Perceiving is believing: a Bayesian approach to explaining the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (original) (raw)

References

  1. McGrath, J., Saha, S., Chant, D. & Welham, J. Schizophrenia: a concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiol. Rev. 30, 67–76 (2008).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  2. Crow, T. J. Molecular pathology of schizophrenia: more than one disease process? BMJ 280, 66–68 (1980). An influential paper that made the distinction between positive and negative symptoms.
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  3. Liddle, P. F. Schizophrenic syndromes, cognitive performance and neurological dysfunction. Psychol. Med. 17, 49–57 (1987). An empirical demonstration that the signs and symptoms of schizophrenia should be described in terms of three dimensions: psychomotor poverty, disorganization and reality distortion (hallucinations and delusions).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  4. Jaspers, K. General Psychopathology (Manchester Univ. Press, Manchester, 1962). The author of this book claimed that positive symptoms were 'not understandable'. We disagree.
    Google Scholar
  5. Frith, C. Editorial: in praise of cognitive neuropsychiatry. Cognit. Neuropsychiatry 13, 1–7 (2008).
    Google Scholar
  6. Kemp, R., Chua, S., McKenna, P. & David, A. Reasoning and delusions. Br. J. Psychiatry 170, 398–405 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  7. Schneider, K. Clinical Psychopathology (Grune & Stratton, New York, 1959). An influential attempt to list symptoms specific to schizophrenia.
    Google Scholar
  8. Wing, J. K., Sartorius, N. & Üstun, T. B. (eds) Diagnosis and Clinical Measurement in Psychiatry. A Reference Manual for SCAN (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 1998).
    Google Scholar
  9. Maher, B. A. Delusional thinking and perceptual disorder. J. Individ. Psychol. 30, 98–113 (1974). The original proposal that delusions are caused by anomalous perceptual experiences.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  10. Frith, C. D. Consciousness, information processing and schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 134, 225–235 (1979). This paper used the term consciousness when doing so was neither popular nor profitable.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  11. Hemsley, D. R. A simple (or simplistic?) cognitive model for schizophrenia. Behav. Res. Ther. 31, 633–645 (1993).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  12. Kapur, S. Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 160, 13–23 (2003). An influential synthesis of ideas concerning the role of dopamine in the generation of positive symptoms.
    PubMed Google Scholar
  13. Feinberg, I. Efference copy and corollary discharge: implications for thinking and its disorders. Schizophr. Bull. 4, 636–640 (1978). The original proposal that positive symptoms, in particular thought insertion, might be caused by a problem with corollary discharge.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  14. von Helmholtz, H. Handbuch der Physiologischen Optik (Voss, Leipzig, 1866). A work of genius that suggested, among many other things, that perception depends on inference.
    Google Scholar
  15. Lindner, A., Thier, P., Kircher, T. T., Haarmeier, T. & Leube, D. T. Disorders of agency in schizophrenia correlate with an inability to compensate for the sensory consequences of actions. Curr. Biol. 15, 1119–1124 (2005).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  16. Blakemore, S. J., Wolpert, D. M. & Frith, C. D. Abnormalities in the awareness of action. Trends Cogn. Sci. 6, 237–242 (2002).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  17. Allen, P., Aleman, A. & McGuire, P. K. Inner speech models of auditory verbal hallucinations: evidence from behavioural and neuroimaging studies. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 19, 407–415 (2007).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  18. Green, P. & Preston, M. Reinforcement of vocal correlates of auditory hallucinations by auditory feedback: a case study. Br. J. Psychiatry 139, 204–208 (1981).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  19. Gould, L. N. Auditory hallucinations and subvocal speech. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 109, 418–427 (1949). The first demonstration that hallucinations can be associated with the patient's own speech.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  20. Junginger, J. & Rauscher, F. P. Vocal activity in verbal hallucinations. J. Psychiatr. Res. 21, 101–109 (1987).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  21. Green, M. F. & Kinsbourne, M. Subvocal activity and auditory hallucinations: clues for behavioral treatments? Schizophr. Bull. 16, 617–625 (1990).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  22. Sperry, R. W. Neural basis of the spontaneous optokinetic response produced by visual inversion. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 43, 482–489 (1950).
