A Review and Update of Mechanisms of Estrogen in the Hippocampus and Amygdala for Anxiety and Depression Behavior (original) (raw)
Ahokas A, Kaukoranta J, Wahlbeck K, Aito M (2001). Estrogen deficiency in severe postpartum depression: successful treatment with sublingual physiologic 17beta-estradiol: a preliminary study. J Clin Psychiatr62: 332–336. CAS Google Scholar
Almeida OP, Lautenschlager N, Vasikaram S, Leedman P, Flicker L (2005). Association between physiological serum concentration of estrogen and the mental health of community-dwelling postmenopausal women age 70 years and over. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr13: 142–149. Google Scholar
Altemus M, Redwine LS, Leong YM, Frye CA, Porges SW, Carter CS (2001). Responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in postpartum women. Psychosom Med63: 814–821. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Baca-Garcia E, Diaz-Sastre C, de Leon J, Saiz-Ruiz J (2000). The relationship between menstrual cycle phases and suicide attempts. Psychosom Med62: 50–60. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bebbington P, Hurry J, Tennant C, Sturt E, Wing JK (1981). The epidemiology of mental disorders in Camberwell. Psychol Med11: 561–579. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bebbington PE, Dunn G, Jenkins R, Lewis G, Brugha T, Farrell M et al (1998). The influence of age and sex on the prevalence of depressive conditions: report from the National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity. Psychol Med28: 9–19. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Becker JB, Snyder PJ, Miller MM, Westgate SA, Jenuwine MJ (1987). The influence of estrous cycle and intrastriatal estradiol on sensorimotor performance in the female rat. Pharm Biochem Behav27: 53–59. CAS Google Scholar
Bernardi M, Vergoni AV, Sandrini M, Tagliovini SB (1989). Influence of ovariectomy, estradiol and progesterone on the behavior of mice in an experimental model of depression. Physiol Behav45: 1067–1068. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Beyer C, Ivanova T, Karolczak M, Kuppers E (2002). Cell type-specificity of nonclassical estrogen signaling in the developing midbrain. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol81: 319–325. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bitran D, Dugan M, Renda P, Ellis R, Foley M (1999). Anxiolytic effects of the neuroactive steroid pregnanolone (3_α_-OH-5_β_-pregnan-20-one) after microinjection in the dorsal hippocampus and lateral septum. Brain Res850: 217–224. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bitran D, Foley M, Audette D, Leslie N, Frye CA (2000). Activation of peripheral mitochondrial benzodiazepine receptors in the hippocampus stimulates allopregnanolone synthesis and produces anxiolytic-like effects in the rat. Psychopharmacology151: 64–71. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Blanchard DC, Shepherd JK, De Padua Carobrez A, Blanchard RJ (1991). Sex effects in defensive behavior: baseline differences and drug interactions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev15: 461–468. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Blanchard RJ, Agullana R, McGee L, Weiss S, Blanchard DC (1992). Sex differences in the incidence and sonographic characteristics of antipredator ultrasonic cries in the laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus). J Comp Psychol106: 270–277. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bloch M, Daly RC, Rubinow DR (2003). Endocrine factors in the etiology of postpartum depression. Compr Psychiatr44: 234–246. Google Scholar
Bloch M, Schmidt PJ, Danaceau M, Murphy J, Nieman L, Rubinow DR (2000). Effects of gonadal steroids in women with a history of postpartum depression. Am J Psychiatr157: 924–930. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bowman RE, Ferguson D, Luine VN (2002). Effects of chronic restraint stress and estradiol on open field activity, spatial memory, and monoaminergic neurotransmitters in ovariectomized rats. Neuroscience113: 401–410. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Breslau N, Schultz L, Peterson E (1995). Sex differences in depression: a role for preexisting anxiety. Psychiatr Res58: 1–12. CAS Google Scholar
Brunner RL, Gass M, Aragaki A, Hays J, Granek I, Woods N, et al Women's Health Initiative Investigators (2005). Effects of conjugated equine estrogen on health-related quality of life in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: results from the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Clinical Trial. Arch Intern Med165: 1976–1986. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Burger HG, Dudley EC, Hopper JL, Shelley JM, Green A, Smith A et al (1995). The endocrinology of the menopausal transition: a cross-sectional study of a population-based sample. J Clin Endocrinol Metab80: 3537–3545. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Burgess LH, Handa RJ (1992). Chronic estrogen-induced alterations in adrenocorticotropin and corticosterone secretion, and glucocorticoid receptor-mediated functions in female rats. Endocrinology131: 1261–1269. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Carey MP, Deterd CH, de Koning J, Helmerhorst F, de Kloet ER (1995). The influence of ovarian steroids on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal regulation in the female rat. J Endocrinol144: 311–321. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Carlson LE, Sherwin BB, Chertkow HM (2000). Relationships between mood and estradiol (E2) levels in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci55: P47–P53. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Carter CS, Altemus M, Chrousos GP (2001). Neuroendocrine and emotional changes in the post-partum period. Prog Brain Res133: 241–249. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Cheng YJ, Karavolas HJ (1973). Conversion of progesterone to 5_α_-pregnane-3,20-dione and 3 _α_-hydroxy-5_α_-pregnan-20-one by rat medical basal hypothalami and the effects of estradiol and stage of estrous cycle on the conversion. Endocrinology93: 1157–1162. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Cohen LS, Soares CN, Poitras JR, Prouty J, Alexander AB, Shifren JL (2003). Short-term use of estradiol for depression in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women: a preliminary report. Am J Psychiatr160: 1519–1522. PubMed Google Scholar
