Wittchen, H. U. et al. The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol.21, 655–679 (2011). Provides the most recent state-of-the-art summary of epidemiological evidence of anxiety disorders and their associated burden in Europe. Google Scholar
Haro, J. M. et al. ROAMER: roadmap for mental health research in Europe. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res.23 (Suppl. 1), 1–14 (2014). Google Scholar
Christopher, P. & Murray, J. L. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet388, 1659–1724 (2016). Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Ruscio, A. M., Shear, K. & Wittchen, H.-U. Epidemiology of anxiety disorders. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci.2, 21–35 (2010). Overviews the prevalence of and risk factors for anxiety disorders. Google Scholar
Beesdo, K., Knappe, S. & Pine, D. S. Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am.32, 483–524 (2009). One of the few available prospective, longitudinal epidemiological studies that provides valid incidence data on anxiety disorders as well as the risk for secondary depression. Google Scholar
Batelaan, N. M., Rhebergen, D., Spinhoven, P., van Balkom, A. J. & Penninx, B. W. J. H. Two-year course trajectories of anxiety disorders: do DSM classifications matter? J. Clin. Psychiatry75, 985–993 (2014). Google Scholar
Spinhoven, P. et al. Prediction of 6-yr symptom course trajectories of anxiety disorders by diagnostic, clinical and psychological variables. J. Anxiety Disord.44, 92–101 (2016). Google Scholar
Beesdo, K., Pine, D. S., Lieb, R. & Wittchen, H.-U. Incidence and risk patterns of anxiety and depressive disorders and categorization of generalized anxiety disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry67, 47–57 (2010). Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 5th edn (APA Publishing, 2013).
Kessler, R. C. et al. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization's World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry6, 168–176 (2007). Google Scholar
Baxter, A. J., Scott, K. M., Vos, T. & Whiteford, H. A. Global prevalence of anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-regression. Psychol. Med.43, 897–910 (2013). Google Scholar
Lewis-Fernández, R. et al. Culture and the anxiety disorders: recommendations for DSM-V. Depress. Anxiety27, 212–229 (2010). Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Walters, E. E. & Walters, E. E. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry62, 617–627 (2005). Google Scholar
Silove, D. et al. Pediatric-onset and adult-onset separation anxiety disorder across countries in the World Mental Health Survey. Am. J. Psychiatry172, 647–656 (2015). Google Scholar
Bögels, S. M., Knappe, S. & Clark, L. A. Adult separation anxiety disorder in DSM-5. Clin. Psychol. Rev.33, 663–674 (2013). Google Scholar
Zhang, X. et al. Generalized anxiety in community-dwelling elderly: prevalence and clinical characteristics. J. Affect. Disord.172, 24–29 (2015). Google Scholar
Hofmann, S. G. & Hinton, D. E. Cross-cultural aspects of anxiety disorders. Curr. Psychiatry Rep.16, 450 (2014). Google Scholar
Beesdo-Baum, K. & Knappe, S. Developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am.21, 457–478 (2012). Google Scholar
McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T. & Hofmann, S. G. Gender differences in anxiety disorders: prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. J. Psychiatr. Res.45, 1027–1035 (2011). Google Scholar
Lieb, R., Isensee, B., Höfler, M., Pfister, H. & Wittchen, H.-U. Parental major depression and the risk of depression and other mental disorders in offspring: a prospective-longitudinal community study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry59, 365–374 (2002). Google Scholar
Shimada-Sugimoto, M., Otowa, T. & Hettema, J. M. Genetics of anxiety disorders: genetic epidemiological and molecular studies in humans. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.69, 388–401 (2015). Google Scholar
Otowa, T. et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of anxiety disorders. Mol. Psychiatry21, 1391–1399 (2016). The largest genetic study of mixed anxiety disorders to date. This meta-analysis of anxiety disorders and related symptom scores indicates that the genetic aetiologies of anxiety disorders are similar to those of other common psychiatric disorders, such as depression. Google Scholar
Sareen, J. et al. Adverse childhood experiences in relation to mood and anxiety disorders in a population-based sample of active military personnel. Psychol. Med.43, 73–84 (2013). Google Scholar
Afifi, T. O., Mota, N. P., Dasiewicz, P., MacMillan, H. L. & Sareen, J. Physical punishment and mental disorders: results from a nationally representative US sample. Pediatrics130, 184–192 (2012). Google Scholar
Otowa, T., York, T. P., Gardner, C. O., Kendler, K. S. & Hettema, J. M. The impact of childhood parental loss on risk for mood, anxiety and substance use disorders in a population-based sample of male twins. Psychiatry Res.220, 404–409 (2014). Google Scholar
Taillieu, T. L., Brownridge, D. A., Sareen, J. & Afifi, T. O. Childhood emotional maltreatment and mental disorders: results from a nationally representative adult sample from the United States. Child Abuse Negl.59, 1–12 (2016). Google Scholar
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S. et al. Validating new summary indices for the Childhood Trauma Interview: associations with first onsets of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders. Psychol. Assess.26, 730–740 (2014). Google Scholar
