Cognitive therapy versus medication for depression: treatment outcomes and neural mechanisms (original) (raw)

• Kessler, R. C. et al. The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R.). JAMA 289, 3095–3105 (2003).
  Google Scholar
• Murray, C. J. L. & Lopez, A. D. Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet 349, 1436–1442 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Greenberg, P. E., Burnham, H. G., Lowe, S. W. & Corey-Lisle, P. K. The economic burden of depression in the United States: how did it change from 1990 to 2000? J. Clin. Psychiatry 64, 1465–1475 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Moussavi, S. et al. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet 370, 851–858 (2007).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• DeRubeis, R. J., Young, P. R. & Dahlsgaard, K. K. in Comprehensive clinical psychology Vol. 6 (eds Bellack, A. S. & Hersen, M.) 339–366 (Pergamon, Oxford).
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edn (American Psychiatric Association Press, Washington DC, 2000).
• Frank, E. et al. Conceptualization and rationale for consensus definitions of terms in major depressive disorder: remission, recovery, relapse, and recurrence. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48, 851–855 (1991).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• de Mello, M. F., de Jesus Mari, J., Bacaltchuk, J., Verdeli, H. & Neugebauer, R. A systematic review of research findings on the efficacy of interpersonal therapy for depressive disorders. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 255, 75–82 (2005).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• UK ECT Review Group. Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 361, 799–808 (2003).
• Nahas, Z., et al. Two-year outcome of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for treatment of major depressive episodes. J. Clin. Psychiatry 66, 1097–1104 (2005).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Dimidjian, S. et al. Behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and anti-depressant medication in the acute treatment of major depression. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 74, 658–670 (2006).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Hammond, D. C. Neurofeedback with anxiety and affective disorders. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 14, 105–123 (2005).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Baehr, E., Rosenfeld, J. P. & Baehr, R. The clinical use of an alpha asymmetry protocol in the neurofeedback treatment of depression: Two case studies. J. Neurotherapy 2, 10–23 (1997).
  Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. et al. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron 45, 651–660 (2005).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Depression Guideline Panel. Depression in Primary Care Vol. 2: Treatment of Major Depression (Clinical Practice Guideline No 5; AHCPR Publ. No 93–0551) (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Rockville, Maryland, 1993).
• Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Treatment of depression – newer pharmacotherapies. Summary; Evidence report/technology assessment: number 7. US Department of Health and Human Services [online] (1999).
• Thase, M. E. & Rush, A. J. When at first you don't succeed...sequential strategies for antidepressant nonresponders. J. Clin. Psychiatry 58 (Suppl. 13), 23–29 (1997).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Hollon, S. D., Thase, M. E. & Markowitz, J. C. Treatment and prevention of depression. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 3, 39–77 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder (revision). Am. J. Psychiatry 157 (suppl. 4), 1–45 (2000).
• Sheline, Y. I. et al. Increased amygdala response to masked emotional faces in depressed subjects resolves with antidepressant treatment: an fMRI study. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 651–658 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Warner-Schmidt, J. L. & Duman, R. S. Hippocampal neurogenesis: opposing effects of stress and antidepressant treatment. Hippocampus 16, 239–249 (2006).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F. & Emery, G. Cognitive therapy of depression (Guilford, New York, 1979).
  Google Scholar
• Rush, A. J., Beck, A. T., Kovacs, M. & Hollon, S. D. Comparative efficacy of cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depressed outpatients. Cognit. Ther. Res. 1, 17–38 (1977).
