Why do viruses cause cancer? Highlights of the first century of human tumour virology (original) (raw)
Parkin, D. M. The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002. Int. J. Cancer118, 3030–3044 (2006). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Bouvard, V. et al. A review of human carcinogens-part B: biological agents. Lancet Oncol.10, 321–322 (2009). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Chang, M. H. et al. Universal hepatitis B vaccination in Taiwan and the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in children. Taiwan Childhood Hepatoma Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med.336, 1855–1859 (1997). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Lavanchy, D. Hepatitis B virus epidemiology, disease burden, treatment, and current and emerging prevention and control measures. J. Viral Hepat.11, 97–107 (2004). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Goldie, S. J. et al. Projected clinical benefits and cost-effectiveness of a human papillomavirus 16/18 vaccine. J. Natl Cancer Inst.96, 604–615 (2004). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Polk, D. B. & Peek, R. M. Helicobacter pylori: gastric cancer and beyond. Nature Rev. Cancer10, 403–414 (2010). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Vennervald, B. J. & Polman, K. Helminths and malignancy. Parasite Immunol.31, 686–696 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Ellerman, V. & Bang, O. Experimentelle leukämie bei hühnern. Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.46, 595–609 (1908). Google Scholar
Beard, J. W. Avian virus growths and their etiologic agents. Adv. Cancer Res.7, 1–127 (1963). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Becsei-Kilborn, E. Scientific discovery and scientific reputation: the reception of Peyton Rous' discovery of the chicken sarcoma virus. J. Hist. Biol.43, 111–157 (2010). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Gross, L. Oncogenic Viruses (Pergamon, Oxford, 1970). Google Scholar
Epstein, M. A., Achong, B. G. & Barr, Y. M. Virus particles in cultured lymphoblasts from Burkitt's lymphoma. Lancet15, 702–703 (1964). Article Google Scholar
Proceedings of the IARC working group on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus/human herpesvirus 8. Lyon, France, 17–24 June 1997. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum.70, 1–492 (1997).
Kelly, G. L. & Rickinson, A. B. Burkitt lymphoma: revisiting the pathogenesis of a virus-associated malignancy. Hematology Am. Soc. Hematol. Educ. Program2007, 277–284 (2007). Article Google Scholar
Bunge, M. Causality: The Place of the Causal Principle in Modern Science (Meridian Books, Cleveland and New York, 1959). Google Scholar
Epstein, M. A., Henle, G., Achong, B. G. & Barr, Y. M. Morphological and biological studies on a virus in cultured lymphoblasts from Burkitt's lymphoma. J. Exp. Med.121, 761–770 (1965). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Poiesz, B. J. et al. Detection and isolation of type C retrovirus particles from fresh and cultured lymphocytes of a patient with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA77, 7415–7419 (1980). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Miyoshi, I. et al. Type C virus particles in a cord T-cell line derived by co-cultivating normal human cord leukocytes and human leukaemic T cells. Nature294, 770–771 (1981). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Yoshida, M. Discovery of HTLV-1, the first human retrovirus, its unique regulatory mechanisms, and insights into pathogenesis. Oncogene24, 5931–5937 (2005). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gallo, R. C. History of the discoveries of the first human retroviruses: HTLV-1 and HTLV-2. Oncogene24, 5926–5930 (2005). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Blumberg, B. S., Alter, H. J. & Visnich, S. A “new” antigen in leukemia sera. JAMA191, 541–546 (1965). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Prince, A. M., Fuji, H. & Gershon, R. K. Immunohistochemical studies on the etiology of anicteric hepatitis in Korea. Am. J. Hyg.79, 365–381 (1964). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Beasley, R. P., Hwang, L. Y., Lin, C. C. & Chien, C. S. Hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatitis B virus. A prospective study of 22,707 men in Taiwan. Lancet2, 1129–1133 (1981). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
zur Hausen, H. Condylomata acuminata and human genital cancer. Cancer Res.36, 794 (1976). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Durst, M., Gissmann, L., Ikenberg, H. & zur Hausen, H. A papillomavirus DNA from a cervical carcinoma and its prevalence in cancer biopsy samples from different geographic regions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA80, 3812–3815 (1983). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Boshart, M. et al. A new type of papillomavirus DNA, its presence in genital cancer biopsies and in cell lines derived from cervical cancer. EMBO J.3, 1151–1157 (1984). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Choo, Q. L. et al. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science244, 359–362 (1989). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Wakita, T. et al. Production of infectious hepatitis C virus in tissue culture from a cloned viral genome. Nature Med.11, 791–796 (2005). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Chang, Y. et al. Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science265, 1865–1869 (1994). Article Google Scholar