    CAS Google Scholar
  23. von Holst, E. & Mittelstaedt, H. Das reafferenzprinzip (Wechselwirkungen zwischen Zentralnervensystem und Peripherie). Naturwissenshaften 37, 464–476 (1950).
    Google Scholar
  24. Crapse, T. B. & Sommer, M. A. Corollary discharge across the animal kingdom. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 9, 587–600 (2008).
    CAS Google Scholar
  25. Blakemore, S. J., Smith, J., Steel, R., Johnstone, C. E. & Frith, C. D. The perception of self-produced sensory stimuli in patients with auditory hallucinations and passivity experiences: evidence for a breakdown in self-monitoring. Psychol. Med. 30, 1131–1139 (2000). A demonstration that patients with schizophrenia can tickle themselves.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  26. Shergill, S. S., Samson, G., Bays, P. M., Frith, C. D. & Wolpert, D. M. Evidence for sensory prediction deficits in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 2384–2386 (2005).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  27. Ford, J. M. & Mathalon, D. H. Electrophysiological evidence of corollary discharge dysfunction in schizophrenia during talking and thinking. J. Psychiatr. Res. 38, 37–46 (2004).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  28. Sommer, M. A. & Wurtz, R. H. Brain circuits for the internal monitoring of movements. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 31, 317–338 (2008).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  29. Hohwy, J. & Frith, C. Can neuroscience explain consciousness? J. Conscious. Stud. 11, 180–198 (2004). An attempt to forge a link between neural processes and subjective experience.
    Google Scholar
  30. Fienberg, S. E. When did Bayesian inference become “Bayesian”? Bayesian Anal. 1, 1–40 (2006).
    Google Scholar
  31. Hemsley, D. R. & Garety, P. A. The formation and maintenance of delusions: a Bayesian analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry 149, 51–56 (1986). An influential demonstration that patients with delusions have problems with probabilistic inferences.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  32. Freeman, D., Garety, P. A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D. & Bebbington, P. E. A cognitive model of persecutory delusions. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 41, 331–347 (2002).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  33. Garety, P. A., Hemsley, D. R. & Wessely, S. Reasoning in deluded schizophrenic and paranoid patients. Biases in performance on a probabilistic inference task. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 179, 194–201 (1991).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  34. Bentall, R. P., Kaney, S. & Dewey, M. E. Paranoia and social reasoning: an attribution theory analysis. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 30, 13–23 (1991).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  35. Warman, D. M. Reasoning and delusion proneness - confidence in decisions. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 196, 9–15 (2008).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  36. Woodward, T. S., Moritz, S., Menon, M. & Klinge, R. Belief inflexibility in schizophrenia. Cognit. Neuropsychiatry 13, 267–277 (2008).
    Google Scholar
  37. Heerey, E. A., Bell-Warren, K. R. & Gold, J. M. Decision-making impairments in the context of intact reward sensitivity in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 64, 62–69 (2008).
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  38. Coltheart, M. Cognitive neuropsychiatry and delusional belief. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. (Colchester) 60, 1041–1062 (2007). A persuasive demonstration that perceptual anomalies are not sufficient to cause delusions.
    Google Scholar
  39. Coltheart, M., Langdon, R. & McKay, R. Schizophrenia and monothematic delusions. Schizophr. Bull. 33, 642–647 (2007).