Contreras CM, Molina M, Saavedra M, Martinez-Mota L (2000). Lateral septal neuronal firing rate increases during proestrus–estrus in the rat. Physiol Behav68: 279–284. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Critchlow V, Liebelt RA, Bar-Sela M, Mountcastle W, Lipscomb HS (1963). Sex difference in resting pituitary-adrenal function in the rat. Am J Physiol205: 807–815. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dalton K (1959). Menstruation and acute psychiatric illnesses. Br Med J34: 148–149. Google Scholar
Daly RC, Danaceau MA, Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ (2003). Concordant restoration of ovarian function and mood in perimenopausal depression. Am J Psychiatr160: 1842–1846. PubMed Google Scholar
Danilovich N, Harada N, Sairam MR, Maysinger D (2003). Age-related neurodegenerative changes in the central nervous system of estrogen-deficient follitropin receptor knockout mice. Exp Neurol183: 559–572. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dayas CV, Xu Y, Buller KM, Day TA (2000). Effects of chronic oestrogen replacement on stress-induced activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis control pathways. J Neuroendocrinol12: 784–794. CASPubMed Google Scholar
De Leo V, la Marca A, Talluri B, D’Antona D, Morgante G (1998). Hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis and adrenal function before and after ovariectomy in premenopausal women. Eur J Endocrinol138: 430–435. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dean C, Kendell RE (1981). The symptomatology of puerperal illnesses. Br J Psychiatr139: 128–133. CAS Google Scholar
Diaz-Veliz G, Alarcon T, Espinoza C, Dussaubat N, Mora S (1997). Ketanserin and anxiety levels: influence of gender, estrous cycle, ovariectomy and ovarian hormones in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav58: 637–642. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Diaz-Veliz G, Butron S, Benavides MS, Dussaubat N, Mora S (2000). Gender, estrous cycle, ovariectomy, and ovarian hormones influence the effects of diazepam on avoidance conditioning in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav66: 887–892. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ditkoff EC, Crary WG, Cristo M, Lobo RA (1991). Estrogen improves psychological function in asymptomatic postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol78: 991–995. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Duka T, Tasker R, McGowan JF (2000). The effects of 3-week estrogen hormone replacement on cognition in elderly healthy females. Psychopharmacology149: 129–139. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Duman RS, Nakagawa S, Malberg J (2001). Regulation of adult neurogenesis by antidepressant treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology25: 836–844. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Earls F (1987). Sex differences in psychiatric disorders: origins and developmental influences. Psychiatr Dev5: 1–23. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Easterbrook CC (1900). Organo-therapeutics in mental disease. BMJ2: 813–823. Google Scholar
Edinger KL, Frye CA (2004). Testosterone's analgesic, anxiolytic, and cognitive-enhancing effects may be due in part to actions of its 5_α_-reduced metabolites in the hippocampus. Behav Neurosci118: 1352–1364. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Edinger KL, Frye CA (2005). Testosterone's anti-anxiety and analgesic effects may be due in part to actions of its 5_α_-reduced metabolites in the hippocampus. Psychoneuroendocrinology30: 418–430. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Estrada-Camarena E, Fernandez-Guasti A, Lopez-Rubalcava C (2003). Antidepressant-like effect of different estrogenic compounds in the forced swimming test. Neuropsychopharmacology28: 830–838. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Falkenstein E, Tillman HC, Christ M, Feuring M, Wehling M (2000). Multiple actions of steriod hormones—a focus on rapid, nongenomic effects. Pharmacol Rev52: 513–556. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Figueiredo HF, Dolgas CM, Herman JP (2002). Stress activation of cortex and hippocampus is modulated by sex and stage of estrus. Endocrinology143: 2534–2540. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Figueiredo HF, Dolgas CM, Herman JP (2003). Dissociation of ACTH and corticosterone responses to stress in female rats treated with estrogen. Horm Behav44: 48–49. Google Scholar
Frick KM, Fernandez SM, Bulinski SC (2002). Estrogen replacement improves spatial reference memory and increases hippocampal synaptophysin in aged female mice. Neuroscience115: 547–558. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Bayon LE (1999). Mating stimuli influence endogenous variations in the neurosteroids 3_α_, 5_α_-THP and 3_α_-Diol. Neuroendocinol11: 839–847. CAS Google Scholar
Frye CA, Lacey EH (2001). Posttraining androgens’ enhancement of cognitive performance is temporally distinct from androgens’ increases in affective behavior. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci1: 172–182. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Orecki ZA (2002a). Prenatal stress produces deficits in socio-sexual behavior of cycling, but not hormone-primed, Long-Evans rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav73: 53–60. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Orecki ZA (2002b). Prenatal stress alters reproductive responses of rats in behavioral estrus and paced mating of hormone-primed rats. Horm Behav42: 472–483. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Petralia SM, Rhodes ME (2000). Estrous cycle and sex differences in performance on anxiety tasks coincide with increases in hippocampal progesterone and 3_α_,5_α_-THP. Pharmacol Biochem Behav67: 587–596. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Rhodes ME (2002). Enhancing effects of estrogen on inhibitory avoidance performance may be in part independent of intracellular estrogen receptors in the hippocampus. Brain Res956: 285–293. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Rhodes ME (2005). Estrogen-priming can enhance progesterone's anti-seizure effects in part by increasing hippocampal levels of allopregnanolone. Pharmacol Biochem Behav81: 907–916. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Rhodes ME, Dudek B (2005). Estradiol to aged female or male mice improves learning in inhibitory avoidance and water maze tasks. Brain Res1036: 101–108. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Frye CA, Walf AA (2002). Changes in progesterone metabolites in the hippocampus can modulate open field and forced swim test behavior of proestrous rats. Horm Behav41: 306–315. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Walf AA (2004a). Estrogen and/or progesterone systemically or to the amygdala can have anxiety, fear, and pain reducing effects in ovariectomized rats. Behav Neurosci118: 306–313. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Walf AA (2004b). Hippocampal 3_α_,5_α_-THP may alter depressive behavior of pregnant and lactating rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav78: 531–540. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Walf AA, Rhodes ME, Harney JP (2004). Progesterone enhances motor, anxiolytic, analgesic, and antidepressive behavior of wild-type mice, but not those deficient in type 1 5_α_-reductase. Brain Res1004: 116–124. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frye CA, Wawrzycki J (2003). Effect of prenatal stress and gonadal hormone condition on depressive behaviors of female and male rats. Horm Behav44: 319–326. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Forsling ML, Kallo I, Hartley DE, Heinze L, Ladek R, Coen CW et al (2003). Oestrogen receptor-β and neurohypophysial hormones: functional interaction and neuroanatomical localisation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav76: 535–542. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Galea LA, Lee TT, Kostaras X, Sidhu JA, Barr AM (2002). High levels of estradiol impair spatial performance in the Morris water maze and increase ‘depressive-like’ behaviors in the female meadow vole. Physiol Behav77: 217–225. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Galea LA, Wide JK, Barr AM (2001). Estradiol alleviates depressive-like symptoms in a novel animal model of post-partum depression. Behav Brain Res122: 1–9. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gallucci WT, Baum A, Laue L, Rabin DS, Chrousos GP, Gold PW et al (1993). Sex differences in sensitivity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Health Psychol12: 420–425. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Genazzani AR, Lemarchand-Beraud T, Aubert ML, Felber JP (1975). Pattern of plasma ACTH, hGH, and cortisol during menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab41: 431–437. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gibbs RB (1997). Effects of estrogen on basal forebrain cholinergic neurons vary as a function of dose and duration of treatment. Brain Res757: 10–16. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gibbs RB (1998). Levels of trkA and BDNF mRNA, but not NGF mRNA, fluctuate across the estrous cycle and increase in response to acute hormone replacement. Brain Res787: 259–268. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gibbs RB (1999). Treatment with estrogen and progesterone affects relative levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA and protein in different regions of the adult rat brain. Brain Res844: 20–27. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gibbs RB, Gabor R, Cox T, Johnson DA (2004). Effects of raloxifene and estradiol on hippocampal acetylcholine release and spatial learning in the rat. Psychoneuroendocrinology29: 741–748. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Giguere V (2003). Steroid homorne receptor signaling. In: Bradshaw RA, Dennis EA (eds). Handbook of Cell Signaling. Vol. 3. Academic Press: San Diego, CA. pp 35–38. Google Scholar
Goodwin FK, Jamison KR (1990). Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford University Press: New York, NY. Google Scholar
Gould E, Woolley CS, Frankfurt M, McEwen BS (1990). Gonadal steroids regulate dendritic spine density in hippocampal pyramidal cells in adulthood. J Neurosci10: 1286–1291. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Greco B, Blasberg ME, Kosinski EC, Blaustein JD (2003a). Response of ER_α_-IR and ER_β_-IR cells in the forebrain of female rats to mating stimuli. Horm Behav43: 444–453. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Greco B, Lubbers LS, Blaustein JD (2003b). Estrogen receptor β messenger ribonucleic acid expression in the forebrain of proestrous, pregnant, and lactating female rats. Endocrinology144: 1869–1875. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Green S, Walter P, Kumar V, Krust A, Bornert JM, Argos P et al (1986). Human oestrogen receptor cDNA: sequence, expression and homology to v-erb-A. Nature320: 134–139. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gregoire AJ, Kumar R, Everitt B, Henderson AF, Studd JW (1996). Transdermal oestrogen for treatment of severe postnatal depression. Lancet347: 930–933. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gu Q, Korach KS, Moss RL (1999). Rapid action of 17_β_-estradiol on kainate-induced currents in hippocampal neurons lacking intracellular estrogen receptors. Endocrinol140: 660–666. CAS Google Scholar
Gu Q, Moss RL (1996). 17_β_-estradiol potentiates kainate-induced currents via activation of the cAMP cascade. J Neurosci16: 3620–3629. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gustafsson JA (2003). What pharmacologists can learn from recent advances in estrogen signaling. Trends Pharmacol Sci24: 479–485. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Handa RJ, Burgess LH, Kerr JE, O’Keefe JA (1994). Gonadal steroid hormone receptors and sex differences in the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis. Horm Behav28: 464–476. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hartley DE, Edwards JE, Spiller CE, Alom N, Tucci S, Seth P et al (2003). The soya isoflavone content of rat diet can increase anxiety and stress hormone release in the male rat. Psychopharmacology167: 46–53. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hays J, Ockene JK, Brunner RL, Kotchen JM, Manson JE, Patterson RE et al, Women's Health Initiative Investigators (2003). Effects of estrogen plus progestin on health-related quality of life. N Engl J Med348: 1839–1854. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hayward C, Sanborn K (2002). Puberty and the emergence of gender differences in psychopathology. J Adolesc Health30: 49–58. PubMed Google Scholar