  Google Scholar
• Blackburn, I. M., Bishop, S., Glen, A. I. M., Whalley, L. J. & Christie, J. E. The efficacy of cognitive therapy in depression: a treatment trial using cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy, each alone and in combination. Br. J. Psychiatry 139, 181–189 (1981).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Murphy, G. E., Simons, A. D., Wetzel, R. D. & Lustman, P. J. Cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy, singly and together, in the treatment of depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 41, 33–41 (1984).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hollon, S. D. et al. Cognitive therapy, pharmacotherapy and combined cognitive-pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 49, 774–781 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kovacs, M., Rush, A. T., Beck, A. T. & Hollon, S. D. Depressed outpatients treated with cognitive therapy or pharmacotherapy: a one-year follow-up. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 38, 33–39 (1981).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Blackburn, I. M., Eunson, K. M. & Bishop, S. A two year naturalistic follow up of depressed patients treated with cognitive therapy, pharmacotherapy and a combination of both. J. Affect. Disord. 10, 67–75 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Simons, A. D., Murphy, G. E., Levine, J. L. & Wetzel, R. D. Cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression: sustained improvement over one year. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 43, 43–48 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Evans, M. D. et al. Differential relapse following cognitive therapy, pharmacotherapy, and combined cognitive-pharmacotherapy for depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 49, 802–808 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Elkin, I. et al. Initial severity and differential treatment outcome in the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 63, 841–847 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Shea, M. T. et al. Course of depressive symptoms over follow-up: findings from the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 49, 782–787 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S. & Hollon, S. D. Prospects for future comparisons between drugs and psychotherapy: lessons from the CBT-versus-pharmacotherapy exchange. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 64, 104–108 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• DeRubeis, R. J., Gelfand, L. A., Tang, T. Z. & Simons, A. D. Medications versus cognitive behavioral therapy for severely depressed outpatients: mega-analysis of four randomized comparisons. Am. J. Psychiatry 156, 1007–1013 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• DeRubeis, R. J. et al. Cognitive therapy vs. medications in the treatment of moderate to severe depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 409–416 (2005).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Bhar, S. S. et al. Sequence of improvement in depressive symptoms across cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy. J. Affect. Disord. 110, 161–166 (2008).
  PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• DiMascio, A. et al. Differential symptom reduction by drugs and psychotherapy in acute depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 36, 1450–1456 (1979).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hollon, S. D. et al. Prevention of relapse following cognitive therapy vs medications in moderate to severe depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 417–422 (2005).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Ramel, W. et al. Amygdala reactivity and mood-congruent memory in individuals at risk for depressive relapse. Biol. Psychiatry 61, 231–239 (2007).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Liotti, M., Mayberg, H. S., McGinnis, S. Brannan, S. L. & Jerabek, P. Unmasking disease-specific cerebral blood flow abnormalities: mood challenge in patients with remitted unipolar depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 159, 1830–1840 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. The Emotional Brain (Schuster, New York, 1996).
  Google Scholar
• Sheline, Y. I., Sanghavi, M., Mintun, M. A. & Gado, M. H. Depression duration but not age predicts hippocampal volume loss in medically healthy women with recurrent major depression J. Neuroscience 19, 5034–5043 (1999).
  CAS Google Scholar
• Abercrombie, H. et al. Metabolic rate in the right amygdala predicts negative affect in depressed patients. Neuroreport 9, 3301–3307 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Siegle, G. J., Steinhauer, S. R., Thase, M. E., Stenger, V. A. & Carter, C. S. Can't shake that feeling: fMRI assessment of sustained amygdala activity in response to emotional information in depressed individuals. Biol. Psychiatry 51, 693–707 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Drevets, W. C. Prefrontal cortical amygdalar metabolism in major depression. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 877, 614–637 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Siegle, G. J., Thompson, W., Carter, C. S., Steinhauer, S. R. & Thase, M. E. Increased amygdala and decreased dorsolateral prefrontal BOLD responses in unipolar depression: related and independent features. Biol. Psychiatry 61, 198–209 (2007).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Dougherty, D. & Rauch, S. Neuroimaging and neurobiological models of depression. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 5, 138–159 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Evans, K. C. et al. A functional MRI study of amygdala responses to angry schematic faces in social anxiety disorder. Depress. Anxiety 25, 496–505 (2007).
  Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, J. & Mischel, W. A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: dynamics of willpower. Psychol. Rev. 106, 3–19 (1999).
  CAS Google Scholar
• Davidson, R. J. Affective style psychopathology and resilience: brain mechanisms and plasticity. Am. Psychol. 55, 1196–1214 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Drevets, W. C. & Raichle, M. Reciprocal suppression of regional cerebral blood flow during emotional versus higher cognitive processes: implications for interactions between emotion and cognition. Cogn. Emot. 12, 353–385 (1998).
  Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. et al. Reciprocal limbic cortical function and negative mood: converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. Am. J. Psychiatry 156, 675–682 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J. & Gabrieli, J. D. E. Rethinking feelings: an fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 14, 1215–1229 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Ochsner, K. et al. For better or for worse: neural systems supporting the cognitive down- and up-regulation of negative emotion. Neuroimage 23, 483–499 (2004).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Ray, J. P. & Price, J. L. The organization of projections from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus to orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in macaque monkeys. J. Comp. Neurol. 337, 1–31 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ghashghaei, H. T. & Barbas, H. Pathways for emotion: interactions of prefrontal and anterior temporal pathways in the amygdala of the rhesus monkey. Neuroscience 115, 1261–1279 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. Limbic-cortical dysregulation: a proposed model of depression. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 9, 471–481 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Drevets, W. C. Neuroimaging studies of mood disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 48, 813–829 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Carter, C. S. et al. Parsing executive processes: strategic vs evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 1944–1948 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Davidson, R. J. Affective neuroscience and psychophysiology: toward a synthesis. Psychophysiology 40, 655–665 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Phillips, M. L., Ladouceur, C. D. & Drevets, W. C. A neural model of voluntary and automatic emotion regulation: implications for understanding the pathophysiology and neurodevelopment of bipolar disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 24 Jun 2008 (doi: 10.1038/mp.2008.65).
  Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T. The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. Am. J. Psychiatry 165, 969–977 (2008).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Davidson, R. J. Assymetric brain function affective style and psychopathology: the role of early experience and plasticity. Dev. Psychopathol. 6, 741–758 (1994).
  Google Scholar
• Baxter, L. et al. Reduction of prefrontal glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 46, 243–250 (1989).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bench, C. J., Friston, K. J., Brown, R. G., Frackowiak, R. S. & Dolan, R. J. Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions. Psychol. Med. 23, 579–590 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ottowitz, W. E., Dougherty, D. D. & Savage, C. R. The neural network basis for abnormalities of attention and executive function in major depressive disorder: implications for application of the medical disease model to psychiatric disorders. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 10, 86–99 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Liotti, M. & Mayberg, H. S. The role of functional neuroimaging in the neuropsychology of depression. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 23, 121–136 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. D. et al. Temporal dynamics of brain activation during a working memory task. Nature 386, 604–608 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Harvey, P. O. et al. Executive functions and updating of the contents of working memory in unipolar depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 38, 567–576 (2004).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Egeland, J. et al. Attention profile in schizophrenia compared with depression: differential effects of processing speed, selective attention and vigilance. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 108, 276–284 (2003).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Watkins, E. & Brown, R. G. Rumination and executive function in depression: an experimental study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 72, 400–402 (2002).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Phillips, M. L., Drevets, W. C., Rauch, S. L. & Lane, R. Neurobiology of emotion perception II: implications for major psychiatric disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 54, 515–528 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Charney, D. S. Monoamine dysfunction and the pathophysiology and treatment of depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry 59 (Suppl. 14), 11–14 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. Modulating dysfunctional limbic-cortical circuits in depression: towards development of brain-based algorithms for diagnosis and optimised treatment. Br. Med. Bull. 65, 193–207 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Seminowicz, D. A. et al. Limbic-frontal circuitry in major depression: a path modeling metanalysis. Neuroimage 22, 409–418 (2004).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. Positron emission tomography imaging in depression: a neural systems perspective. Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am. 13, 805–815 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Ingram, R. E. & Hollon, S. D. Information Processing Approaches to Clinical Psychology (ed. Ingram, R. E.) 261–284 (Academic, New York, 1986).
  Google Scholar
• Ohira, H. et al. Association of neural and physiological responses during voluntary emotion suppression. Neuroimage 29, 721–733 (2006).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• O'Reardon, J. P. et al. Prefrontal-amygdala interactions and mood regulation: a perfusion fMRI study. Brain Cogn. 51, 185 (2003).
  Google Scholar
• Ray, R. D. et al. Individual differences in trait rumination and the neural systems supporting cognitive reappraisal. Cogn. Affect Behav. Neurosci. 5, 156–168 (2005).
  Google Scholar
• Rush, A. J., Beck, A. T., Kovacs, M., Weissenburger, J. & Hollon, S. D. Comparison of the effects of cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy on hopelessness and self-concept. Am. J. Psychiatry 139, 862–866 (1982).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Blackburn, I. M. & Bishop, S. Changes in cognition with pharmacotherapy and cognitive therapy. Br. J. Psychiatry 143, 609–617 (1983).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Garamoni, G. L., Reynolds, C. F., Thase, M. E., Frank, E. & Fasiczka, A. L. Shifts in affective balance during cognitive therapy of major depression. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 60, 260–266 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• DeRubeis, R. J. et al. How does cognitive therapy work? Cognitive change and symptom change in cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 58, 862–869 (1990).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Siegle, G. J., Carter, C. S. & Thase, M. E. Use of fMRI to predict recovery from unipolar depression with cognitive behavior therapy. Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 735–738 (2006).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Siegle, G. J., Thompson, W., Horner, M. S., Carter, C. S. & Thase, M. E. in Executive function: from basic research to clinical practice. Symp. Meet. Assoc. Behav. Cogn. Ther. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2007).
