RETRACTED ARTICLE: The hypoxic cancer secretome induces pre-metastatic bone lesions through lysyl oxidase (original) (raw)

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Acknowledgements

We thank the animal welfare staff at the Institute of Cancer Research and Biocentre (University of Copenhagen); the Bone Analysis Laboratory (The University of Sheffield); M. Smid, J. W. M. Martens and J. A. Foekens (Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands) for in-depth patient data analyses; and A. J. Giaccia and members of our laboratories for comments. This research was supported by funding from Cancer Research UK (C107/A10433) (T.R.C., D.B., G.L.J.T.E.), the Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC, University of Copenhagen) (T.R.C.), The University of Sheffield (A.G., I.D.H.), National Institute for Health Research Sheffield Clinical Research Facility (A.G.), Breast Cancer Campaign (#2012MayPR086) (A.G., R.M.H.R.), and the Danish Cancer Society (R56-A2971-12-S2) (A.M.H.). Experiments in the laboratory of R.L. were funded by The Lundbeck Foundation and the work was supported by the Velux Foundations (VKR)-funded Instrument Center for Systems Proteomics (VKR 022758). L.P. and J.T.E. are supported by a Hallas Møller Stipendum from the Novo Nordisk Foundation.

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Author notes

  1. Alison Gartland and Janine T. Erler: These authors contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen (UCPH), Copenhagen, DK-2200, Denmark
    Thomas R. Cox, Lara Perryman, Anette M. Høye, Rune Linding & Janine T. Erler
  2. Hypoxia and Metastasis Team, Cancer Research UK Tumour Cell Signalling Unit, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, SW3 6JB, UK
    Thomas R. Cox, Demelza Bird, Georgina Lang & Janine T. Erler
  3. The Mellanby Centre for Bone Research, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK
    Robin M. H. Rumney, Ankita Agrawal, Norain Ab Latif, Hamish Forrest, Holly R. Evans, Iain D. Huggins & Alison Gartland
  4. Cellular Signal Integration Group (C-SIG), Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Lyngby, DK-2800, Denmark,
    Erwin M. Schoof & Rune Linding

Authors

  1. Thomas R. Cox
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  2. Robin M. H. Rumney
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  3. Erwin M. Schoof
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  4. Lara Perryman
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  5. Anette M. Høye
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  6. Ankita Agrawal
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  7. Demelza Bird
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  8. Norain Ab Latif
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  9. Hamish Forrest
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  10. Holly R. Evans
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  11. Iain D. Huggins
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  12. Georgina Lang
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  13. Rune Linding
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  14. Alison Gartland
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  15. Janine T. Erler
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Contributions

J.T.E. and A.G. conceived the project, assisted by T.R.C. T.R.C., A.G. and J.T.E. designed the experiments. T.R.C., A.G. and R.M.H.R. performed the in vivo and in vitro experiments and analysed the data assisted by L.P., A.H., A.A., D.B., N.A.L., H.F., H.R.E., I.D.H. and G.L. T.R.C. and E.M.S. designed and performed the mass spectrometry and proteomics experiments and analysis, supervised by R.L. T.R.C. wrote and edited the paper, assisted by A.G., J.T.E., R.L. and R.M.H.R.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence toAlison Gartland or Janine T. Erler.

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Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Extended data figures and tables

Extended Data Figure 1 LOX is hypoxia regulated and strongly associated with osteotropism and metastasis.

a, Retrospective analysis of our patient cohort including only ER− patients showed that the hypoxic signature is not significantly associated with liver relapse (P = 0.98), brain relapse (P = 0.17) or lung relapse (P = 0.13). b, log2 expression levels under conditions of hypoxia (1% O2) and normoxia (21% O2) for secreted proteins from the MDA-MB-231 parent and MDA-MB-231 bone tropic (BT) 1833 cell line. Data representative of four repeats, two label-free repeats, and two SILAC (standard and reverse-label) repeats. Acquisition performed on the Orbitrap Q-Exactive (Thermo Fisher Scientific). c, Overlaps between repeats of global secretome analysis in MDA-MB-231 parent and MDA-MB-231 bone tropic cells grown in normoxic (21% O2) and hypoxic (1% O2) conditions from label-free and SILAC approaches. d, Immunoblotting for LOX in MDA parent and 1833 bone tropic subclone under conditions of hypoxia (1% O2) and normoxia (21% O2) confirming expression levels seen in proteomic and transcriptomic analyses. Scans of original western blots available as Supplementary Information.