Heinrich AB, Wolf OT (2005). Investigating the effects of estradiol or estradiol/progesterone treatment on mood, depressive symptoms, menopausal symptoms and subjective sleep quality in older healthy hysterectomized women: a questionnaire study. Neuropsychobiology52: 17–23. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Herman JP, Figueiredo H, Mueller NK, Ulrich-Lai Y, Ostrander MM, Choi DC et al (2003). Central mechanisms of stress integration: hierarchical circuitry controlling hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical responsiveness. Front Neuroendocrinol24: 151–180. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Herman JP, Mueller NK, Figueiredo H (2004). Role of GABA and glutamate circuitry in hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical stress integration. Ann NY Acad Sci1018: 35–45. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hilakivi-Clarke L (1996). Role of estradiol in alcohol intake and alcohol-related behaviors. J Stud Alcohol57: 162–170. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Imwalle DB, Gustafsson JA, Rissman EF (2005). Lack of functional estrogen receptor β influences anxiety behavior and serotonin content in female mice. Physiol Behav84: 157–163. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Insel TR (1990). Regional induction of c-fos-like protein in rat brain after estradiol administration. Endocrinology126: 1849–1853. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Isgor C, Cecchi M, Kabbaj M, Akil H, Watson SJ (2003). Estrogen receptor beta in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus regulates the neuroendocrine response to stress and is regulated by corticosterone. Neuroscience121: 837–845. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Jenkins R (1987). Sex differences in depression. Br J Hosp Med38: 485–486. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Jensen EV, Jacobsen HI (1962). Basic guides to the mechanism of estrogen action. Recent Prog Horm Res18: 387–414. CAS Google Scholar
Jezova D, Jurankova E, Mosnarova A, Kriska M, Skultetyova I (1996). Neuroendocrine response during stress with relation to gender differences. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Warsz)56: 779–785. CAS Google Scholar
Johnston AL, File SE (1991). Sex differences in animal tests of anxiety. Physiol Behav49: 245–250. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kelly MJ, Levin ER (2001). Rapid actions of plasma membrane estrogen receptors. Trends Endocrinol Metab12: 152–156. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Swartz M, Blazer DG, Nelson CB (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. J Affect Disord29: 85–96. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Eshleman S et al (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatr51: 8–19. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kessler RC, Walters EE (1998). Epidemiology of DSM-III-R major depression and minor depression among adolescents and young adults in the National Comorbidity Survey. Depress Anxiety7: 3–14. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kitay JL (1963). Pituitary adrenal function in the rat after gonadectomy and gonadal hormone replacement. Endocrinology73: 2253–2260. Google Scholar
Klaiber EL, Broverman DM, Vogel W, Kobayashi Y (1979). Estrogen therapy for severe persistent depressions in women. Arch Gen Psychiatr36: 550–554. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Klaiber EL, Broverman DM, Vogel W, Peterson LG, Snyder MB (1997). Relationships of serum estradiol levels, menopausal duration, and mood during hormonal replacement therapy. Psychoneuroendocrinology22: 549–558. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Koehl M, Darnaudery M, Dulluc J, Van Reeth O, Le Moal M, Maccari S (1999). Prenatal stress alters circadian activity of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and hippocampal corticosteroid receptors in adult rats of both gender. J Neurobiol40: 302–315. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Koss WA, Gehlert DR, Shekhar A (2004). Different effects of subchronic doses of 17-beta estradiol in two ethologically based models of anxiety utilizing female rats. Horm Behav46: 158–164. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kow LM, Pfaff DW (2004). The membrane actions of estrogens can potentiate their lordosis behavior-facilitating genomic actions. Proc Natl Acad Sci101: 12354–12357. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Krezel W, Dupont S, Krust A, Chambon P, Chapman PF (2001). Increased anxiety and synaptic plasticity in estrogen receptor _β_-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci98: 12278–12282. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Kuiper GG, Carlsson B, Grandien K, Enmark E, Haggblad J, Nilsson S et al (1997). Comparison of the ligand binding specificity and transcript tissue distribution of estrogen receptors α and β. Endocrinology138: 863–870. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kuiper GG, Enmark E, Pelto-Huikko M, Nilsson S, Gustafsson JA (1996). Cloning of a novel receptor expressed in rat prostate and ovary. Proc Natl Acad Sci93: 5925–5930. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Kuiper GG, Lemmen JG, Carlsson B, Corton JC, Safe SH, van der Saag PT et al (1998). Interaction of estrogenic chemicals and phytoestrogens with estrogen receptor β. Endocrinology139: 4252–4263. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lauber AH, Romano GJ, Mobbs CV, Howells RD, Pfaff DW (1990). Estradiol induction of proenkephalin messenger RNA in hypothalamus: dose–response and relation to reproductive behavior in the female rat. Brain Res Mol Brain Res8: 47–54. CASPubMed Google Scholar