Feng, H., Shuda, M., Chang, Y. & Moore, P. S. Clonal integration of a polyomavirus in human Merkel cell carcinoma. Science319, 1096–1100 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lisitsyn, N., Lisitsyn, N. & Wigler, M. Cloning the differences between two complex genomes. Science259, 946–951 (1993). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Feng, H. et al. Human transcriptome subtraction by using short sequence tags to search for tumor viruses in conjunctival carcinoma. J. Virol.81, 11332–11340 (2007). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Xu, Y. et al. Pathogen discovery from human tissue by sequence-based computational subtraction. Genomics81, 329–335 (2003). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Perz, J. F., Armstrong, G. L., Farrington, L. A., Hutin, Y. J. & Bell, B. P. The contributions of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections to cirrhosis and primary liver cancer worldwide. J. Hepatol.45, 529–538 (2006). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Fearon, E. R. & Vogelstein, B. A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis. Cell61, 759–767 (1990). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Hahn, W. C. et al. Enumeration of the simian virus 40 early region elements necessary for human cell transformation. Mol. Cell. Biol.22, 2111–2123 (2002). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hahn, W. C. et al. Creation of human tumour cells with defined genetic elements. Nature400, 464–468 (1999). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Purtilo, D. T., Cassel, C. K., Yang, J. P. & Harper, R. X-linked recessive progressive combined variable immunodeficiency (Duncan's disease). Lancet1, 935–940 (1975). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Kaposi, M. Idiopathic multiple pigmented sarcoma of the skin. CA Cancer J. Clin. 1982; 32, 340–347 (1872). Google Scholar
McGeoch, D. J., Gatherer, D. & Dolan, A. On phylogenetic relationships among major lineages of the Gammaherpesvirinae. J. Gen. Virol.86, 307–316 (2005). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Miller, G. et al. Antibodies to butyrate-inducible antigens of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus in patients with HIV-1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med.334, 1292–1297 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gao, S. J. et al. Seroconversion to antibodies against Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-related latent nuclear antigens before the development of Kaposi's sarcoma. N. Engl. J. Med.335, 233–241 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Simpson, G. R. et al. Prevalence of Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus infection measured by antibodies to recombinant capsid protein and latent immunofluorescence antigen. Lancet348, 1133–1138 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gao, S. J. et al. KSHV antibodies among Americans, Italians and Ugandans with and without Kaposi's sarcoma. Nature Med.2, 925–928 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Kedes, D. H. et al. The seroepidemiology of human herpesvirus 8 (Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus): distribution of infection in KS risk groups and evidence for sexual transmission. Nature Med.2, 918–924 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Pellett, P. E. et al. Multicenter comparison of serologic assays and estimation of human herpesvirus 8 seroprevalence among US blood donors. Transfusion43, 1260–1268 (2003). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Engels, E. A. et al. Trends in cancer risk among people with AIDS in the United States 1980–2002. AIDS20, 1645–1654 (2006). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Parsonnet, J. in Microbes and Malignancy (ed. Parsonnet, J.) 3–18 (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1999). Google Scholar
Steele, C., Cowsert, L. M. & Shillitoe, E. J. Effects of human papillomavirus type 18-specific antisense oligonucleotides on the transformed phenotype of human carcinoma cell lines. Cancer Res.53, 2330–2337 (1993). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tan, T. M. & Ting, R. C. In vitro and in vivo inhibition of human papillomavirus type 16 E6 and E7 genes. Cancer Res.55, 4599–4605 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Goodwin, E. C. & DiMaio, D. Repression of human papillomavirus oncogenes in HeLa cervical carcinoma cells causes the orderly reactivation of dormant tumor suppressor pathways. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA97, 12513–12518 (2000). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Wies, E. et al. The viral interferon-regulatory factor-3 is required for the survival of KSHV-infected primary effusion lymphoma cells. Blood111, 320–327 (2008). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Houben, R. et al. Merkel cell polyomavirus infected Merkel cell carcinoma cells require expression of viral T antigens. J. Virol.84, 7064–7072 (2010). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Godfrey, A., Anderson, J., Papanastasiou, A., Takeuchi, Y. & Boshoff, C. Inhibiting primary effusion lymphoma by lentiviral vectors encoding short hairpin RNA. Blood (2004).