Pérez-Edgar, K. & Fox, N. A. Temperament and anxiety disorders. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am.14, 681–706 (2005). Provides a detailed overview of the relationship between temperamental factors (which are arguably the single most important risk factor) and anxiety. Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M., Schniering, C. A. & Hudson, J. L. Anxiety disorders during childhood and adolescence: origins and treatment. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol.5, 311–341 (2009). Google Scholar
Greco, L. A. & Morris, T. L. Factors influencing the link between social anxiety and peer acceptance: contributions of social skills and close friendships during middle childhood. Behav. Ther.36, 197–205 (2005). Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Miller, N. & Haeffel, G. J. Cognitive vulnerability-stress theories of depression: examining affective specificity in the prediction of depression versus anxiety in three prospective studies. Cognit. Ther. Res.28, 309–345 (2004). Google Scholar
Uliaszek, A. A. et al. A longitudinal examination of stress generation in depressive and anxiety disorders. J. Abnorm. Psychol.121, 4–15 (2012). Google Scholar
Wittchen, H. U., Kessler, R. C., Pfister, H. & Lieb, M. Why do people with anxiety disorders become depressed? A prospective-longitudinal community study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. Suppl.2000, 14–23 (2000). Google Scholar
Beesdo, K. et al. Incidence of social anxiety disorder and the consistent risk for secondary depression in the first three decades of life. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry64, 903–912 (2007). Google Scholar
Stein, M. B. et al. Social anxiety disorder and the risk of depression: a prospective community study of adolescents and young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry58, 251–256 (2001). Google Scholar
Zimmermann, P. et al. Primary anxiety disorders and the development of subsequent alcohol use disorders: a 4-year community study of adolescents and young adults. Psychol. Med.33, 1211–1222 (2003). Google Scholar
Moylan, S., Jacka, F. N., Pasco, J. A. & Berk, M. Cigarette smoking, nicotine dependence and anxiety disorders: a systematic review of population-based, epidemiological studies. BMC Med.10, 123 (2012). Google Scholar
Phan, K., Xie, A., Di Eusanio, M. & Yan, T. D. A meta-analysis of minimally invasive versus conventional sternotomy for aortic valve replacement. Ann. Thorac. Surg.98, 1499–1511 (2014). Google Scholar
Kindt, M., Soeter, M. & Vervliet, B. Beyond extinction: erasing human fear responses and preventing the return of fear. Nat. Neurosci.12, 256–258 (2009). Google Scholar
Etkin, A., Egner, T. & Kalisch, R. Emotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex. Trends Cogn. Sci.15, 85–93 (2011). Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. & Pine, D. S. Using neuroscience to help understand fear and anxiety: a two-system framework. Am. J. Psychiatry173, 1083–1093 (2016). Google Scholar
Etkin, A. & Wager, T. D. Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. Am. J. Psychiatry164, 1476–1488 (2007). Google Scholar
Fanselow, M. S. Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear. Psychon. Bull. Rev.1, 429–438 (1994). Google Scholar
Cuthbert, B. N. & Insel, T. R. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med.11, 126 (2013). Google Scholar
Fonzo, G. A. et al. Common and disorder-specific neural responses to emotional faces in generalised anxiety, social anxiety and panic disorders. Br. J. Psychiatry206, 206–215 (2015). Google Scholar
Gross, C. T. & Canteras, N. S. The many paths to fear. Nat. Rev. Neurosci.13, 651–658 (2012). Overviews the major brain circuits involved in the mediation of fear and threat behaviours in rodents; this work has been instrumental in informing current models of the dysfunctional neural systems underlying anxiety disorders. Google Scholar
Cryan, J. F. & Holmes, A. Model organisms: the ascent of mouse: advances in modelling human depression and anxiety. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov.4, 775–790 (2005). Google Scholar
Hariri, A. R. & Holmes, A. Finding translation in stress research. Nat. Neurosci.18, 1347–1352 (2015). Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Samson, J. A., Anderson, C. M. & Ohashi, K. The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nat. Rev. Neurosci.17, 652–666 (2016). Google Scholar
Fonzo, G. A. et al. Early life stress and the anxious brain: evidence for a neural mechanism linking childhood emotional maltreatment to anxiety in adulthood. Psychol. Med.46, 1037–1054 (2016). Google Scholar
Swartz, J. R., Knodt, A. R., Radtke, S. R. & Hariri, A. R. A neural biomarker of psychological vulnerability to future life stress. Neuron85, 505–511 (2015). Google Scholar
van Rooij, S. J. H. et al. Smaller hippocampal volume as a vulnerability factor for the persistence of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Med.45, 2737–2746 (2015). Google Scholar
Yang, R. J. et al. Variation in mouse basolateral amygdala volume is associated with differences in stress reactivity and fear learning. Neuropsychopharmacology33, 2595–2604 (2008). Google Scholar
Hodes, G. E., Kana, V., Menard, C., Merad, M. & Russo, S. J. Neuroimmune mechanisms of depression. Nat. Neurosci.18, 1386–1393 (2015). Google Scholar
Daskalakis, N. P. et al. New translational perspectives for blood-based biomarkers of PTSD: from glucocorticoid to immune mediators of stress susceptibility. Exp. Neurol.284, 133–140 (2016). Google Scholar