LeDoux JE (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci23: 155–184. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lephart ED, West TW, Weber KS, Rhees RW, Setchell KD, Adlercreutz H et al (2002). Neurobehavioral effects of dietary soy phytoestrogens. Neurotoxicol Teratol24: 5–16. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR (1998). Major depressive disorder in older adolescents: prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. Clin Psychol Rev18: 765–794. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Li C, Brake WG, Romeo RD, Dunlop JC, Gordon M, Buzescu R et al (2004). Estrogen alters hippocampal dendritic spine shape and enhances synaptic protein immunoreactivity and spatial memory in female mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci101: 2185–2190. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lindberg MK, Moverare S, Skrtic S, Gao H, Dahlman-Wright K, Gustafsson JA et al (2003). Estrogen receptor (ER)-β reduces ER_α_-regulated gene transcription, supporting a ‘ying yang’ relationship between ER_α_ and ER_β_ in mice. Mol Endocrinol17: 203–208. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Luine VN, Jacome LF, Maclusky NJ (2003). Rapid enhancement of visual and place memory by estrogens in rats. Endocrinology144: 2836–2844. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Luine VN, Richards ST, Wu VY, Beck KD (1998). Estradiol enhances learning and memory in a spatial memory task and effects levels of monoaminergic neurotransmitters. Horm Behav34: 149–162. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lund TD, Lephart ED (2001). Dietary soy phytoestrogens produce anxiolytic effects in the elevated plus-maze. Brain Res913: 180–184. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lund TD, Rovis T, Chung WC, Handa RJ (2005). Novel actions of estrogen receptor beta on anxiety-related behaviors. Endocrinology146: 797–807. CASPubMed Google Scholar
MacLusky NJ, Luine VN, Hajszan T, Leranth C (2005). The 17_α_ and 17_β_ isomers of estradiol both induce rapid spine synapse formation in the CA1 hippocampal subfield of ovariectomized female rats. Endocrinology146: 287–293. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Marcondes FK, Miguel KJ, Melo LL, Spadari-Bratfisch RC (2001). Estrous cycle influences the response of female rats in the elevated plus-maze test. Physiol Behav74: 435–440. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Marinari KT, Leshner AI, Doyle MP (1976). Menstrual cycle status and adrenocortical reactivity to psychological stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology1: 213–218. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Martinez-Mota L, Estrada-Camarena E, Lopez-Rubalcava C, Contreras CM, Fernandez-Guasti A (2000). Interaction of desipramine with steroid hormones on experimental anxiety. Psychoneuroendocrinology25: 109–120. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Marvan ML, Chavez-Chavez L, Santana S (1996). Clomipramine modifies fluctuations of forced swimming immobility in different phases of the rat estrous cycle. Arch Med Res27: 83–86. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Marvan ML, Santana S, Chavez Chavez L, Bertran M (1997). Inescapable shocks accentuate fluctuations of forced swimming immobility in different phases of the rat estrous cycle. Arch Med Res28: 369–372. CASPubMed Google Scholar
McCarthy MM, Felzenberg E, Robbins A, Pfaff DW, Schwartz-Giblin S (1995). Infusions of diazepam and allopregnanolone into the midbrain central gray facilitate open-field behavior and sexual receptivity in female rats. Horm Behav29: 279–295. CASPubMed Google Scholar
McCarthy MM, McDonald CH, Brooks PJ, Goldman D (1996). An anxiolytic action of oxytocin is enhanced by estrogen in the mouse. Physiol Behav60: 1209–1215. CASPubMed Google Scholar
McCormick CM, Linkroum W, Sallinen BJ, Miller NW (2002). Peripheral and central sex steroids have differential effects on the HPA axis of male and female rats. Stress5: 235–247. CASPubMed Google Scholar
McCormick CM, Smythe JW, Sharma S, Meaney MJ (1995). Sex-specific effects of prenatal stress on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal responses to stress and brain glucocorticoid receptor density in adult rats. Brain Res Dev Brain Res84: 55–61. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Miller KJ, Conney JC, Rasgon NL, Fairbanks LA, Small GW (2002). Mood symptoms and cognitive performance in women estrogen users and nonusers and men. J Am Geriatr Soc50: 1826–1830. PubMed Google Scholar
Mitchner NA, Garlick C, Ben-Jonathan N (1998). Cellular distribution and gene regulation of estrogen receptors α and β in the rat pituitary gland. Endocrinology139: 3976–3983. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mora S, Dussaubat N, Diaz-Veliz G (1996). Effects of the estrous cycle and ovarian hormones on behavioral indices of anxiety in female rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology21: 609–620. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Morgan MA, Pfaff DW (2001). Effects of estrogen on activity and fear-related behaviors in mice. Horm Behav40: 472–482. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Morgan MA, Pfaff DW (2002). Estrogen's effects on activity, anxiety, and fear in two mouse strains. Behav Brain Res132: 85–93. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Morrison MF, Kallan MJ, Ten Have T, Katz I, Tweedy K, Battistini M (2004). Lack of efficacy of estradiol for depression in postmenopausal women: a randomized, controlled trial. Biol Psychiatr55: 406–412. CAS Google Scholar
Moss RL, Gu Q (1999). Estrogen: mechanisms for a rapid action in CA1 hippocampal neurons. Steroids64: 14–21. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nagata H, Nozaki M, Nakano H (2005). Short-term combinational therapy of low-dose estrogen with selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (fluvoxamine) for oophorectomized women with hot flashes and depressive tendencies. J Obstet Gynaecol Res31: 107–114. PubMed Google Scholar
Nilsen J, Chen S, Brinton RD (2002). Dual action of estrogen on glutamate-induced calcium signaling: mechanisms requiring interaction between estrogen receptors and src/mitogen activated protein kinase pathway. Brain Res930: 216–234. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nishizuka M, Arai Y (1982). Synapse formation in response to estrogen in the medial amygdala developing in the eye. Proc Natl Acad Sci79: 7024–7026. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema S (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: evidence and theory. Psychol Bull101: 259–282. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nomikos GC, Spyraki C (1988). Influence of oestrogen on spontaneous and diazepam-induced exploration of rats in an elevated plus maze. Neuropharmacology27: 691–696. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Okada M, Hayashi N, Kometani M, Nakao K, Inukai T (1997). Influences of ovariectomy and continuous replacement of 17_β_-estradiol on the tail skin temperature and behavior in the forced swimming test in rats. Jpn J Pharmacol73: 93–96. CASPubMed Google Scholar
