The short-latency dopamine signal: a role in discovering novel actions? (original) (raw)
References
Thorndike, E. L. Animal Intelligence (Macmillan, New York, 1911). Google Scholar
Schultz, W. Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol.80, 1–27 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Redgrave, P., Prescott, T. J. & Gurney, K. Is the short latency dopamine response too short to signal reward error? Trends Neurosci.22, 146–151 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Comoli, E. et al. A direct projection from superior colliculus to substantia nigra for detecting salient visual events. Nature Neurosci.6, 974–980 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dommett, E. et al. How visual stimuli activate dopaminergic neurons at short latency. Science307, 1476–1479 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Montague, P. R., Dayan, P. & Sejnowski, T. J. A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning. J. Neurosci.16, 1936–1947 (1996). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Montague, P. R., Hyman, S. E. & Cohen, J. D. Computational roles for dopamine in behavioural control. Nature431, 760–767 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schultz, W. Getting formal with dopamine and reward. Neuron36, 241–263 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schultz, W. Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annu. Rev. Psychol.57, 87–115 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Schultz, W. & Dickinson, A. Neuronal coding of prediction errors. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.23, 473–500 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gerfen, C. R. & Wilson, C. J. in Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy Vol. 12 (eds Swanson, L. W., Bjorklund, A. & Hokfelt, T.) Part III, 371–468 (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1996). Google Scholar
Graybiel, A. M. Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators in the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci.13, 244–254 (1990). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hiroi, N. et al. Molecular dissection of dopamine receptor signaling. J. Chem. Neuroanat.23, 237–242 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bergman, H. et al. Physiological aspects of information processing in the basal ganglia of normal and Parkinsonian primates. Trends Neurosci.21, 32–38 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Radad, K., Gille, G. & Rausch, W. D. Short review on dopamine agonists: insight into clinical and research studies relevant to Parkinson's disease. Pharm. Rep.57, 701–712 (2005). CAS Google Scholar
Wise, R. A. Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nature Rev. Neurosci.5, 483–494 (2004). CAS Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Res. Rev.28, 309–369 (1998). ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Salamone, J. D. & Correa, M. Motivational views of reinforcement: implications for understanding the behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Behav. Brain Res.137, 3–25 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Marr, D. Vision: A Computational Approach (Freeman & Co., San Francisco, 1982). Google Scholar
Gurney, K., Prescott, T. J., Wickens, J. R. & Redgrave, P. Computational models of the basal ganglia: from robots to membranes. Trends Neurosci.27, 453–459 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Waelti, P., Dickinson, A. & Schultz, W. Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory. Nature412, 43–48 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Fiorillo, C. D., Tobler, P. N. & Schultz, W. Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. Science299, 1898–1902 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tobler, P. N., Fiorillo, C. D. & Schultz, W. Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science307, 1642–1645 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bayer, H. M. & Glimcher, P. W. Midbrain dopamine neurons encode a quantitative reward prediction error signal. Neuron47, 129–141 (2005). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Satoh, T., Nakai, S., Sato, T. & Kimura, M. Correlated coding of motivation and outcome of decision by dopamine neurons. J. Neurosci.23, 9913–9923 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Nakahara, H., Itoh, H., Kawagoe, R., Takikawa, Y. & Hikosaka, O. Dopamine neurons can represent context-dependent prediction error. Neuron41, 269–280 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tobler, P. N., Dickinson, A. & Schultz, W. Coding of predicted reward omission by dopamine neurons in a conditioned inhibition paradigm. J. Neurosci.23, 10402–10410 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Ungless, M. A. Dopamine: the salient issue. Trends Neurosci.27, 702–706 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sugrue, L. P., Corrado, G. S. & Newsome, W. T. Choosing the greater of two goods: neural currencies for valuation and decision making. Nature Rev. Neurosci.6, 363–375 (2005). CAS Google Scholar