Zannas, A. S. & Binder, E. B. Gene–environment interactions at the FKBP5 locus: sensitive periods, mechanisms and pleiotropism. Genes Brain Behav.13, 25–37 (2014). Google Scholar
Roozendaal, B., McEwen, B. S. & Chattarji, S. Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nat. Rev. Neurosci.10, 423–433 (2009). Google Scholar
Myers, B., McKlveen, J. M. & Herman, J. P. Glucocorticoid actions on synapses, circuits, and behavior: implications for the energetics of stress. Front. Neuroendocrinol.35, 180–196 (2014). Google Scholar
Zorn, J. V. et al. Cortisol stress reactivity across psychiatric disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology77, 25–36 (2017). Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. Twin studies of psychiatric illness: an update. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry58, 1005–1014 (2001). Google Scholar
Holmes, A. & Singewald, N. Individual differences in recovery from traumatic fear. Trends Neurosci.36, 23–31 (2013). Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. et al. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for syndromal and subsyndromal common DSM-IV axis I and all axis II disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry168, 29–39 (2011). Google Scholar
Waszczuk, M. A., Zavos, H. M. S., Gregory, A. M. & Eley, T. C. The phenotypic and genetic structure of depression and anxiety disorder symptoms in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. JAMA Psychiatry71, 905–916 (2014). Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J. & Neale, M. C. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry60, 929–937 (2003). Google Scholar
Weber, H. et al. Allelic variation in CRHR1 predisposes to panic disorder: evidence for biased fear processing. Mol. Psychiatry21, 813–822 (2016). Google Scholar
Howe, A. S. et al. Candidate genes in panic disorder: meta-analyses of 23 common variants in major anxiogenic pathways. Mol. Psychiatry21, 665–679 (2016). Google Scholar
Smith, D. J. et al. Genome-wide analysis of over 106 000 individuals identifies 9 neuroticism-associated loci. Mol. Psychiatry21, 749–757 (2016). Google Scholar
Euesden, J., Lewis, C. M. & O’Reilly, P. F. PRSice: polygenic risk score software. Bioinformatics31, 1466–1468 (2015). Google Scholar
Selzam, S. et al. Predicting educational achievement from DNA. Mol. Psychiatry22, 267–272 (2017). Google Scholar
Arloth, J. et al. Genetic differences in the immediate transcriptome response to stress predict risk-related brain function and psychiatric disorders. Neuron86, 1189–1202 (2015). Google Scholar
Gunduz-Cinar, O. et al. Convergent translational evidence of a role for anandamide in amygdala-mediated fear extinction, threat processing and stress-reactivity. Mol. Psychiatry18, 813–823 (2013). Google Scholar
Stevens, J. S. et al. PACAP receptor gene polymorphism impacts fear responses in the amygdala and hippocampus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA111, 3158–3163 (2014). Google Scholar
Fernandes, V. & Oório, F. L. Are there associations between early emotional trauma and anxiety disorders? Evidence from a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Eur. Psychiatry30, 756–764 (2015). Google Scholar
Faravelli, C. et al. The role of life events and HPA axis in anxiety disorders: a review. Curr. Pharm. Des.18, 5663–5674 (2012). Google Scholar
Maren, S. & Holmes, A. Stress and fear extinction. Neuropsychopharmacology41, 58–79 (2016). Google Scholar
Chattarji, S., Tomar, A., Suvrathan, A., Ghosh, S. & Rahman, M. M. Neighborhood matters: divergent patterns of stress-induced plasticity across the brain. Nat. Neurosci.18, 1364–1375 (2015). Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S. et al. Mechanisms of stress in the brain. Nat. Neurosci.18, 1353–1363 (2015). Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. & Baker, J. H. Genetic influences on measures of the environment: a systematic review. Psychol. Med.37, 615–626 (2007). Google Scholar
Eley, T. C., Napolitano, M., Lau, J. Y. F. & Gregory, A. M. Does childhood anxiety evoke maternal control? A genetically informed study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry51, 772–779 (2010). Google Scholar
Eley, T. C., Gregory, A. M., Clark, D. M. & Ehlers, A. Feeling anxious: a twin study of panic/somatic ratings, anxiety sensitivity and heartbeat perception in children. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry48, 1184–1191 (2007). Google Scholar
Murray, L., Creswell, C. & Cooper, P. J. The development of anxiety disorders in childhood: an integrative review. Psychol. Med.39, 1413–1423 (2009). Google Scholar
Eley, T. C. et al. The intergenerational transmission of anxiety: a children-of-twins study. Am. J. Psychiatry172, 630–637 (2015). Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Myers, J. & Prescott, C. A. The etiology of phobias: an evaluation of the stress-diathesis model. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry59, 242–248 (2002). Google Scholar
Lau, J. Y. F., Gregory, A. M., Goldwin, M. A., Pine, D. S. & Eley, T. C. Assessing gene–environment interactions on anxiety symptom subtypes across childhood and adolescence. Dev. Psychopathol.19, 1129–1146 (2007). Google Scholar
Lesch, K. P. et al. Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science274, 1527–1531 (1996). Google Scholar
Caspi, A. et al. Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science301, 386–389 (2003). Google Scholar
Stein, M. B., Schork, N. J. & Gelernter, J. Gene-by-environment (serotonin transporter and childhood maltreatment) interaction for anxiety sensitivity, an intermediate phenotype for anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology33, 312–319 (2008). Google Scholar