O’Malley BW, Means AR (1974). Female steroid hormones and target cell nuclei. Science183: 610–620. PubMed Google Scholar
Osterlund MK, Hurd YL (1998). Acute 17 _β_-estradiol treatment down-regulates serotonin 5HT1A receptor mRNA expression in the limbic system of female rats. Brain Res Mol Brain Res55: 169–172. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Packard MG (1998). Posttraining estrogen and memory modulation. Horm Behav34: 126–139. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Paech K, Webb P, Kuiper GG, Nilsson S, Gustafsson J, Kushner PJ et al (1997). Differential ligand activation of estrogen receptors ER_α_ and ER_β_ at AP1 sites. Science277: 1508–1510. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Palanza P (2001). Animal models of anxiety and depression: how are females different? Neurosci Biobehav Rev25: 219–233. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Patchev VK, Hassan AH, Holsboer DF, Almeida OF (1996). The neurosteroid tetrahydroprogesterone attenuates the endocrine response to stress and exerts glucocorticoid-like effects on vasopressin gene transcription in the rat hypothalamus. Neuropsychopharmacology15: 533–540. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Patisaul HB, Blum A, Luskin JR, Wilson ME (2005). Dietary soy supplements produce opposite effects on anxiety in intact male and female rats in the elevated plus-maze. Behav Neurosci119: 587–594. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Paul SM (1988). Anxiety and depression: a common neurobiological substrate? J Clin Psychiatry49 (Suppl): 13–16. PubMed Google Scholar
Pfaff D, Keiner M (1973). Atlas of estradiol-concentrating cells in the central nervous system of the female rat. J Comp Neurol151: 121–158. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Pfaff DW, McEwen BS (1983). Action of estrogens and progestins on nerve cells. Science219: 808–814. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rachman IM, Unnerstall JR, Pfaff DW, Cohen RS (1998). Estrogen alters behavior and forebrain c-fos expression in ovariectomized rats subjected to the forced swim test. Proc Natl Acad Sci95: 13941–13946. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Rapp SR, Espeland MA, Shumaker SA, Henderson VW, Brunner RL, Manson JE et al, WHIMS Investigators (2003). Effect of estrogen plus progestin on global cognitive function in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA289: 2663–2672. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Raps D, Barthe PL, Desaulles PA (1971). Plasma and adrenal corticosterone levels during the different phases of the sexual cycle in normal female rats. Experientia27: 339–340. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rasia-Filho AA, Fabian C, Rigoti KM, Achaval M (2004). Influence of sex, estrous cycle and motherhood on dendritic spine density in the rat medial amygdala revealed by the Golgi method. Neuroscience126: 839–847. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rausch JL, Parry BL (1993). Treatment of premenstrual mood symptoms. Psychiatr Clin North Am16: 829–839. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Redei E, Li L, Halasz I, McGivern RF, Aird F (1994). Fast glucocorticoid feedback inhibition of ACTH secretion in the ovariectomized rat: effect of chronic estrogen and progesterone. Neuroendocrinology60: 113–123. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rhodes ME, Frye CA (2001). Inhibiting progesterone metabolism in the hippocampus of proestrous rats decreases anxiolytic, and enhances, exploration and analgesia. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci1: 287–296. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rhodes ME, Frye CA (2004). Estrogen has mnemonic-enhancing effects in the inhibitory avoidance task. Pharmacol Biochem Behav78: 551–558. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Roca CA, Schmidt PJ, Altemus M, Deuster P, Danaceau MA, Putnam K et al (2003). Differential menstrual cycle regulation of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in women with premenstrual syndrome and controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab88: 3057–3063. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rocha BA, Fleischer R, Schaeffer JM, Rohrer SP, Hickey GJ (2005). 17_β_-Estradiol-induced antidepressant-like effect in the Forced Swim Test is absent in estrogen receptor-β knockout (BERKO) mice. Psychopharmacology179: 637–643. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rodriguez-Sierra JF, Howard JL, Pollard GT, Hendricks SE (1984). Effect of ovarian hormones on conflict behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology9: 293–300. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Romano GJ, Harlan RE, Shivers BD, Howells RD, Pfaff DW (1988). Estrogen increases proenkephalin messenger ribonucleic acid levels in the ventromedial hypothalamus of the rat. Mol Endocrinol2: 1320–1328. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML et al, Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators (2002). Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA288: 321–333. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ (1995). The neuroendocrinology of menstrual cycle mood disorders. Ann NY Acad Sci771: 648–659. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rudick CN, Woolley CS (2000). Estradiol induces a phasic Fos response in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions of adult female rats. Hippocampus10: 274–283. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Saletu B, Brandstatter N, Metka M, Stamenkovic M, Anderer P, Semlitsch HV et al (1995). Double-blind, placebo-controlled, hormonal, syndromal and EEG mapping studies with transdermal oestradiol therapy in menopausal depression. Psychopharmacology122: 321–329. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Santoro N, Brown JR, Adel T, Skurnick JH (1996). Characterization of reproductive hormonal dynamics in the perimenopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab81: 1495–1501. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schmidt PJ, Haq N, Rubinow DR (2004). A longitudinal evaluation of the relationship between reproductive status and mood in perimenopausal women. Am J Psychiatr161: 2238–2244. PubMed Google Scholar