Dirmeier, U. et al. Latent membrane protein 1 of Epstein-Barr virus coordinately regulates proliferation with control of apoptosis. Oncogene24, 1711–1717 (2005). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Mason, W. S., Liu, C., Aldrich, C. E., Litwin, S. & Yeh, M. M. Clonal expansion of normal appearing human hepatocytes during chronic HBV infection. J. Virol.84, 8308–8315 (2010). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Yasunaga, J. & Matsuoka, M. Leukaemogenic mechanism of human T-cell leukaemia virus type I. Rev. Med. Virol.17, 301–311 (2007). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Jeang, K. T., Giam, C. Z., Majone, F. & Aboud, M. Life, death, and tax: role of HTLV-I oncoprotein in genetic instability and cellular transformation. J. Biol. Chem.279, 31991–31994 (2004). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Hatakeyama, M. Helicobacter pylori CagA - a bacterial intruder conspiring gastric carcinogenesis. Int. J. Cancer119, 1217–1223 (2006). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Grulich, A. E., van Leeuwen, M. T., Falster, M. O. & Vajdic, C. M. Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet370, 59–67 (2007). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Chen, L. P., Thomas, E. K., Hu, S. L., Hellstrom, I. & Hellstrom, K. E. Human papillomavirus type 16 nucleoprotein E7 is a tumor rejection antigen. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA88, 110–114 (1991). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Guihot, A. et al. Low T cell responses to human herpesvirus 8 in patients with AIDS-related and classic Kaposi sarcoma. J. Infect. Dis.194, 1078–1088 (2006). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Beral, V., Peterman, T. A., Berkelman, R. L. & Jaffe, H. W. Kaposi's sarcoma among persons with AIDS: a sexually transmitted infection? Lancet335, 123–128 (1990). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Engels, E. A., Frisch, M., Goedert, J. J., Biggar, R. J. & Miller, R. W. Merkel cell carcinoma and HIV infection. Lancet359, 497–498 (2002). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Vajdic, C. M. & van Leeuwen, M. T. Cancer incidence and risk factors after solid organ transplantation. Int. J. Cancer125, 1747–1754 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Schulz, T. F. Cancer and viral infections in immunocompromised individuals. Int. J. Cancer125, 1755–1763 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Sugarbaker, D. J. et al. Transcriptome sequencing of malignant pleural mesothelioma tumors. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA105, 3521–3526 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Zur Hausen, H. The search for infectious causes of human cancers: where and why. Virology392, 1–10 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Small, M. B., Gluzman, Y. & Ozer, H. L. Enhanced transformation of human fibroblasts by origin-defective simian virus 40. Nature296, 671–672 (1982). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Walter, P. R., Philippe, E., Nguemby-Mbina, C. & Chamlian, A. Kaposi's sarcoma: presence of herpes-type particles in a tumor specimen. Human Pathol.15, 1145–1146 (1984). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Zhong, W., Wang, H., Herndier, B. & Ganem, D. Restricted expression of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) genes in Kaposi sarcoma. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA93, 6641–6646 (1996). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Parravicini, C. et al. Differential viral protein expression in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-infected diseases: Kaposi's sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and multicentric Castleman's disease. Am. J. Pathol.156, 743–749 (2000). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sarid, R., Flore, O., Bohenzky, R. A., Chang, Y. & Moore, P. S. Transcription mapping of the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) genome in a body cavity-based lymphoma cell line (BC-1). J. Virol.72, 1005–1012 (1998). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Bischoff, J. R. et al. An adenovirus mutant that replicates selectively in p53-deficient human tumor cells. Science274, 373–376 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Huang, B., Sikorski, R., Kirn, D. H. & Thorne, S. H. Synergistic anti-tumor effects between oncolytic vaccinia virus and paclitaxel are mediated by the IFN response and HMGB1. Gene Ther. 26 Aug 2010 (doi:10.1038/gt.2010.121).