Holmes, A., Murphy, D. L. & Crawley, J. N. Abnormal behavioral phenotypes of serotonin transporter knockout mice: parallels with human anxiety and depression. Biol. Psychiatry54, 953–959 (2003). Google Scholar
Homberg, J. R. & Lesch, K.-P. Looking on the bright side of serotonin transporter gene variation. Biol. Psychiatry69, 513–519 (2011). Google Scholar
Sharpley, C. F., Palanisamy, S. K. A., Glyde, N. S., Dillingham, P. W. & Agnew, L. L. An update on the interaction between the serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress and depression, plus an exploration of non-confirming findings. Behav. Brain Res.273, 89–105 (2014). Google Scholar
Karg, K., Burmeister, M., Shedden, K. & Sen, S. The serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress, and depression meta-analysis revisited. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry68, 444–454 (2011). Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R. & Moffitt, T. E. Genetic sensitivity to the environment: the case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. Am. J. Psychiatry167, 509–527 (2010). Google Scholar
Keers, R. et al. A genome-wide test of the differential susceptibility hypothesis reveals a genetic predictor of differential response to psychological treatments for child anxiety disorders. Psychother. Psychosom.85, 146–158 (2016). Google Scholar
Coleman, J. R. I. et al. Genome-wide association study of response to cognitive–behavioural therapy in children with anxiety disorders. Br. J. Psychiatry209, 236–243 (2016). Google Scholar
Bale, T. L. Lifetime stress experience: transgenerational epigenetics and germ cell programming. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci.16, 297–305 (2014). Google Scholar
Dias, B. G., Maddox, S. A., Klengel, T. & Ressler, K. J. Epigenetic mechanisms underlying learning and the inheritance of learned behaviors. Trends Neurosci.38, 96–107 (2015). Google Scholar
Turecki, G. & Meaney, M. J. Effects of the social environment and stress on glucocorticoid receptor gene methylation: a systematic review. Biol. Psychiatry79, 87–96 (2016). Google Scholar
Bale, T. L. & Epperson, C. N. Sex as a biological variable: who, what, when, why, and how. Neuropsychopharmacology42, 386–396 (2017). Google Scholar
Cover, K. K., Maeng, L. Y., Lebrón-Milad, K. & Milad, M. R. Mechanisms of estradiol in fear circuitry: implications for sex differences in psychopathology. Transl Psychiatry4, e422 (2014). Google Scholar
Lebron-Milad, K. & Milad, M. R. Sex differences, gonadal hormones and the fear extinction network: implications for anxiety disorders. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord.2, 3 (2012). Google Scholar
Maeng, L. Y. & Milad, M. R. Sex differences in anxiety disorders: interactions between fear, stress, and gonadal hormones. Horm. Behav.76, 106–117 (2015). Google Scholar
Mendoza-garcés, L. et al. Differential expression of estrogen receptors in two hippocampal regions during the estrous cycle of the rat. Anat. Rec. (Hoboken)294, 1913–1919 (2011). Google Scholar
Hwang, M. J. et al. Contribution of estradiol levels and hormonal contraceptives to sex differences within the fear network during fear conditioning and extinction. BMC Psychiatry15, 295 (2015). Google Scholar
Zeidan, F. et al. Brain mechanisms supporting the modulation of pain by mindfulness meditation. J. Neurosci.31, 5540–5548 (2011). Google Scholar
Shvil, E. et al. Sex differences in extinction recall in posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot fMRI study. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem.113, 101–108 (2014). Google Scholar
Glover, E. et al. Inhibition of fear is differentially associated with cycling estrogen levels in women. J. Psychiatry Neurosci.38, 341–348 (2013). Google Scholar
Inslicht, S. S. et al. Sex differences in fear conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res.47, 64–71 (2013). Google Scholar
First, M. B., Williams, J. B. W., Karg, R. S. & Spitzer, R. L. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5®Disorders — Clinician Version (SCID-5-CV) (APA Publishing, 2016). Google Scholar
Sheehan, D. V. et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J. Clin. Psychiatry59 (Suppl. 20), 22–33 (1998). Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. et al. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview. An epidemiologic Instrument suitable for use in conjunction with different diagnostic systems and in different cultures. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry45, 1069–1077 (1988). Google Scholar
Schniering, C. A., Hudson, J. L. & Rapee, R. M. Issues in the diagnosis and assessment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Clin. Psychol. Rev.20, 453–478 (2000). Google Scholar
Zimmerman, M. & Galione, J. Psychiatrists’ and nonpsychiatrist physicians’ reported use of the DSM-IV criteria for major depressive disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry71, 235–238 (2010). Google Scholar
Zimmerman, M. & McGlinchey, J. B. Why don’t psychiatrists use scales to measure outcome when treating depressed patients? J. Clin. Psychiatry69, 1916–1919 (2008). Google Scholar
Vermani, M., Marcus, M. & Katzman, M. A. Rates of detection of mood and anxiety disorders in primary care: a descriptive, cross-sectional study. Prim. Care Companion CNS Disord.13, e1–e10 (2011). Google Scholar