Extended Data Figure 2 Extended patient data analysis.

a, Across all breast cancer patients, the expression of LOX is associated with metastasis formation (P = 0.023) and in particular with ER− breast cancer patients (P = 0.0029). b, An additional Kruskal–Wallis test between reported bone relapse, relapse elsewhere and no relapse patients with an additional contrast test wherein all pairwise groups were considered shows that in all patients LOX expression is associated with bone relapse compared with no relapse (P = 0.0389). This also pertains to ER− patients (P = 0.0126) but not ER+ patients (P = 0.9537). c, Cox-regression using log2(LOX expression data) was used to estimate the hazard ratio in two analyses. One analysis used the no-relapse patients and the bone relapse patients (data belonging to Fig. 1f), and the second analysis included all patients (data belonging to Extended Data Fig. 2a). LOX expression is associated with increased hazard ratio, particularly in ER− patients in both analyses.

Extended Data Figure 3 Additional patient data analysis in a supporting patient cohort.

a, ROC curve analysis shows LOX expression may be indicative of metastatic dissemination of ER− breast cancer (area under the curve 0.77, P < 0.0001) but not ER+ patients (area under the curve 0.55, P < 0.1504). b, In an alternative second patient data set14 (PubMed identifier 12490681) reporting data on 295 lymph-node-negative patients who did not receive adjuvant therapy, with available site of relapse, LOX is significantly higher expressed in bone relapse ER− patients, compared with other groups confirming data from the original data set.

Extended Data Figure 4 Hypoxia-induced tumour-derived LOX stimulates osteolytic lesion formation in the absence of tumour cells.

a, Immunoblotting of 4T1 mammary carcinoma line stably expressing either a scrambled (scr) or shLOX vector which leads to a significant decrease in levels of detectable LOX. Scans of original western blots available in Supplementary Information. b, Micro-CT scanning and reconstruction with structural analysis shows decreases in trabecular bone volume (as a percentage of total bone volume) (n = 3 mice per group). c, Decreases in trabecular number (per millimetre) (n = 3 mice per group) and d, decreases in trabecular thickness in tibiae of mice bearing 4T1scr mammary fatpad tumours over time (n = 3 mice per group). e, Micro-CT analysis of mouse tibiae shows increases in focal osteolytic lesions in 4T1scr tumour-bearing mice develop over time (n = 3 mice per group). *P < 0.05**, P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, unpaired parametric one-tailed _t_-test. f, Representative immunohistochemical staining for pimonidazole (Hypoxyprobe) in 4 μm section of 4T1 orthotopic mammary carcinoma, 3 weeks after implantation, shows hypoxia (brown staining) as a salient feature of tumours. Scale bar, 250 μm. g, Bioluminescent imaging of luciferase signal 2 weeks after explant of samples taken from primary tumour, lung, bone marrow (tibia) and distant skin samples at 1–5 weeks after primary tumour implant. Selection was under 500 μg ml−1 zeocin for the luciferase expression cassette (n = 3 mice per time point). h, Quantification of g as a percentage of positive luciferase expressing explants from various sites after 4T1 tumour implant shows tumour cells do not begin to arrive in the bone until 3 weeks. i, qRT–PCR detection of luciferase expressing 4T1 tumour cells in secondary organs confirms explant culture experiments (n = 3 mice per time point).