Schmidt PJ, Nieman L, Danaceau MA, Tobin MB, Roca CA, Murphy JH et al (2000). Estrogen replacement in perimenopause-related depression: a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol183: 414–420. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schmidt PJ, Nieman LK, Danaceau MA, Adams LF, Rubinow DR (1998). Differential behavioral effects of gonadal steroids in women with and in those without premenstrual syndrome. N Engl J Med338: 209–216. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schmitz C, Rhodes ME, Bludau M, Kaplan S, Ong P, Ueffing I et al (2002). Depression: reduced number of granule cells in the hippocampus of female, but not male, rats due to prenatal restraint stress. Mol Psychiatr7: 810–813. CAS Google Scholar
Schneier FR, Johnson J, Hornig CD, Liebowitz MR, Weissman MM (1992). Social phobia. Comorbidity and morbidity in an epidemiologic sample. Arch Gen Psychiatr49: 282–288. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Seeman MV (1997). Psychopathology in women and men: focus on female hormones. Am J Psychiatr154: 1641–1647. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sherwin BB (1991). The impact of different doses of estrogen and progestin on mood and sexual behavior in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab72: 336–343. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM (1985). Sex steroids and affect in the surgical menopause: a double-blind, cross-over study. Psychoneuroendocrinology10: 325–335. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shors TJ, Pickett J, Wood G, Paczynski M (1999). Acute stress persistently enhances estrogen levels in the female rat. Stress3: 163–171. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shughrue PJ, Lane MV, Merchenthaler I (1997). Comparative distribution of estrogen receptor-α and -β mRNA in the rat central nervous system. J Comp Neurol388: 507–525. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shughrue PJ, Scrimo PJ, Merchenthaler I (1998). Evidence for the colocalization of estrogen receptor-β mRNA and estrogen receptor-α immunoreactivity in neurons of the rat forebrain. Endocrinology139: 5267–5270. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shumaker SA, Legault C, Thal L, Wallace RB, Ockene JK, Hendrix SL et al, WHIMS Investigators (2003). Estrogen plus progestin and the incidence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA289: 2651–2662. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sibolboro Mezzacappa E, Tu AY, Myers MM (2003). Lactation and weaning effects on physiological and behavioral response to stressors. Physiol Behav78: 1–9. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Simpkins JW, Wang J, Wang X, Perez E, Prokai L, Dykens JA (2005). Mitochondria play a central role in estrogen-induced neuroprotection. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord4: 69–83. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sinchak K, Eckersell C, Quezada V, Norell A, Micevych P (2000). Preproenkephalin mRNA levels are regulated by acute stress and estrogen stimulation. Physiol Behav69: 425–432. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Slater J, Blizard DA (1976). A reevaluation of the relation between estrogen and emotionality in female rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol90: 755–764. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Smith RN, Studd JW, Zamblera D, Holland EF (1995). A randomised comparison over 8 months of 100 micrograms and 200 micrograms twice weekly doses of transdermal oestradiol in the treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome. Br J Obstet Gynaecol102: 475–484. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Smoller JW, Pollack MH, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Barton B, Hendrix SL, Jackson RD et al, Women's Health Initiative Investigators (2003). Prevalence and correlates of panic attacks in postmenopausal women: results from an ancillary study to the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med163: 2041–2050. PubMed Google Scholar
Soares CN, Almeida OP, Joffe H, Cohen LS (2001). Efficacy of estradiol for the treatment of depressive disorders in perimenopausal women: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatr58: 529–534. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sternberg WF (1999). Sex differences in the effects of prenatal stress on stress-induced analgesia. Physiol Behav68: 63–72. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Stoffel EC, Craft RM (2004). Ovarian hormone withdrawal-induced ‘depression’ in female rats. Physiol Behav83: 505–513. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Suzuki S, Handa RJ (2004). Regulation of estrogen receptor-beta expression in the female rat hypothalamus: differential effects of dexamethasone and estradiol. Endocrinology145: 3658–3670. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Szuran TF, Pliska V, Pokorny J, Welzl H (2000). Prenatal stress in rats: effects on plasma corticosterone, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and maze performance. Physiol Behav71: 353–362. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Takahashi LK, Haglin C, Kalin NH (1992). Prenatal stress potentiates stress-induced behavior and reduces the propensity to play in juvenile rats. Physiol Behav51: 319–323. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tena-Sempere M, Navarro VM, Mayen A, Bellido C, Sanchez-Criado JE (2004). Regulation of estrogen receptor (ER) isoform messenger RNA expression by different ER ligands in female rat pituitary. Biol Reprod70: 671–678. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Toran-Allerand CD, Guan X, MacLusky NJ, Horvath TL, Diano S, Singh M et al (2002). ER-X: a novel, plasma membrane-associated, putative estrogen receptor that is regulated during development and after ischemic brain injury. J Neurosci22: 8391–8401. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tremblay GB, Tremblay A, Copeland NG, Gilbert DJ, Jenkins NA, Labrie F et al (1997). Cloning, chromosomal localization, and functional analysis of the murine estrogen receptor beta. Mol Endocrinol11: 353–365. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Vasudevan N, Kow LM, Pfaff DW (2001). Early membrane estrogenic effects required for full expression of slower genomic actions in a nerve cell line. Proc Natl Acad Sci98: 12267–12271. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Viau V, Meaney MJ (1991). Variations in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal response to stress during the estrous cycle in the rat. Endocrinology129: 2503–2511. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Vongher JM, Frye CA (1999). Progesterone in conjunction with estradiol has neuroprotective effects in an animal model of neurodegeneration. Pharm Biochem Behav64: 777–785. CAS Google Scholar