First, M. B. et al. How do clinicians actually use the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders in clinical practice and why we need to know more. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.202, 841–844 (2014). Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C. et al. Past-year use of outpatient services for psychiatric problems in the National Comorbidity Survey. Am. J. Psychiatry156, 115–123 (1999). Google Scholar
Roy-Byrne, P. P. et al. Anxiety disorders and comorbid medical illness. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry30, 208–225 (2008). Google Scholar
Craske, M. G. & Stein, M. B. Anxiety. Lancet388, 3048–3059 (2016). Google Scholar
Bandelow, B. et al. Biological markers for anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD — a consensus statement. Part I: neuroimaging and genetics. World J. Biol. Psychiatry17, 321–365 (2016). Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W. & Löwe, B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder. Arch. Intern. Med.166, 1092–1097 (2006). Google Scholar
Plummer, F., Manea, L., Trepel, D. & McMillan, D. Screening for anxiety disorders with the GAD-7 and GAD-2: a systematic review and diagnostic metaanalysis. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry39, 24–31 (2016). Google Scholar
Zigmond, A. S. & Snaith, R. P. The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.67, 361–370 (1983). Google Scholar
Campbell-Sills, L. et al. Validation of a brief measure of anxiety-related severity and impairment: the Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS). J. Affect. Disord.112, 92–101 (2009). Google Scholar
Birmaher, B. et al. The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry36, 545–553 (1997). Google Scholar
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Schmidt, H. & Mayer, B. The revised version of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED-R): factor structure in normal children. Pers. Individ. Dif.26, 99–112 (1998). Google Scholar
Spence, S. H. A measure of anxiety symptoms among children. Behav. Res. Ther.36, 545–566 (1998). Google Scholar
Nauta, M. H. et al. A parent-report measure of children's anxiety: psychometric properties and comparison with child-report in a clinic and normal sample. Behav. Res. Ther.42, 813–839 (2004). Google Scholar
Edwards, S. L., Rapee, R. M., Kennedy, S. J. & Spence, S. H. The assessment of anxiety symptoms in preschool-aged children: the revised Preschool Anxiety Scale. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.39, 400–409 (2010). Google Scholar
Lyneham, H. J., Rapee, R. M. & Hudson, J. L. in The Wiley Handbook of Anxiety Disorders (eds Emmelkamp, P. & Ehring, T. ) 623–642 (John Wiley & Sons, 2014). Google Scholar
García-Campayo, J. et al. Primary prevention of anxiety disorders in primary care: a systematic review. Prev. Med.76, S12–S15 (2015). Google Scholar
Higgins, E. & O'sullivan, S. ‘What Works’: systematic review of the ‘FRIENDS for Life’ programme as a universal school-based intervention programme for the prevention of child and youth anxiety. Educ. Psychol. Pract.31, 424–438 (2015). Google Scholar
Fisak, B. J., Richard, D. & Mann, A. The prevention of child and adolescent anxiety: a meta-analytic review. Prev. Sci.12, 255–268 (2011). Google Scholar
Teubert, D. & Pinquart, M. A meta-analytic review on the prevention of symptoms of anxiety in children and adolescents. J. Anxiety Disord.25, 1046–1059 (2011). Google Scholar
Ginsburg, G. S., Drake, K. L., Tein, J.-Y., Teetsel, R. & Riddle, M. A. Preventing onset of anxiety disorders in offspring of anxious parents: a randomized controlled trial of a family-based intervention. Am. J. Psychiatry172, 1207–1214 (2015). Google Scholar
Gardenswartz, C. A. & Craske, M. G. Prevention of panic disorder. Behav. Ther.32, 725–737 (2001). Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M., Lau, E. X. & Kennedy, S. J. The Cool Little Kids Anxiety Prevention Program — Therapist Manual (Centre for Emotional Health, 2010). Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M., Kennedy, S. J., Ingram, M., Edwards, S. L. & Sweeney, L. Altering the trajectory of anxiety in at-risk young children. Am. J. Psychiatry167, 1518–1525 (2010). Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M. The preventative effects of a brief, early intervention for preschool-aged children at risk for internalising: follow-up into middle adolescence. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry54, 780–788 (2013). Describes some of the longest outcomes in the mental health prevention literature; for example, early interventions in individuals with anxious temperament can have powerful long-term benefits. Google Scholar
Wang, P. S. et al. Delay and failure in treatment seeking after first onset of mental disorders in the World Health Organization's World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry6, 177–185 (2007). Google Scholar
Katzman, M. A. et al. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive–compulsive disorders. BMC Psychiatry14, S1 (2014). Google Scholar
Bandelow, B., Lichte, T., Rudolf, S., Wiltink, J. & Beutel, M. E. The German guidelines for the treatment of anxiety disorders. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.265, 363–373 (2015). Google Scholar
Lim, L. et al. Ministry of Health clinical practice guidelines: anxiety disorders. Singapore Med. J.56, 310–315 (2015). Google Scholar
McHugh, R. K., Whitton, S. W., Peckham, A. D., Welge, J. A. & Otto, M. W. Patient preference for psychological versus pharmacologic treatment of psychiatric disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatry74, 595–602 (2013). Google Scholar
Manassis, K. et al. Types of parental involvement in CBT with anxious youth: a preliminary meta-analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol.82, 1163–1172 (2014). This meta-analysis provides a strong and unique perspective on a controversial issue: whether treatments for child anxiety benefit from the inclusion of parents. Google Scholar
James, A. C., James, G., Cowdrey, F. A., Soler, A. & Choke, A. Cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.3, CD004690 (2013). Google Scholar
Hofmann, S. G. & Smits, J. A. J. Cognitive–behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J. Clin. Psychiatry69, 621–632 (2008). Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P., Cristea, I. A., Karyotaki, E., Reijnders, M. & Huibers, M. J. H. How effective are cognitive behavior therapies for major depression and anxiety disorders? A meta-analytic update of the evidence. World Psychiatry15, 245–258 (2016). This meta-analysis presents a large body of evidence demonstrating the efficacy of CBT for social anxiety disorder, panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Google Scholar
Emmrich, A. et al. Depression does not affect the treatment outcome of CBT for panic and agoraphobia: results from a multicenter randomized trial. Psychother. Psychosom.81, 161–172 (2012). Google Scholar
Hofmann, S. G., Wu, J. Q. & Boettcher, H. Effect of cognitive–behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders on quality of life: a meta-analysis. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol.82, 375–391 (2014). Google Scholar
Loerinc, A. G. et al. Response rates for CBT for anxiety disorders: need for standardized criteria. Clin. Psychol. Rev.42, 72–82 (2015). Google Scholar
Ishikawa, S., Okajima, I., Matsuoka, H. & Sakano, Y. Cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Child Adolesc. Ment. Health12, 164–172 (2007). Google Scholar
Vøllestad, J., Nielsen, M. B. & Nielsen, G. H. Mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions for anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Clin. Psychol.51, 239–260 (2012). Google Scholar
Keefe, J. R., McCarthy, K. S., Dinger, U., Zilcha-Mano, S. & Barber, J. P. A meta-analytic review of psychodynamic therapies for anxiety disorders. Clin. Psychol. Rev.34, 309–323 (2014). Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P. & Cristea, I. A. Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry173, 680–687 (2016). Google Scholar
Vos, S. P. F., Huibers, M. J. H., Diels, L. & Arntz, A. A randomized clinical trial of cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for panic disorder with agoraphobia. Psychol. Med.42, 2661–2672 (2012). Google Scholar
Higa-McMillan, C. K., Francis, S. E., Rith-Najarian, L. & Chorpita, B. F. Evidence base update: 50 years of research on treatment for child and adolescent anxiety. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.45, 91–113 (2016). This review provides a thorough and systematic evaluation of the key active components in treatments for anxious youths. Google Scholar
Griebel, G. & Holmes, A. 50 years of hurdles and hope in anxiolytic drug discovery. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov.12, 667–687 (2013). Google Scholar
Murrough, J. W., Yaqubi, S., Sayed, S. & Charney, D. S. Emerging drugs for the treatment of anxiety. Expert Opin. Emerg. Drugs20, 393–406 (2015). Google Scholar
Ravindran, L. N. & Stein, M. B. The pharmacologic treatment of anxiety disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatry71, 839–854 (2010). A review paper focusing on advances in pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorders up to 2010. Google Scholar
Sadock, B. J., Kaplan, H. I., Sadock, V. A. & Ruiz, P. Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry 10th edn Vol. 1 (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2017, forthcoming). Google Scholar
Gommoll, C. et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose phase III study of vilazodone in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Depress. Anxiety32, 451–459 (2015). Google Scholar
Stein, D. J. et al. Agomelatine in generalized anxiety disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry75, 362–368 (2014). Google Scholar
Baldwin, D. S. et al. Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J. Psychopharmacol.28, 403–439 (2014). Guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology on pharmacological treatment options for anxiety disorders. Google Scholar
Gray, S. L. Benzodiazepine use and risk of incident dementia or cognitive decline: prospective population based study. BMJ.352, i90 (2016). Google Scholar
Kreys, T.-J. M. & Phan, S. V. A. Literature review of quetiapine for generalized anxiety disorder. Pharmacother. J. Hum. Pharmacol. Drug Ther.35, 175–188 (2015). Google Scholar
Steenen, S. A. et al. Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Psychopharmacol.30, 128–139 (2016). Google Scholar
Mohatt, J., Bennett, S. M. & Walkup, J. T. Treatment of separation, generalized, and social anxiety disorders in youths. Am. J. Psychiatry171, 741–748 (2014). Google Scholar
Wehry, A. M., Beesdo-Baum, K., Hennelly, M. M., Connolly, S. D. & Strawn, J. R. Assessment and treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Curr. Psychiatry Rep.17, 52 (2015). Google Scholar
Bridge, J. A. et al. Clinical response and risk for reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in pediatric antidepressant treatment. JAMA297, 1683–1696 (2007). Google Scholar