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  40. Turner, M. S., Cipolotti, L., Yousry, T. A. & Shallice, T. Confabulation: damage to a specific inferior medial prefrontal system. Cortex 44, 637–648 (2008).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  41. Cahill, C., Silbersweig, D. & Frith, C. D. Psychotic experiences induced in deluded patients using distorted auditory feedback. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry 1, 201–211 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  42. Blakemore, S. J., Oakley, D. A. & Frith, C. D. Delusions of alien control in the normal brain. Neuropsychologia 41, 1058–1067 (2003).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  43. Shergill, S. S., Bays, P. M., Frith, C. D. & Wolpert, D. M. Two eyes for an eye: the neuroscience of force escalation. Science 301, 187–187 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  44. Heinks-Maldonado, T. H., Mathalon, D. H., Gray, M. & Ford, J. M. Fine-tuning of auditory cortex during speech production. Psychophysiology 42, 180–190 (2005).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  45. Curio, G., Neuloh, G., Numminen, J., Jousmaki, V. & Hari, R. Speaking modifies voice-evoked activity in the human auditory cortex. Hum. Brain Mapp. 9, 183–191 (2000).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  46. Houde, J. F., Nagarajan, S. S., Sekihara, K. & Merzenich, M. M. Modulation of the auditory cortex during speech: an MEG study. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 14, 1125–1138 (2002).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  47. Martikainen, M. H., Kaneko, K. & Hari, R. Suppressed responses to self-triggered sounds in the human auditory cortex. Cereb. Cortex 15, 299–302 (2005).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  48. Ford, J. M., Gray, M., Faustman, W. O., Roach, B. J. & Mathalon, D. H. Dissecting corollary discharge dysfunction in schizophrenia. Psychophysiology 44, 522–529 (2007).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  49. McGuire, P. K., Shah, G. M. & Murray, R. M. Increased blood flow in Broca's area during auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Lancet 342, 703–706 (1993). An early demonstration that hallucinations are associated with activity in speech-production regions of the brain.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  50. Shergill, S. S., Brammer, M. J., Williams, S. C. R., Murray, R. M. & McGuire, P. K. Mapping auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 1033–1038 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  51. Shergill, S. S., Bullmore, E., Simmons, A., Murray, R. & McGuire, P. Functional anatomy of auditory verbal imagery in schizophrenic patients with auditory hallucinations. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 1691–1693 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  52. Ford, J. M. et al. Cortical responsiveness during talking and listening in schizophrenia: an event-related brain potential study. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 540–549 (2001).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  53. Shergill, S. S., Brammer, M. J., Williams, S. J., Murray, R. M. & McGuire, P. K. Mapping auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 1033–1038 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  54. Shergill, S. S. et al. Modality specific neural correlates of auditory and somatic hallucinations. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 71, 688–690 (2001).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  55. Shergill, S. S. et al. Temporal course of auditory hallucinations. Br. J. Psychiatry 185, 516–517 (2004).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  56. Lennox, B. R., Park, S. B., Medley, I., Morris, P. G. & Jones, P. B. The functional anatomy of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 100, 13–20 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  57. Ford, J. M., Roach, B. J., Faustmann, W. O. & Mathalon, D. H. Synch before you speak: auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 458–466 (2007). Evidence that hallucinations are associated with a reduction of long-range connectivity in the brain.
    PubMed Google Scholar
  58. Kubicki, M. et al. A review of diffusion tensor imaging studies in schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Res. 41, 15–30 (2007).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  59. Mechelli, A. et al. Misattribution of speech and impaired connectivity in patients with auditory verbal hallucinations. Hum. Brain Mapp. 28, 1213–1222 (2007). Structural evidence for connectivity problems in schizophrenia.
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  60. Barlow, H. The exploitation of regularities in the environment by the brain. Behav. Brain. Sci. 24, 602–607; discussion 652–671 (2001).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  61. Bayes, T. R. An essay towards solving a problem in the doctrine of chances. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 53, 370–418 (1763). A work of genius providing the computational basis for the process of inference that underlies perception and belief formation.
    Google Scholar
  62. Lubow, R. E. Latent inhibition. Psychol. Bull. 79, 398–407 (1973).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  63. Barlow, H. Conditions for versatile learning, Helmholtz's unconscious inference, and the task of perception. Vision Res. 30, 1561–1571 (1990). An important proposal about the mechanism of inference in the visual system.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  64. Yuille, A. & Kersten, D. Vision as Bayesian inference: analysis by synthesis? Trends Cogn. Sci. 10, 301–308 (2006). Review of the evidence that vision depends on inference.