Wade CB, Robinson S, Shapiro RA, Dorsa DM (2001). Estrogen receptor (ER)α and ER_β_ exhibit unique pharmacologic properties when coupled to activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Endocrinology142: 2336–2342. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Walf AA, Frye CA (2003). Anti-nociception following exposure to trimethylthiazoline, peripheral or intra-amygdala estrogen and/or progesterone. Behav Brain Res144: 77–85. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Walf AA, Frye CA (2005a). Estradiol's effects to reduce anxiety and depressive behavior may be mediated by estradiol dose and restraint stress. Neuropsychopharmacology30: 1288–1301. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Walf AA, Frye CA (2005b). ER_β_-selective estrogen receptor modulators produce antianxiety behavior when administered systemically to ovariectomized rats. Neuropsychopharmacology30: 1598–1609. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Walf AA, Jeddi S, Frye CA (2003). Estradiol has Anxiolytic and Cognitive Enhancing Effects in Prenatally Stressed and Nonstressed Female Rats. American Neuroendocrine Society Workshop on the Neuroendocrinology of Development: Philadelphia, PA. Google Scholar
Walf AA, Rhodes ME, Frye CA (2004). Anti-depressant effects of ER_β_ selective estrogen receptor modulators in the forced swim test. Pharm Biochem Behav78: 523–529. CAS Google Scholar
Walf AA, Sumida K, Frye CA (2005). Inhibiting 5_α_-reductase in the amygdala attenuates anti-anxiety and anti-depressive behavior of naturally-receptive and hormone-primed ovariectomized rats. Psychopharmacology (in press).
Walker DL, Toufexis DJ, Davis M (2003). Role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis versus the amygdala in fear, stress, and anxiety. Eur J Pharmacol463: 199–216. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Warnock JK, Bundren JC, Morris DW (2000). Depressive mood symptoms associated with ovarian suppression. Fertil Steril74: 984–986. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wartella J, Amory E, Lomas LM, Macbeth A, McNamara I, Stevens L et al (2003). Single or multiple reproductive experiences attenuate neurobehavioral stress and fear responses in the female rat. Physiol Behav79: 373–381. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Watanabe T, Inoue S, Ogawa S, Ishii Y, Hiroi H, Ikeda K et al (1997). Agonistic effect of tamoxifen is dependent on cell type, ERE-promoter context, and estrogen receptor subtype: functional difference between estrogen receptors α and β. Biochem Biophys Res Commun236: 140–145. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Watters JJ, Campbell JS, Cunningham MJ, Krebs EG, Dorsa DM (1997). Rapid membrane effects of steroids in neuroblastoma cells: effects of estrogen on mitogen activated protein kinase signalling cascade and c-fos immediate early gene transcription. Endocrinology138: 4030–4033. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Weinstock M (1997). Does prenatal stress impair coping and regulation of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis? Neurosci Biobehav Rev21: 1–10. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Weinstock M (2001). Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Prog Neurobiol65: 427–451. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Weinstock M, Matlina E, Maor GI, Rosen H, McEwen BS (1992). Prenatal stress selectively alters the reactivity of the hypothalamic–pituitary adrenal system in the female rat. Brain Res595: 195–200. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Weissman MM, Klerman GL (1977). Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatr34: 98–111. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Weissman MM, Olfson M (1995). Depression in women: implications for health care research. Science269: 799–801. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wise PM (2003). Estrogens: protective or risk factors in brain function? Prog Neurobiol69: 181–191. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wittchen HU, Hoyer J (2001). Generalized anxiety disorder: nature and course. J Clin Psychiatr62: 15–19. Google Scholar
Woolley CS, Gould E, Frankfurt M, McEwen BS (1990). Naturally occurring fluctuation in dendritic spine density on adult hippocampal pyramidal neurons. J Neurosci10: 4035–4039. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Woolley CS, McEwen BS (1993). Roles of estradiol and progesterone in regulation of hippocampal dendritic spine density during the estrous cycle in the rat. J Comp Neurol336: 293–306. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Yang SH, Liu R, Perez EJ, Wen Y, Stevens Jr SM, Valencia T et al (2004). Mitochondrial localization of estrogen receptor β. Proc Natl Acad Sci101: 4130–4135. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Young EA (1998). Sex differences and the HPA axis: implications for psychiatric disease. J Gend Specif Med1: 21–27. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Young EA, Altemus M, Parkison V, Shastry S (2001). Effects of estrogen antagonists and agonists on the ACTH response to restraint stress in female rats. Neuropsychopharmacology25: 881–891. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Young EA, Korszun A (2002). The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis in mood disorders. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am31: 63–78. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Young EA, Midgley AR, Carlson NE, Brown MB (2000). Alteration in the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis in depressed women. Arch Gen Psychiatr57: 1157–1162. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Zimmerberg B, Farley MJ (1993). Sex differences in anxiety behavior in rats: role of gonadal hormones. Physiol Behav54: 1119–1124. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Zuluaga MJ, Agrati D, Pereira M, Uriarte N, Fernandez-Guasti A, Ferreira A (2005). Experimental anxiety in the black and white model in cycling, pregnant and lactating rats. Physiol Behav84: 279–286. CASPubMed Google Scholar