Marchesi, C. et al. Clinical management of perinatal anxiety disorders: a systematic review. J. Affect. Disord.190, 543–550 (2016). Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P. et al. The efficacy of psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy in treating depressive and anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis of direct comparisons. World Psychiatry12, 137–148 (2013). Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P. et al. Adding psychotherapy to antidepressant medication in depression and anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. World Psychiatry13, 56–67 (2014). Google Scholar
Piacentini, J. et al. 24- and 36-week outcomes for the Child/Adolescent Anxiety Multimodal Study (CAMS). J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry53, 297–310 (2014). Google Scholar
Ginsburg, G. S. et al. Naturalistic follow-up of youths treated for pediatric anxiety disorders. JAMA Psychiatry71, 310–318 (2014). Google Scholar
Heldt, E. et al. Predictors of relapse in the second follow-up year post cognitive–behavior therapy for panic disorder. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr.33, 23–29 (2011). Google Scholar
van Apeldoorn, F. J. et al. A randomized trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor or both combined for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. J. Clin. Psychiatry71, 574–586 (2010). Google Scholar
White, K. S. et al. Does maintenance CBT contribute to long-term treatment response of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia? A randomized controlled clinical trial. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol.81, 47–57 (2013). Google Scholar
Craske, M. G. et al. CBT intensity and outcome for panic disorder in a primary care setting. Behav. Ther.37, 112–119 (2006). Google Scholar
Scholten, W. D., Batelaan, N. M., van Oppen, P., Smit, J. H. & van Balkom, A. J. L. M. Discontinuation of antidepressants in remitted anxiety disorder patients: the need for strategies to prevent relapse. Psychother. Psychosom.82, 399–400 (2013). Google Scholar
Donovan, M. R., Glue, P., Kolluri, S. & Emir, B. Comparative efficacy of antidepressants in preventing relapse in anxiety disorders — a meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord.123, 9–16 (2010). Google Scholar
Perna, G., Alciati, A., Riva, A., Micieli, W. & Caldirola, D. Long-term pharmacological treatments of anxiety disorders: an updated systematic review. Curr. Psychiatry Rep.18, 23 (2016). Google Scholar
Schneider, R. L., Arch, J. J. & Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B. The state of personalized treatment for anxiety disorders: a systematic review of treatment moderators. Clin. Psychol. Rev.38, 39–54 (2015). Google Scholar
Hudson, J. L. et al. Clinical predictors of response to cognitive–behavioral therapy in pediatric anxiety disorders: the Genes for Treatment (GxT) Study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry54, 454–463 (2015). Google Scholar
Bittner, A. et al. What characteristics of primary anxiety disorders predict subsequent major depressive disorder? J. Clin. Psychiatry65, 618–626 (2004). Google Scholar
Castaneda, A. E., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., Marttunen, M., Suvisaari, J. & Lönnqvist, J. A review on cognitive impairments in depressive and anxiety disorders with a focus on young adults. J. Affect. Disord.106, 1–27 (2008). Google Scholar
Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R. & Calvo, M. G. Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. Emotion7, 336–353 (2007). Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C. et al. The global burden of mental disorders: an update from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Epidemiol. Psichiatr. Soc.18, 23–33 (2009). Google Scholar
Saeed Mirza, S., Ikram, M. A., Hofman, A. & Tiemeier, H. Anxiety does not predict mortality. A population-based study. World Psychiatry14, 103–104 (2015). Google Scholar
Whiteford, H. A. et al. Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet382, 1575–1586 (2013). Google Scholar
Hoagwood, K. & Olin, S. S. The NIMH blueprint for change report: research priorities in child and adolescent mental health. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry41, 760–767 (2002). Google Scholar
Holmes, E. A., Craske, M. G. & Graybiel, A. M. Psychological treatments: a call for mental-health science. Nature511, 287–289 (2014). Google Scholar
Waters, A. M. & Craske, M. G. Towards a cognitive-learning formulation of youth anxiety: a narrative review of theory and evidence and implications for treatment. Clin. Psychol. Rev.50, 50–66 (2016). Google Scholar
Bouton, M. E. Context, ambiguity, and unlearning: sources of relapse after behavioral extinction. Biol. Psychiatry52, 976–986 (2002). Google Scholar
Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C. C., Zbozinek, T. & Vervliet, B. Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behav. Res. Ther.58, 10–23 (2014). Google Scholar
Ori, R. et al. Augmentation of cognitive and behavioural therapies (CBT) with d-cycloserine for anxiety and related disorder. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.10, CD007803 (2015). Google Scholar
Kredlow, M. A., Unger, L. D. & Otto, M. W. Harnessing reconsolidation to weaken fear and appetitive memories: a meta-analysis of post-retrieval extinction effects. Psychol. Bull.142, 314–336 (2016). Google Scholar
Hardwicke, T. E., Taqi, M. & Shanks, D. R. Postretrieval new learning does not reliably induce human memory updating via reconsolidation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA113, 5206–5211 (2016). Google Scholar
