gilden, D. L., Thornton, T. & Mallon, M. W. 1/f noise in human cognition. Science 267, 1837–1839 ( 1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  119. Pressing, J. & Jolley-Rogers, G. Spectral properties of human cognition and skill. Biol Cybern. 76, 339 –347 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  120. Globus, G. G. Toward a noncomputational cognitive neuroscience. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 4, 299–310 ( 1992).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  121. Busemeyer, J. R. & Townsend, J. T. Decision field theory: a dynamic-cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment . Psychol. Rev. 100, 432– 459 (1993).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  122. van Gelder, T. The dynamical hypothesis in cognitive science. Behav. Brain Sci. 21, 615–628 ( 1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  123. Senders, J. W. & Moray, N. P. Human Error: Cause, Prediction, and Reduction Analysis (Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, 1991).
    Google Scholar
  124. Baars, B. J. Experimental Slips and Human Error: Exploring the Architecture of Volition (Plenum, New York, 1992).
    Google Scholar
  125. Klein, G. Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1998).
    Google Scholar
  126. Britten, K. H., Shadlen, M. N., Newsome, W. T. & Movshon, J. A. Responses of neurons in macaque MT to stochastic motion signals. Vis. Neurosci. 10, 1157–1169 (1993).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Download references