    PubMed Google Scholar
  65. Vaitl, D. et al. Latent inhibition and schizophrenia: Pavlovian conditioning of autonomic responses. Schizophr. Res. 55, 147–158 (2002).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  66. Kamin, L. J. in Punishment and Aversive Behaviour (eds Campbell, B. A. & Church, R. M.) 279–296 (Appleton Century Crofts, New York, 1969).
    Google Scholar
  67. Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. in Classical Conditioning II (eds Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F.) 64–99 (Appleton Century Crofts, New York, 1972). The computational basis of learning by association.
    Google Scholar
  68. Schultz, W. & Dickinson, A. Neuronal coding of prediction errors. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23, 473–500 (2000). An important account of the role of prediction errors in learning.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  69. Jones, S. H., Hemsley, D., Ball, S. & Serra, A. Disruption of the Kamin blocking effect in schizophrenia and in normal subjects following amphetamine. Behav. Brain Res. 88, 103–114 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  70. Hollerman, J. R. & Schultz, W. Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. Nature Neurosci. 1, 304–309 (1998).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  71. Mirenowicz, J. & Schultz, W. Importance of unpredictability for reward responses in primate dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 72, 1024–1027 (1994).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  72. Waelti, P., Dickinson, A. & Schultz, W. Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory. Nature 412, 43–48 (2001).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  73. Pessiglione, M., Seymour, B., Flandin, G., Dolan, R. J. & Frith, C. D. Dopamine-dependent prediction errors underpin reward-seeking behaviour in humans. Nature 442, 1042–1045 (2006).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  74. Juckel, G. et al. Dysfunction of ventral striatal reward prediction in schizophrenia. Neuroimage 29, 409–416 (2006).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  75. Murray, G. K. et al. Substantia nigra/ventral tegmental reward prediction error disruption in psychosis. Mol. Psychiatry 13, 267–276 (2007). Evidence of abnormal neural correlates of prediction errors in schizophrenia.
    Google Scholar
  76. Corlett, P. R. et al. Disrupted prediction error signal in psychosis: evidence for an associative account of delusions. Brain 130, 2387–2400 (2007).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  77. Jensen, J. et al. The formation of abnormal associations in schizophrenia: neural and behavioral evidence. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 473–479 (2008).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  78. Dodd, M. L. et al. Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch. Neurol. 62, 1377–1381 (2005).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  79. Friston, K., Kilner, J. & Harrison, L. A free energy principle for the brain. J. Physiol. (Paris) 100, 70–87 (2006). An important proposal that the brain consists of a hierarchy of Bayesian inferencing devices.
    Google Scholar
  80. Murray, S. O., Kersten, D., Olshausen, B. A., Schrater, P. & Woods, D. L. Shape perception reduces activity in human primary visual cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 15164–15169 (2002).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  81. Lee, T. S. & Mumford, D. Hierarchical Bayesian inference in the visual cortex. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A Opt. Image Sci. Vis. 20, 1434–1448 (2003).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  82. Summerfield, C. & Koechlin, E. A neural representation of prior information during perceptual inference. Neuron 59, 336–347 (2008).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  83. Mackintosh, N. J. A theory of attention: variations in associability of stimuli with reinforcement. Psychol. Rev. 82, 276–298 (1975).
    Google Scholar
  84. Pearce, J. M. & Hall, G. A model for Pavlovian learning: variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli. Psychol. Rev. 87, 532–552 (1980).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  85. Courville, A. C., Daw, N. D. & Touretzky, D. S. Bayesian theories of conditioning in a changing world. Trends Cogn. Sci. 10, 294–300 (2006).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  86. Miller, R. Schizophrenic psychology, associative learning and the role of forebrain dopamine. Med. Hypotheses 2, 203–211 (1976).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  87. Hemsley, D. R. The development of a cognitive model of schizophrenia: placing it in context. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29, 977–988 (2005).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  88. Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. Parsing reward. Trends Neurosci. 26, 507–513 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  89. Murray, G. K. et al. Incentive motivation in first-episode psychosis: a behavioural study. BMC Psychiatry 8, 34 (2008).