  Google Scholar
• Straube, T., Glauer, M., Dilger, S., Mentzel, H. J. & Miltner, W. H. Effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on brain activation in specific phobia. Neuroimage 29, 125–135 (2006).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Paquette, V. et al. “Change the mind and you change the brain”: effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on the neural correlates of spider phobia. Neuroimage 18, 401–409 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Siegle, G. J., Ghinassi, F. & Thase, M. E. Neurobehavioral therapies in the 21st century: summary of an emerging field and an extended example of Cognitive Control Training for depression. Cogn. Ther. Res. 31, 235–262 (2007).
  Google Scholar
• Goldapple, K. et al. Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression: treatment-specific effects of cognitive behavior therapy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 34–41 (2004).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Saxena, S. et al. Differential cerebral metabolic changes with paroxetine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder vs major depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 59, 250–261 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Brody, A. L. et al. Brain metabolic changes in major depressive disorder from pre- to post-treatment with paroxetine. Psychiatry Res. 91, 127–139 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Brody, A. L. et al. Brain metabolic changes associated with symptom factor improvement in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 171–178 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Brody, A. L. et al. Regional brain metabolic changes in patients with major depression treated with either paroxetine or interpersonal therapy: preliminary findings. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58, 631–640 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kennedy, S. H. et al. Changes in regional brain glucose metabolism measured with positron emission tomography after paroxetine treatment of major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 899–905 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. et al. Regional metabolic effects of fluoxetine in major depression: serial changes and relationship to clinical response. Biol. Psychiatry 48, 830–843 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Buchsbaum, M. S. et al. Effect of sertraline on regional metabolic rate in patients with affective disorder . Biol. Psychiatry 41, 15–22 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Nobler, M. S., Olvet, K. R. & Sackeim, H. A. Effects of medications on cerebral blood flow in late-life depression. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 4, 51–58 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Fu, C. H. et al. Attenuation of the neural response to sad faces in major depression by antidepressant treatment: a prospective, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 877–889 (2004).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Davidson, R. J., Irwin, W., Anderle, M. J. & Kalin, N. H. The neural substrates of affective processing in depressed patients treated with venlafaxine. Am. J. Psychiatry 160, 64–75 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Hollon, S. D., Evans, M. D. & DeRubeis, R. J. in Contemporary Psychological Approaches to Depression: Theory, Research, and Treatment (ed. Ingram, R.) 117–136 (Plenum, New York, 1990).
  Google Scholar
• Brody, A. L. et al. FDG-PET predictors of response to behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 84, 1–6 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Urry, H. L. et al. Amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex are inversely coupled during regulation of negative affect and predict the diurnal pattern of cortisol secretion among older adults. J. Neurosci. 26, 4415–4425 (2006).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Anand, A. et al. Antidepressant effect on connectivity of the mood-regulating circuit: an fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 1334–1344 (2005).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Canli, T. et al. Amygdala reactivity to emotional faces predicts improvement in major depression. Neuroreport 16, 1267–1270 (2005).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• McClure, E. B. et al. fMRI predictors of treatment outcome in pediatric anxiety disorders. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 191, 97–105 (2007).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fu, C. H. et al. Neural responses to sad facial expressions in major depression following cognitive behavioral therapy. Biol. Psychiatry 10 Jun 2008 (doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.04.033).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Mayberg, H. S. et al. Cingulate function in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response. Neuroreport 8, 1057–1061 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pizzagalli, D. et al. Anterior cingulate activity as a predictor of degree of treatment response in major depression: evidence from brain electrical tomography analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 405–415 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Chen, C. H. et al. Brain imaging correlates of depressive symptom severity and predictors of symptom improvement after antidepressant treatment. Biol. Psychiatry 62, 407–414 (2007).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• McCullough, J. P. Treatment for Chronic Depression: Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP). (Guilford, New York, 2003).
  Google Scholar
• Nemeroff, C. B. et al. Differential responses to psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy in patients with chronic forms of major depression and childhood trauma. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 14293–14296 (2003).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hayden, E. P. et al. Early-emerging cognitive vulnerability to depression and the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism. J. Affect. Dis. 107, 227–230 (2008).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kazdin, A. E. Developing a research agenda for child adolescent psychotherapy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 829–840 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J. & Evans, M. D. Causal mediation of change in treatment for depression: discriminating between nonspecificity and noncausality. Psychol. Bull. 102, 139–149 (1987).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Barber, J. P. & DeRubeis, R. J. On second thought: where the action is in cognitive therapy for depression. Cognit. Ther. Res. 13, 441–457 (1989).
  Google Scholar