Extended Data Figure 5 Effects of LOX modulation on circulating sera levels, primary tumour growth and osteolytic lesion formation.

a, ELISA for LOX in the sera of 4T1scr and 4T1shLOX tumour-bearing mice (n: ELISA signal (arbitrary units) in mouse sera: 3 mice per group) shows decreased levels of circulating LOX upon genetic silencing at the primary tumour. *P < 0.05, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test. b, Growth curves as determined by calliper measurement for orthotopic 4T1scr and 4T1shLOX mammary tumours show no difference between primary tumour growth (n: mice; 3 per group). c, Injection of hypoxic CMs from SW480 human colorectal cancer cells stably expressing one of; empty vector control (EV), full-length LOX (+LOX), or a catalytically inactive full-length LOX (+mutLOX) (K320A) confirms a LOX-dependent mechanism of focal osteolytic lesion generation in a second human model of cancer (n: mice; 8 per group). **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test. d, CTX ELISA (RatLaps) on sera of mice injected intraperitoneally twice a week with rLOX for 3 weeks. CTX is a telopeptide that can be used as a biomarker in the serum to measure the rate of bone turnover (n: nanograms per millilitre circulating CTX-I in mouse sera; 5 mice per group). All data are mean ± s.e.m. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test.

Extended Data Figure 6 LOX modulates osteoclasts and osteoblast behaviour independently of RANKL.

a, ELISA for RANKL in the CM of osteoclast cultures shows no detectable levels of RANKL in M-CSF alone (negative control) and rLOX cultures excluding the likelihood of autocrine production by cells in response to rLOX (n: ELISA signal (arbitrary units); data are from three independent experimental repeats in all groups). *P < 0.05, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test. b, All proteins detected by mass spectrometry analysis in the rLOX preparations (based on MaxQuant 1.5 peptide identity score of 50 and a minimum of two unique MS peptide observations). c, Examples of nuclear localization of NFATc1 after addition of rLOX in the presence and absence of the LOX antibody (green, NFATc1; red, phalloidin; blue, DAPI). d, Representative alizarin red S plate showing mineralization ability (calcium deposits as detected by alizarin red S staining) of primary calvarial mouse osteoblasts after treatment with dexamethasone (positive control) or rLOX ± LOX ab; quantification shown in Fig. 3g. e, High-LOX-containing hypoxic 4T1scr CM significantly reduces cell proliferation of the human osteoblast-like SaOS-2 cell line, which can be partly blocked by treatment with anti-LOX antibody (n: normalized cell number per well; control 24 wells; 4T1scr CM 49 wells; 4T1scr CM + LOX Ab 51 wells). Data collected over three independent experimental repeats. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test. f, Mineralization ability (calcium deposits as detected by alizarin red S staining) is increased in the human osteoblast-like SaOS-2 cell line in response to high-LOX-expressing hypoxic 4T1scr CM, the effects of which can be attenuated using the anti-LOX antibody (n: alizarin red S staining per well, data taken from three independent repeats; control 18 wells; 4T1scr CM 9 wells; 4T1scr CM + LOX Ab 9 wells). All data are mean ± s.e.m. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test.

Extended Data Figure 7 Additional in vivo analysis of lesion formation and primary tumour growth.

a, 4T1scr tumour-bearing mice treated with our LOX antibody show a decrease in osteoclast perimeter in tibial bones in support of LOX as a modulator of osteoclastogenesis shown in Fig. 3 (n: mice; 4T1scr Tumour + IgG 5, 4T1scr Tumour + LOX Ab 7). Data are mean ± s.e.m. *P < 0.05, unpaired parametric two-tailed _t_-test. b, Weekly tumour volumetric measurements for 4T1scr tumour-bearing mice treated with either zoledronic acid (0.6 mg kg−1 intraperitoneally) or vehicle (PBS), show that, when administered alone, zoledronic acid does not affect primary 4T1scr primary tumour growth in vivo (n: mice; 4 in all groups). c, Pearson correlation shows a positive correlation between lesion number as determined by micro-CT analysis and luciferase signal (radiance (photons per second per square centimetre per steradian)) from 4T1Luc tumour cells within the bone (r = 0.58, 95% CI 0.2778–0.7834, P = 0.0009 (two-tailed)).

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Cox, T., Rumney, R., Schoof, E. et al. RETRACTED ARTICLE: The hypoxic cancer secretome induces pre-metastatic bone lesions through lysyl oxidase.Nature 522, 106–110 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14492

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