Christensen, H., Batterham, P. & Calear, A. Online interventions for anxiety disorders. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry27, 7–13 (2014). Google Scholar
Olthuis, J. V., Watt, M. C., Bailey, K., Hayden, J. A. & Stewart, S. H. Therapist-supported Internet cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.12, CD011565 (2016). This Cochrane review summarizes the evidence supporting the use of Internet-based CBTs for anxiety disorders. Google Scholar
Ye, X. et al. Effectiveness of Internet-based interventions for children, youth, and young adults with anxiety and/or depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Health Serv. Res.14, 313 (2014). Google Scholar
Pennant, M. E. et al. Computerised therapies for anxiety and depression in children and young people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Behav. Res. Ther.67, 1–18 (2015). Google Scholar
Cristea, I. A., Kok, R. N. & Cuijpers, P. Efficacy of cognitive bias modification interventions in anxiety and depression: meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry206, 7–16 (2015). Google Scholar
Heeren, A., Mogoase, C., Philippot, P. & McNally, R. J. Attention bias modification for social anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev.40, 76–90 (2015). Google Scholar
van Ginneken, N. et al. Non-specialist health worker interventions for the care of mental, neurological and substance-abuse disorders in low- and middle-income countries. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.19, CD009149 (2013). This Cochrane review presents evidence for mental health treatments, including treatments for anxiety, delivered by non-specialists in low-to-middle-income countries. Google Scholar
Kobak, K. A., Craske, M. G., Rose, R. D. & Wolitsky-Taylor, K. Web-based therapist training on cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety disorders: a pilot study. Psychotherapy50, 235–247 (2013). Google Scholar
Craske, M. G. et al. Disorder-specific impact of coordinated anxiety learning and management treatment for anxiety disorders in primary care. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry68, 378–388 (2011). Google Scholar
Gilmartin, M. R., Balderston, N. L. & Helmstetter, F. J. Prefrontal cortical regulation of fear learning. Trends Neurosci.37, 455–464 (2014). Google Scholar
Dunsmoor, J. E. & Paz, R. Fear generalization and anxiety: behavioral and neural mechanisms. Biol. Psychiatry78, 336–343 (2015). Google Scholar
Singewald, N., Schmuckermair, C., Whittle, N., Holmes, A. & Ressler, K. J. Pharmacology of cognitive enhancers for exposure-based therapy of fear, anxiety and trauma-related disorders. Pharmacol. Ther.149, 150–190 (2015). Google Scholar
Insel, T. et al. Research Domain Criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry167, 748–751 (2010). Google Scholar
Sanislow, C. A. et al. Developing constructs for psychopathology research: research domain criteria. J. Abnorm. Psychol.119, 631–639 (2010). Google Scholar
Wittchen, H.-U. et al. Generalized anxiety and depression in primary care: prevalence, recognition, and management. J. Clin. Psychiatry63 (Suppl. 8), 24–34 (2002). Google Scholar
van de Water, T., Suliman, S. & Seedat, S. Gender and cultural issues in psychiatric nosological classification systems. CNS Spectr.21, 334–340 (2016). Google Scholar
Craske, M. G. Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy (American Psychological Association, 2010). Google Scholar
Milad, M. R. & Quirk, G. J. Fear extinction as a model for translational neuroscience: ten years of progress. Annu. Rev. Psychol.63, 129–151 (2012). Google Scholar
McNaughton, N. The conceptual nervous system of J.A. Gray: anxiety and neuroticism. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.28, 227–228 (2004). Google Scholar
Harris, A. Z. & Gordon, J. A. Long-range neural synchrony in behavior. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.38, 171–194 (2015). Google Scholar
Robinson, O. J. et al. Towards a mechanistic understanding of pathological anxiety: the dorsal medial prefrontal–amygdala ‘aversive amplification’ circuit in unmedicated generalized and social anxiety disorder. Lancet Psychiatry1, 294–302 (2014). Google Scholar
Shin, L. M. & Liberzon, I. The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology35, 169–191 (2010). Google Scholar
Lanius, R. A., Bluhm, R., Lanius, U. & Pain, C. A review of neuroimaging studies in PTSD: heterogeneity of response to symptom provocation. J. Psychiatr. Res.40, 709–729 (2006). Google Scholar
Fonzo, G. A. et al. Exaggerated and disconnected insular-amygdalar blood oxygenation level-dependent response to threat-related emotional faces in women with intimate-partner violence posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry68, 433–441 (2010). Google Scholar
Marin, M.-F. et al. Association of resting metabolism in the fear neural network with extinction recall activations and clinical measures in trauma-exposed individuals. Am. J. Psychiatry173, 930–938 (2016). Google Scholar
Freitas-Ferrari, M. C. et al. Neuroimaging in social anxiety disorder: a systematic review of the literature. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry34, 565–580 (2010). Google Scholar
Cremers, H. R. et al. Altered cortical–amygdala coupling in social anxiety disorder during the anticipation of giving a public speech. Psychol. Med.45, 1521–1529 (2015). Google Scholar
Wittchen, H.-U. et al. The need for a behavioural science focus in research on mental health and mental disorders. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res.23, 28–40 (2014). Google Scholar