Salzman, C. D., Belova, M. A. & Paton, J. J. Beetles, boxes and brain cells: neural mechanisms underlying valuation and learning. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.15, 721–729 (2005). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Houk, J. C. Agents of the mind. Biol. Cybern.92, 427–437 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Suri, R. E. TD models of reward predictive responses in dopamine neurons. Neural Netw.15, 523–533 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Bar-Gad, I. & Bergman, H. Stepping out of the box: information processing in the neural networks of the basal ganglia. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.11, 689–695 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frank, M. J. Dynamic dopamine modulation in the basal ganglia: a neurocomputational account of cognitive deficits in medicated and nonmedicated Parkinsonism. J. Cogn. Neurosci.17, 51–72 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Daw, N. D., Niv, Y. & Dayan, P. Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nature Neurosci.8, 1704–1711 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Freeman, A. S. Firing properties of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons in freely moving rats. Life Sci.36, 1983–1994 (1985). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Guarraci, F. A. & Kapp, B. S. An electrophysiological characterization of ventral tegmental area dopaminergic neurons during differential pavlovian fear conditioning in the awake rabbit. Behav. Brain Res.99, 169–179 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Horvitz, J. C., Stewart, T. & Jacobs, B. L. Burst activity of ventral tegmental dopamine neurons is elicited by sensory stimuli in the awake cat. Brain Res.759, 251–258 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ljungberg, T., Apicella, P. & Schultz, W. Responses of monkey dopamine neurons during learning of behavioural reactions. J. Neurophysiol.67, 145–163 (1992). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Pan, W. X., Schmidt, R., Wickens, J. R. & Hyland, B. I. Dopamine cells respond to predicted events during classical conditioning: evidence for eligibility traces in the reward- learning network. J. Neurosci.25, 6235–6242 (2005). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Schultz, W., Dayan, P. & Montague, P. R. A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science275, 1593–1599 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mirenowicz, J. & Schultz, W. Importance of unpredictability for reward responses in primate dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol.72, 1024–1027 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Coizet, V., Comoli, E., Westby, G. W. M. & Redgrave, P. Phasic activation of substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area by chemical stimulation of the superior colliculus: an electrophysiological investigation in the rat. Eur. J. Neurosci.17, 28–40 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Overton, P. G., Coizet, V., Dommett, E. J. & Redgrave, P. The parabrachial nucleus is a source of short latency nociceptive input to midbrain dopaminergic neurones in rat. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 301.5 (2005).
Coizet, V., Dommett, E. J., Redgrave, P. & Overton, P. G. Nociceptive responses of midbrain dopaminergic neurones are modulated by the superior colliculus in the rat. Neuroscience139, 1479–1493 (2006). CASPubMed Google Scholar
McHaffie, J. G. et al. A direct projection from superior colliculus to substantia nigra pars compacta in the cat. Neuroscience138, 221–234 (2006). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Horvitz, J. C. Mesolimbocortical and nigrostriatal dopamine responses to salient non-reward events. Neuroscience96, 651–656 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Takikawa, Y., Kawagoe, R. & Hikosaka, O. A possible role of midbrain dopamine neurons in short- and long-term adaptation of saccades to position-reward mapping. J. Neurophysiol.92, 2520–2529 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Jay, M. F. & Sparks, D. L. Sensorimotor integration in the primate superior colliculus. I. Motor convergence. J. Neurophysiol.57, 22–34 (1987). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O. & Wurtz, R. H. Visual and oculomotor function of monkey substantia nigra pars reticulata. I. Relation of visual and auditory responses to saccades. J. Neurophysiol.49, 1230–1253 (1983). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Thorpe, S. J. & Fabre-Thorpe, M. Seeking categories in the brain. Science291, 260–263 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rousselet, G. A., Thorpe, S. J. & Fabre-Thorpe, M. How parallel is visual processing in the ventral pathway? Trends Cogn. Sci.8, 363–370 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Schultz, W. & Romo, R. Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: contingencies of responses to stimuli eliciting immediate behavioural reactions. J. Neurophysiol.63, 607–624 (1990). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O., Sakamoto, M. & Usui, S. Functional properties of monkey caudate neurons. II. Visual and auditory responses. J. Neurophysiol.61, 799–813 (1989). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Matsumura, M., Kojima, J., Gardiner, T. W. & Hikosaka, O. Visual and oculomotor functions of monkey subthalamic nucleus. J. Neurophysiol.67, 1615–1632 (1992). CASPubMed Google Scholar
May, P. J. et al. Projections from the superior colliculus to substantia nigra pars compacta in a primate. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr.450.2 (2005).