Jacquemont, B. & Roizman, B. RNA synthesis in cells infected with herpes simplex virus. X. Properties of viral symmetric transcripts and of double-stranded RNA prepared from them. J. Virol.15, 707–713 (1975). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lilley, C. E., Schwartz, R. A. & Weitzman, M. D. Using or abusing: viruses and the cellular DNA damage response. Trends Microbiol.15, 119–126 (2007). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Moore, P. S. & Chang, Y. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus immunoevasion and tumorigenesis: two sides of the same coin? Annu. Rev. Microbiol.57, 609–639 (2003). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tauer, T. J., Schneiderman, M. H., Vishwanatha, J. K. & Rhode, S. L. DNA double-strand break repair functions defend against parvovirus infection. J. Virol.70, 6446–6449 (1996). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Bauer, S., Muller, T. & Hamm, S. Pattern recognition by Toll-like receptors. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.653, 15–34 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Lieberman, P. M., Hu, J. & Renne, R. in Human Herpesviruses: Biology, Therapy and Immunoprophylaxis (eds Arvin, A., Campardelli-Fiome, G., Mocarski, A. E., Moore, P. S., Roizman, B., Whitley, R. J. & Yamanishi, K.) 379–402 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 2007). Book Google Scholar
Ballestas, M. E., Chatis, P. A. & Kaye, K. M. Efficient persistence of extrachromosomal KSHV DNA mediated by latency- associated nuclear antigen. Science284, 641–644 (1999). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Roizman, B. in The Human Herpeviruses (eds Roizman, B., Whitley, R. J. & Lopez, C.) 1–9 (Raven Press, Ltd., New York, 1993). Google Scholar
Yoshida, M., Seiki, M., Yamaguchi, K. & Takatsuki, K. Monoclonal integration of human T-cell leukemia provirus in all primary tumors of adult T-cell leukemia suggests causative role of human T-cell leukemia virus in the disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA81, 2534–2537 (1984). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Raab-Traub, N. & Flynn, K. The structure of the termini of the Epstein-Barr virus as a marker of clonal cellular proliferation. Cell47, 883–889 (1986). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Russo, J. J. et al. Nucleotide sequence of the Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV8). Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA93, 14862–14867 (1996). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Cannon, J. S., Hamzeh, F., Moore, S., Nicholas, J. & Ambinder, R. F. Human herpesvirus 8-encoded thymidine kinase and phosphotransferase homologues confer sensitivity to ganciclovir. J. Virol.73, 4786–4793 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Martin, D. F. et al. Oral ganciclovir for patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis treated with a ganciclovir implant. N. Engl. J. Med.340, 1063–1070 (1999). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Little, R. F. & Yarchoan, R. Treatment of gammaherpesvirus-related neoplastic disorders in the immunosuppressed host. Semin. Hematol.40, 163–171 (2003). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Mason, W. S. et al. The amount of hepatocyte turnover that occurred during resolution of transient hepadnavirus infections was lower when virus replication was inhibited with entecavir. J. Virol.83, 1778–1789 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Levine, A. J. The common mechanisms of transformation by the small DNA tumor viruses: the inactivation of tumor suppressor gene products: p53. Virology384, 285–293 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Oh, S. T., Kyo, S. & Laimins, L. A. Telomerase activation by human papillomavirus type 16 E6 protein: induction of human telomerase reverse transcriptase expression through Myc and GC-rich Sp1 binding sites. J. Virol.75, 5559–5566 (2001). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Klingelhutz, A. J., Foster, S. A. & McDougall, J. K. Telomerase activation by the E6 gene product of human papillomavirus type 16. Nature380, 79–82 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Verma, S. C., Borah, S. & Robertson, E. S. Latency-associated nuclear antigen of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus up-regulates transcription of human telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter through interaction with transcription factor Sp1. J. Virol.78, 10348–10359 (2004). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Kataoka, H. et al. Immortalization of immunologically committed Epstein-Barr virus-transformed human B-lymphoblastoid cell lines accompanied by a strong telomerase activity. Differentiation62, 203–211 (1997). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Terrin, L. et al. Latent membrane protein 1 of Epstein-Barr virus activates the hTERT promoter and enhances telomerase activity in B lymphocytes. J. Virol.82, 10175–10187 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Buchkovich, N. J., Yu, Y., Zampieri, C. A. & Alwine, J. C. The TORrid affairs of viruses: effects of mammalian DNA viruses on the PI3K-Akt-mTOR signalling pathway. Nature Rev. Microbiol.6, 266–275 (2008). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Mosialos, G. et al. The Epstein-Barr virus transforming protein LMP1 engages signaling proteins for the tumor necrosis factor receptor family. Cell80, 389–399 (1995). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Sarid, R., Olsen, S. J. & Moore, P. S. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus: epidemiology, virology and molecular biology. Adv. Virus Res.52, 139–232 (1999). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Liu, L. et al. The human herpes virus 8-encoded viral FLICE inhibitory protein physically associates with and persistently activates the Iκ B kinase complex. J. Biol. Chem.277, 13745–13751 (2002). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Fujimuro, M. et al. A novel viral mechanism for dysregulation of β-catenin in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus latency. Nature Med.9, 300–306 (2003). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Moore, P. S. & Chang, Y. Antiviral activity of tumor-suppressor pathways: clues from molecular piracy by KSHV. Trends Genet.14, 144–150 (1998). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
McCance, D. J., Kopan, R., Fuchs, E. & Laimins, L. A. Human papillomavirus type 16 alters human epithelial cell differentiation in vitro. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA85, 7169–7173 (1988). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Munger, K. et al. Complex formation of human papillomavirus E7 proteins with the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor gene product. EMBO J.8, 4099–4105 (1989). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Scheffner, M., Werness, B. A., Huibregtse, J. M., Levine, A. J. & Howley, P. M. The E6 oncoprotein encoded by human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 promotes the degradation of p53. Cell63, 1129–1136 (1990). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Duensing, S. et al. The human papillomavirus type 16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins cooperate to induce mitotic defects and genomic instability by uncoupling centrosome duplication from the cell division cycle. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA97, 10002–10007 (2000). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hein, J. et al. Simian virus 40 large T antigen disrupts genome integrity and activates a DNA damage response via Bub1 binding. J. Virol.83, 117–127 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Liang, C., Lee, J. S. & Jung, J. U. Immune evasion in Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus associated oncogenesis. Semin. Cancer Biol.18, 423–436 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Nakamura, H., Li, M., Zarycki, J. & Jung, J. U. Inhibition of p53 tumor suppressor by viral interferon regulatory factor. J. Virol.75, 7572–7582 (2001). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gwack, Y. et al. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus open reading frame 50 represses p53-induced transcriptional activity and apoptosis. J. Virol.75, 6245–6248 (2001). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Park, J. et al. The K-bZIP protein from Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus interacts with p53 and represses its transcriptional activity. J. Virol.74, 11977–11982 (2000). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Zhang, Q., Gutsch, D. & Kenney, S. Functional and physical interaction between p53 and BZLF1: implications for Epstein-Barr latency. Mol. Cell. Biol.14, 1929–1938 (1994). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sarid, R., Klepfish, A. & Schattner, A. Virology, pathogenetic mechanisms, and associated diseases of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8). Mayo Clin. Proc.77, 941–949 (2002). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Pfeffer, S. et al. Identification of microRNAs of the herpesvirus family. Nature Methods2, 269–276 (2005). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Choy, E. Y. et al. An Epstein-Barr virus-encoded microRNA targets PUMA to promote host cell survival. J. Exp. Med.205, 2551–2560 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Young, L. S. & Rickinson, A. B. Epstein-Barr virus: 40 years on. Nature Rev. Cancer4, 757–768 (2004). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Friborg, J., Kong, W., Hottiger, M. O. & Nabel, G. J. p53 inhibition by the LANA protein of KSHV protects against cell death. Nature402, 889–894 (1999). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Radkov, S. A., Kellam, P. & Boshoff, C. The latent nuclear antigen of kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus targets the retinoblastoma-E2F pathway and with the oncogene hras transforms primary rat cells. Nature Med.6, 1121–1127 (2000). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Cloutier, N. & Flamand, L. Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus latency-associated nuclear antigen inhibits interferon (IFN) β expression by competing with IFN regulatory factor-3 for binding to IFNB promoter. J. Biol. Chem.285, 7208–7221 (2010). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Verschuren, E. W., Klefstrom, J., Evan, G. I. & Jones, N. The oncogenic potential of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus cyclin is exposed by p53 loss in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Cell2, 229–241 (2002). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Sarid, R., Wiezorek, J. S., Moore, P. S. & Chang, Y. Characterization and cell cycle regulation of the major Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (human herpesvirus 8) latent genes and their promoter. J. Virol.73, 1438–1446 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Shah, K. M. & Young, L. S. Epstein-Barr virus and carcinogenesis: beyond Burkitt's lymphoma. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.15, 982–988 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Barton, E. S. et al. Herpesvirus latency confers symbiotic protection from bacterial infection. Nature447, 326–329 (2007). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Chin, Y. E. et al. Cell growth arrest and induction of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 WAF1/CIP1 mediated by STAT1. Science272, 719–722 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Takaoka, A. et al. Integration of interferon-α/β signalling to p53 responses in tumour suppression and antiviral defence. Nature424, 516–523 (2003). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Sadler, A. J. & Williams, B. R. Interferon-inducible antiviral effectors. Nature Rev. Immunol.8, 559–568 (2008). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Harada, H. et al. Anti-oncogenic and oncogenic potentials of interferon regulatory factors-1 and -2. Science259, 971–974 (1993). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Lee, H. R., Kim, M. H., Lee, J. S., Liang, C. & Jung, J. U. Viral interferon regulatory factors. J. Interferon Cytokine Res.29, 621–627 (2009). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gao, S. J. et al. KSHV ORF K9 (vIRF) is an oncogene which inhibits the interferon signaling pathway. Oncogene15, 1979–1985 (1997). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Chatterjee, M., Osborne, J., Bestetti, G., Chang, Y. & Moore, P. S. Viral IL-6-induced cell proliferation and immune evasion of interferon activity. Science298, 1432–1435 (2002). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Lee, H. et al. Deregulation of cell growth by the K1 gene of Kaposi's sarcoma- associated herpesvirus. Nature Med.4, 435–440 (1998). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Rivas, C., Thlick, A. E., Parravicini, C., Moore, P. S. & Chang, Y. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus LANA2 is a B-cell-specific latent viral protein that inhibits p53. J. Virol.75, 429–438 (2001). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Wies, E. et al. The Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus-encoded vIRF-3 Inhibits Cellular IRF-5. J. Biol. Chem.284, 8525–8538 (2009). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Iwakiri, D. & Takada, K. Role of EBERs in the pathogenesis of EBV infection. Adv. Cancer Res.107, 119–136 (2010). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Yang, X. J., Ogryzko, V. V., Nishikawa, J., Howard, B. H. & Nakatani, Y. A p300/CBP-associated factor that competes with the adenoviral oncoprotein E1A. Nature382, 319–324 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Bhattacharya, S. et al. Cooperation of Stat2 and p300/CBP in signalling induced by interferon-α. Nature383, 344–347 (1996). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gasser, S., Orsulic, S., Brown, E. J. & Raulet, D. H. The DNA damage pathway regulates innate immune system ligands of the NKG2D receptor. Nature436, 1186–1190 (2005). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hornung, V. & Latz, E. Intracellular DNA recognition. Nature Rev. Immunol.10, 123–130 (2010). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Ranjan, P. et al. Cytoplasmic nucleic acid sensors in antiviral immunity. Trends Mol. Med.15, 359–368 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Stracker, T. H., Carson, C. T. & Weitzman, M. D. Adenovirus oncoproteins inactivate the Mre11-Rad50-NBS1 DNA repair complex. Nature418, 348–352 (2002). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Lilley, C. E., Carson, C. T., Muotri, A. R., Gage, F. H. & Weitzman, M. D. DNA repair proteins affect the lifecycle of herpes simplex virus 1. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA102, 5844–5849 (2005). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Shin, Y. C. et al. Inhibition of the ATM/p53 signal transduction pathway by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus interferon regulatory factor 1. J. Virol.80, 2257–2266 (2006). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Wu, Z. H. & Miyamoto, S. Many faces of NF-κB signaling induced by genotoxic stress. J. Mol. Med.85, 1187–1202 (2007). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Shuda, M. et al. T antigen mutations are a human tumor-specific signature for Merkel cell polyomavirus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA105, 16272–16277 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tolstov, Y. L. et al. Human Merkel cell polyomavirus infection II. MCV is a common human infection that can be detected by conformational capsid epitope immunoassays. Int. J. Cancer125, 1250–1256 (2009). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Carter, J. J. et al. Association of Merkel cell polyomavirus-specific antibodies with Merkel cell carcinoma. J. Natl Cancer Inst.101, 1510–1522 (2009). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Touze, A. et al. Generation of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV)-like particles and their application to detection of MCV antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol.48, 1767–1770 (2010). ArticlePubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Shuda, M. et al. Human Merkel cell polyomavirus infection I. MCV T antigen expression in Merkel cell carcinoma, lymphoid tissues and lymphoid tumors. Int. J. Cancer125, 1243–1249 (2009). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sastre-Garau, X. et al. Merkel cell carcinoma of the skin: pathological and molecular evidence for a causative role of MCV in oncogenesis. J. Pathol.218, 48–56 (2009). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Schowalter, R. M., Pastrana, D. V., Pumphrey, K. A., Moyer, A. L. & Buck, C. B. Merkel cell polyomavirus and two previously unknown polyomaviruses are chronically shed from human skin. Cell Host Microbe7, 509–515 (2010). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Kwun, H. J. et al. The minimum replication origin of merkel cell polyomavirus has a unique large T-antigen loading architecture and requires small T-antigen expression for optimal replication. J. Virol.83, 12118–12128 (2009). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gaynor, A. M. et al. Identification of a novel polyomavirus from patients with acute respiratory tract infections. PLoS Pathog.3, e64 (2007). ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
D'Souza, G. et al. Case-control study of human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med.356, 1944–1956 (2007). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Parkin, D. M. et al. Part I: cancer in Indigenous Africans-burden, distribution, and trends. Lancet Oncol.9, 683–692 (2008). ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Rous, P. The possible role of viruses in cancer. Opening remarks. Cancer Res.20, 672–676 (1960). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Temin, H. M. & Rubin, H. Characteristics of an assay for Rous sarcoma virus and Rous sarcoma cells in tissue culture. Virology6, 669–688 (1958). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Baltimore, D. RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of RNA tumour viruses. Nature226, 1209–1211 (1970). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Temin, H. M. & Mizutani, S. RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of Rous sarcoma virus. Nature226, 1211–1213 (1970). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Chang, H. W. et al. Transformation of chicken cells by the gene encoding the catalytic subunit of PI 3-kinase. Science276, 1848–1850 (1997). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Stehelin, D., Varmus, H. E., Bishop, J. M. & Vogt, P. K. DNA related to the transforming gene(s) of avian sarcoma viruses is present in normal avian DNA. Nature260, 170–173 (1976). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Coffin, J. M., Hughes, S. H. & Varmus, H. E. Retroviruses (CSHL Press, Cold Spring Harbor, 1997). Google Scholar
Ebbesen, P. in Viruses Associated with Human Cancer (ed. Phillips, L. A.) 369–409 (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1983). Google Scholar
Klein, G. The Athiest and the Holy City: Encounters and Reflections (MIT Press, 1992). Google Scholar