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  90. Roiser, J. P. et al. Do patients with schizophrenia exhibit aberrant salience? Psychol. Med. 30 Jun 2008 (doi:10.1017/S0033291708003863).
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  91. Yu, A. J. & Dayan, P. Uncertainty, neuromodulation, and attention. Neuron 46, 681–692 (2005).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  92. Dakin, S., Carlin, P. & Hemsley, D. Weak suppression of visual context in chronic schizophrenia. Curr. Biol. 15, R822–R824 (2005).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  93. Chen, Y., Levy, D. L., Sheremata, S. & Holzman, P. S. Compromised late-stage motion processing in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 55, 834–841 (2004).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  94. McGhie, A. & Chapman, J. Disorders of attention and perception in early schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 34, 103–116 (1961). An influential survey of experiences in the early stages of psychosis.
    CAS Google Scholar
  95. Chapman, J. The early symptoms of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 112, 225–251 (1966).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  96. Chadwick, P. K. The step ladder to the impossible: a first hand phenomenological account of a schizo-affective psychotic crisis. J. Ment. Health 2, 239–250 (1993). A fascinating personal account of a psychotic breakdown.
    Google Scholar
  97. Brown, A. S. Prenatal infection as a risk factor for schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 32, 200–202 (2006).
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  98. van Os, J., Krabbendam, L., Myin-Germeys, I. & Delespaul, P. The schizophrenia envirome. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 18, 141–145 (2005).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  99. Burmeister, M., McInnis, M. G. & Zollner, S. Psychiatric genetics: progress amid controversy. Nature Rev. Genet. 9, 527–540 (2008).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  100. Steen, R. G., Mull, C., McClure, R., Hamer, R. M. & Lieberman, J. A. Brain volume in first-episode schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging studies. Br. J. Psychiatry 188, 510–518 (2006).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  101. Lewis, D. A., Glantz, L. A., Pierri, J. N. & Sweet, R. A. Altered cortical glutamate neurotransmission in schizophrenia: evidence from morphological studies of pyramidal neurons. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1003, 102–112 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  102. Kapur, S. & Mamo, D. Half a century of antipsychotics and still a central role for dopamine D2 receptors. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 27, 1081–1090 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  103. Featherstone, R. E., Kapur, S. & Fletcher, P. J. The amphetamine-induced sensitized state as a model of schizophrenia. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 31, 1556–1571 (2007).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  104. Jentsch, J. D. & Roth, R. H. The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: from NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 20, 201–225 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  105. Corlett, P. R., Honey, G. D. & Fletcher, P. C. From prediction error to psychosis: ketamine as a pharmacological model of delusions. J. Psychopharmacol. 21, 238–252 (2007).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  106. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC, 1994). The official definition of schizophrenia.
  107. Gottesmann, C. The dreaming sleep stage: a new neurobiological model of schizophrenia? Neuroscience 140, 1105–1115 (2006).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  108. Schwartz, S. & Maquet, P. Sleep imaging and the neuro-psychological assessment of dreams. Trends Cogn. Sci. 6, 23–30 (2002).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  109. Birchwood, M. Pathways to emotional dysfunction in first-episode psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry 182, 373–375 (2003).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  110. Bentall, R. P., Corcoran, R., Howard, R., Blackwood, N. & Kinderman, P. Persecutory delusions: a review and theoretical integration. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 21, 1143–1192 (2001).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  111. Shimizu, M., Kubota, Y., Toichi, M. & Baba, H. Folie a deux and shared psychotic disorder. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 9, 200–205 (2007).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  112. Macdonald, N. Living with schizophrenia. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 82, 218–221 (1960).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  113. Ford, J. M., Mathalon, D. H., Whitfield, S., Faustman, W. O. & Roth, W. T. Reduced communication between frontal and temporal lobes during talking in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 51, 485–492 (2002).
    PubMed Google Scholar
  114. Mellor, C. S. First rank symptoms of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 117, 15–23 (1970).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Download references