Katsuta, H. & Isa, T. Release from GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition unmasks interlaminar connection within superior colliculus in anesthetized adult rats. Neurosci. Res.46, 73–83 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wurtz, R. H. & Albano, J. E. Visual-motor function of the primate superior colliculus. Ann. Rev. Neurosci.3, 189–226 (1980). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sparks, D. L. Translation of sensory signals into commands for control of saccadic eye movements: role of the primate superior colliculus. Physiol. Rev.66, 118–171 (1986). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Grantyn, R. in Neuroanatomy of the Oculomotor System (ed. Buttner-Ennever, J. A.) 273–333 (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1988). Google Scholar
Stein, B. E. & Meredith, M. A. The Merging of the Senses (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993). Google Scholar
Horn, G. & Hill, R. M. Effect of removing the neocortex on the response to repeated sensory stimulation of neurones in the mid-brain. Nature211, 754–755 (1966). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sprague, J. M., Marchiafava, P. L. & Rixxolatti, G. Unit responses to visual stimuli in the superior colliculus of the unanesthetized, mid-pontine cat. Arch. Ital. Biol.106, 169–193 (1968). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ikeda, T. & Hikosaka, O. Reward-dependent gain and bias of visual responses in primate superior colliculus. Neuron39, 693–700 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O., Nakamura, K. & Nakahara, H. Basal ganglia orient eyes to reward. J. Neurophysiol.95, 567–584 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Sutton, R. S. & Barto, A. G. Reinforcement Learning – an Introduction (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1998). Google Scholar
White, N. M. Reward or reinforcement: what's the difference? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.13, 181–186 (1989). CASPubMed Google Scholar
McHaffie, J. G., Stanford, T. R., Stein, B. E., Coizet, V. & Redgrave, P. Subcortical loops through the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci.28, 401–407 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Reynolds, J. N. J., Schulz, J. M. & Wickens, J. R. Visual responsiveness of striatal spiny neurons in anaesthetised rats: an in vivo intracellular study. Proc. Int. Australas. Wint. Conf. Brain Res. Abstr.6.4, 39 (2005). Google Scholar
Schultz, W., Apicella, P., Romo, R. & Scarnati, E. in Models of Information Processing in the Basal Ganglia (eds Houk, J. C., Davis, J. L. & Beiser, D. G.) 11–27 (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1995). Google Scholar
Apicella, P., Legallet, E. & Trouche, E. Responses of tonically discharging neurons in the monkey striatum to primary rewards delivered during different behavioral states. Exp. Brain Res.116, 456–466 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Samejima, K., Ueda, Y., Doya, K. & Kimura, M. Representation of action-specific reward values in the striatum. Science310, 1337–1340 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Crutcher, M. D. & DeLong, M. R. Single cell studies of the primate putamen. II. Relations to direction of movement and pattern of muscular activity. Exp. Brain Res.53, 244–258 (1984). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bickford, M. E. & Hall, W. C. Collateral projections of predorsal bundle cells of the superior colliculus in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol.283, 86–106 (1989). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Levesque, M., Charara, A., Gagnon, S., Parent, A. & Deschenes, M. Corticostriatal projections from layer V cells in rat are collaterals of long-range corticofugal axons. Brain Res.709, 311–315 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mink, J. W. The basal ganglia: focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Prog. Neurobiol.50, 381–425 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Reiner, A., Jiao, Y., DelMar, N., Laverghetta, A. V. & Lei, W. L. Differential morphology of pyramidal tract-type and intratelencephalically projecting-type corticostriatal neurons and their intrastriatal terminals in rats. J. Comp. Neurol.457, 420–440 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Alexander, G. E., DeLong, M. R. & Strick, P. L. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Ann. Rev. Neurosci.9, 357–381 (1986). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Haber, S. N. The primate basal ganglia: parallel and integrative networks. J. Chem. Neuroanat.26, 317–330 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Harting, J. K., Updyke, B. V. & VanLieshout, D. P. The visual-oculomotor striatum of the cat: functional relationship to the superior colliculus. Exp. Brain Res.136, 138–142 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Krout, K. E., Loewy, A. D., Westby, G. W. M. & Redgrave, P. Superior colliculus projections to midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol.431, 198–216 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Krout, K. E., Belzer, R. E. & Loewy, A. D. Brainstem projections to midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol.448, 53–101 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Van der Werf, Y. D., Witter, M. P. & Groenewegen, H. J. The intralaminar and midline nuclei of the thalamus. Anatomical and functional evidence for participation in processes of arousal and awareness. Brain Res. Rev.39, 107–140 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Smith, Y., Raju, D. V., Pare, J. F. & Sidibe, M. The thalamostriatal system: a highly specific network of the basal ganglia circuitry. Trends Neurosci.27, 520–527 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Parent, M. & Parent, A. Single-axon tracing and three-dimensional reconstruction of centre median-parafascicular thalamic neurons in primates. J. Comp. Neurol.481, 127–144 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Matsumoto, N., Minamimoto, T., Graybiel, A. M. & Kimura, M. Neurons in the thalamic CM-Pf complex supply striatal neurons with information about behaviorally significant sensory events. J. Neurophysiol.85, 960–976 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wightman, R. M. & Robinson, D. L. Transient changes in mesolimbic dopamine and their association with 'reward'. J. Neurochem.82, 721–735 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Roitman, M. F., Stuber, G. D., Phillips, P. E. M., Wightman, R. M. & Carelli, R. M. Dopamine operates as a subsecond modulator of food seeking. J. Neurosci.24, 1265–1271 (2004). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Centonze, D., Picconi, B., Gubellini, P., Bernardi, G. & Calabresi, P. Dopaminergic control of synaptic plasticity in the dorsal striatum. Eur. J. Neurosci.13, 1071–1077 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Reynolds, J. N. & Wickens, J. R. Dopamine-dependent plasticity of corticostriatal synapses. Neural Netw.15, 507–521 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Wickens, J. A Theory of the Striatum (Pergamon, Oxford, 1993). Google Scholar
Hikosaka, O. in The Basal ganglia IV: New Ideas and Data on Structure and Function (eds Percheron, G., McKenzie, J. S. & Feger, J.) 589–596 (Plenum, New York, 1994). Google Scholar
Redgrave, P., Prescott, T. & Gurney, K. N. The basal ganglia: a vertebrate solution to the selection problem? Neuroscience89, 1009–1023 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gurney, K., Prescott, T. J. & Redgrave, P. A computational model of action selection in the basal ganglia. I. A new functional anatomy. Biol. Cybern.84, 401–410 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gurney, K., Prescott, T. J. & Redgrave, P. A computational model of action selection in the basal ganglia. II. Analysis and simulation of behaviour. Biol. Cybern.84, 411–423 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Prescott, T. J., Gonzalez, F. M. M., Gurney, K., Humphries, M. D. & Redgrave, P. A robot model of the basal ganglia: behavior and intrinsic processing. Neural Netw.19, 31–61 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Devenport, L. D. & Holloway, F. A. The rat's resistance to superstition: role of the hippocampus. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.94, 691–705 (1980). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Roberts, S. & Gharib, A. Variation of bar-press duration: where do new responses come from? Behav. Processes72, 215–223 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Wickens, J. R., Reynolds, J. N. J. & Hyland, B. I. Neural mechanisms of reward-related motor learning. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.13, 685–690 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Paton, J. J., Belova, M. A., Morrison, S. E. & Salzman, C. D. The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning. Nature439, 865–870 (2006). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lisman, J. E. & Grace, A. A. The hippocampal-VTA loop: controlling the entry of information into long-term memory. Neuron46, 703–713 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schultz, W. Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Rev. Neurosci.1, 199–207 (2000). CAS Google Scholar
Schoenbaum, G., Setlow, B., Saddoris, M. P. & Gallagher, M. Encoding predicted outcome and acquired value in orbitofrontal cortex during cue sampling depends upon input from basolateral amygdala. Neuron39, 855–867 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Corbit, L. H., Ostlund, S. B. & Balleine, B. W. Sensitivity to instrumental contingency degradation is mediated by the entorhinal cortex and its efferents via the dorsal hippocampus. J. Neurosci.22, 10976–10984 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Corbit, L. H. & Balleine, B. W. The role of prelimbic cortex in instrumental conditioning. Behav. Brain Res.146, 145–157 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Padoa-Schioppa, C. & Assad, J. A. Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature441, 223–226 (2006). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Ungless, M. A., Magill, P. J. & Bolam, J. P. Uniform inhibition of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area by aversive stimuli. Science303, 2040–2042 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Klop, E. M., Mouton, L. J., Hulsebosch, R., Boers, J. & Holstege, G. In cat four times as many lamina I neurons project to the parabrachial nuclei and twice as many to the periaqueductal gray as to the thalamus. Neuroscience134, 189–197 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dean, P., Redgrave, P. & Westby, G. W. M. Event or emergency? Two response systems in the mammalian superior colliculus. Trends Neurosci.12, 137–147 (1989). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dickinson, A. The 28th Bartlett Memorial Lecture. Causal learning: an associative analysis. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. B54, 3–25 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Elsner, B. & Hommel, B. Contiguity and contingency in action-effect learning. Psychol. Res.68, 138–154 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Yin, H. H., Knowlton, B. J. & Balleine, B. W. Blockade of NMDA receptors in the dorsomedial striatum prevents action-outcome learning in instrumental conditioning. Eur. J. Neurosci.22, 505–512 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Burgdorf, J. & Panksepp, J. The neurobiology of positive emotions. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.30, 173–187 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Roesch, M. R. & Olson, C. R. Neuronal activity related to reward value and motivation in primate frontal cortex. Science304, 307–310 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
McDonald, A. J. Topographical organization of amygdaloid projections to the caudatoputamen, nucleus accumbens, and related striatal-like areas of the rat brain. Neuroscience44, 15–33 (1991). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Fudge, J. L., Kunishio, K., Walsh, P., Richard, C. & Haber, S. N. Amygdaloid projections to ventromedial striatal subterritories in the primate. Neuroscience110, 257–275 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Singh, S., Barto, A. G. & Chentanez, N. in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 17 (eds Saul, L. K., Weiss, H. & Bottou, L.) 1281–1288 (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2005). Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W. & Sahakian, B. J. in Metabolic Disorders of the Nervous System (ed. Rose, F. C.) 244–291 (Pitman, London, 1981). Google Scholar
Saka, E., Goodrich, C., Harlan, P., Madras, B. K. & Graybiel, A. M. Repetitive behaviors in monkeys are linked to specific striatal activation patterns. J. Neurosci.24, 7557–7565 (2004). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Daprati, E. et al. Looking for the agent: an investigation into consciousness of action and self-consciousness in schizophrenic patients. Cognition65, 71–86 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Spence, S. A. et al. A PET study of voluntary movement in schizophrenic patients experiencing passivity phenomena (delusions of alien control). Brain120, 1997–2011 (1997). PubMed Google Scholar
Kapur, S., Mizrahi, R. & Li, M. From dopamine to salience to psychosis — linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schiz. Res.79, 59–68 (2005). Google Scholar
Wise, S. P., Murray, E. A. & Gerfen, C. R. The frontal-cortex-basal ganglia system in primates. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol.10, 317–356 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Reed, P., Mitchell, C. & Nokes, T. Intrinsic reinforcing properties of putatively neutral stimuli in an instrumental two-level discrimination task. Anim. Learn. Behav.24, 38–45 (1996). Google Scholar
St Clair-Smith, R. & MacLaren, D. Response preconditioning effects. J. Exp. Psychol Anim. Behav. Process.9, 41–48 (1983). Google Scholar