Linzer, D. I. & Levine, A. J. Characterization of a 54K dalton cellular SV40 tumor antigen present in SV40-transformed cells and uninfected embryonal carcinoma cells. Cell17, 43–52 (1979). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Lane, D. P. & Crawford, L. V. T antigen is bound to a host protein in SV40-transformed cells. Nature278, 261–263 (1979). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Arnaud, F., Varela, M., Spencer, T. E. & Palmarini, M. Coevolution of endogenous betaretroviruses of sheep and their host. Cell. Mol. Life Sci.65, 3422–3432 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Contreras-Galindo, R. et al. Human endogenous retrovirus K (HML-2) elements in the plasma of people with lymphoma and breast cancer. J. Virol.82, 9329–9336 (2008). ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Urisman, A. et al. Identification of a novel Gammaretrovirus in prostate tumors of patients homozygous for R462Q RNASEL variant. PLoS Pathog.2, e25 (2006). ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Hohn, O. et al. Lack of evidence for xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus(XMRV) in German prostate cancer patients. Retrovirology6, 92 (2009). ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Koch, R. in Source Book of Medical History (ed. Clark, D. H.) 392–406 (Dover Publications, Inc, New York, 1942). Google Scholar
Fredericks, D. N. & Relman, D. A. Sequence-based identification of microbial pathogens: a reconsideration of Koch's postulates. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.9, 18–33 (1996). ArticlePubMed Central Google Scholar
Henle, W., Diehl, V., Kohn, G., Zur Hausen, H. & Henle, G. Herpes-type virus and chromosome marker in normal leukocytes after growth with irradiated Burkitt cells. Science157, 1064–1065 (1967). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Ernberg, I. & Klein, G. in Human Herpesviruses: Biology, Therapy and Immunoprophylaxis (eds Arvin, A. et al.) 514–539 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 2007). Google Scholar
Saemundsen, A. K. et al. Documentation of Epstein-Barr virus infection in immunodeficient patients with life-threatening lymphoproliferative diseases by Epstein-Barr virus complementary RNA/DNA and viral DNA/DNA hybridization. Cancer Res.41, 4237–4242 (1981). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Epstein-Barr Virus and Kaposi's Sarcoma Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8 (ed. IARC) (World Health Organization, 1997).
Bittner, J. J. Some possible effects of nursing on the mammary gland tumor incidence in mice. Science84, 162 (1936). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gross, L. “Spontaneous” leukemia developing in C3H mice following inoculation in infancy, with AK-leukemic extracts, or AK-embrvos. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.76, 27–32 (1951). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gross, L. A filterable agent, recovered from Ak leukemic extracts, causing salivary gland carcinomas in C3H mice. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.83, 414–421 (1953). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Eddy, B. E., Borman, G. S., Grubbs, G. E. & Young, R. D. Identification of the oncogenic substance in rhesus monkey kidney cell culture as simian virus 40. Virology17, 65–75 (1962). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Trentin, J. J., Yabe, Y. & Taylor, G. The quest for human cancer viruses. Science137, 835–841 (1962). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among homosexual men-New York City and California. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep.30, 305–308 (1981).
Barre-Sinoussi, F. et al. Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science220, 868–871 (1983). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Baer, R. et al. DNA sequence and expression of the B95–98 Epstein-Barr virus genome. Nature310, 207–211 (1984). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
DeCaprio, J. A. et al. SV40 large tumor antigen forms a specific complex with the product of the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene. Cell54, 275–283 (1988). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Dyson, N., Howley, P. M., Munger, K. & Harlow, E. The human papilloma virus-16 E7 oncoprotein is able to bind to the retinoblastoma gene product. Science243, 934–937 (1989). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Werness, B. A., Levine, A. J. & Howley, P. M. Association of human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 E6 proteins with p53. Science248, 76–79 (1990). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Cesarman, E., Chang, Y., Moore, P. S., Said, J. W. & Knowles, D. M. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-related body-cavity-based lymphomas. N. Engl. J. Med.332, 1186–1191 (1995). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Cesarman, E. et al. In vitro establishment and characterization of two acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related lymphoma cell lines (BC-1 and BC-2) containing Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-like (KSHV) DNA sequences. Blood86, 2708–2714 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schiffman, M., Clifford, G. & Buonaguro, F. M. Classification of weakly carcinogenic human papillomavirus types: addressing the limits of epidemiology at the borderline. Infect. Agent. Cancer4, 8 (2009). ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar