Cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms of alcohol-related aggression (original) (raw)

• World Health Organization. World health organization expert committee on problems related to alcohol consumption. (WHO, Geneva, 2007).
• Murdoch, D., Pihl, R. O. & Ross, D. Alcohol and crimes of violence: present issues. Int. J. Addict. 25, 1065–1081 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Collins, J. J. & Messerschmidt, P. M. Epidemiology of alcohol-related violence. Alcohol Health Res. World 17, 93–100 (1993).
  Google Scholar
• Foran, H. M. & O'Leary, K. D. Alcohol and intimate partner violence: a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 28, 1222–1234 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Spunt, B., Brownstein, H., Goldstein, P., Fendrich, M. & Liberty, H. J. Drug-use by homicide offenders. J. Psychoactive Drugs 27, 125–134 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jaffe, J. H., Babor, T. F. & Fishbein, D. H. Alcoholics, aggression and antisocial personality. J. Stud. Alcohol 49, 211–218 (1988).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mayfield, D. Alcoholism, alcohol, intoxication and assaultive behavior. Dis. Nerv. Syst. 37, 288–291 (1976).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Nicol, A. R., Gunn, J. C., Gristwoo, J., Foggitt, R. H. & Watson, J. P. Relationship of alcoholism to violent behavior resulting in long-term imprisonment. Br. J. Psychiatry 123, 47–51 (1973).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schuckit, M. A. & Russell, J. W. An evaluation of primary alcoholics with histories of violence. J. Clin. Psychiatry 45, 3–6 (1984).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Arseneault, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, P. J. & Silva, P. A. Mental disorders and violence in a total birth cohort: results from the Dunedin study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 979–986 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Swanson, J. W., Holzer, C. E., Ganju, V. K. & Jono, R. T. Violence and psychiatric-disorder in the community: evidence from the epidemiologic catchment-area surveys. Hosp. Community Psychiatry 41, 761–770 (1990).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lipsey, M. W., Wilson D. B., Cohen, M. A. & Derzon, J. H. Is there a causal relationship between alcohol use and violence? A synthesis of evidence. Recent Dev. Alcohol. 13, 245–282 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• O'Farrell, T. J., Fals-Stewart, W., Murphy, M. & Murphy, C. M. Partner violence before and after individually based alcoholism treatment for male alcoholic patients. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 71, 92–102 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Coid, J. et al. Violence and psychiatric morbidity in the national household population of Britain: public health implications. Br. J. Psychiatry 189, 12–19 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Chermack, S. T. & Blow, F. C. Violence among individuals in substance abuse treatment: the role of alcohol and cocaine consumption. Drug Alcohol Depend. 66, 29–37 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Murphy, C. M., Winters, J., O'Farrell, T. J., Fals-Stewart, W. & Murphy, M. Alcohol consumption and intimate partner violence by alcoholic men: comparing violent and nonviolent conflicts. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 19, 35–42 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Takahashi, A., Kwa, C., Debold, J. F. & Miczek, K. A. GABAA receptors in the dorsal raphe, nucleus of mice: escalation of aggression after alcohol consumption. Psychopharmacology 211, 467–477 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Weerts, E. M., Tornatzky, W. & Miczek, K. A. Prevention of the pro-aggressive effects of alcohol in rats and squirrel-monkeys by benzodiazepine receptor antagonists. Psychopharmacology 111, 144–152 (1993).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Miczek, K. A., Weerts, E. M. & Debold, J. F. Alcohol, benzodiazepine-GABAA receptor complex and aggression: ethological analysis of individual differences in rodents and primates. J. Stud. Alcohol 11 (Suppl. 11), 170–179 (1993).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Higley, J. D. Individual differences in alcohol-induced aggression. A nonhuman-primate model. Alcohol Res. Health 25, 12–19 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. P. Experimental investigation of alcohol-induced aggression in humans. Alcohol Health Res. World 17, 108–112 (1993).
  Google Scholar
• Buss, A. H. The Psychology of Aggression. (Wiley, New York, 1961).
  Book Google Scholar
• Cherek, D. R. Effects of smoking different doses of nicotine on human aggressive-behavior. Psychopharmacology 75, 339–345 (1981).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Graham, K. Theories of intoxicated aggression. Can. J. Behav. Sci. 12, 141–158 (1980).
  Article Google Scholar
• Bushman, B. J. & Cooper, H. M. Effects of alcohol on human aggression: an integrative research review. Psychol. Bull. 107, 341–354 (1990). Performed over 20 years ago, this seminal meta-analysis was among the first to establish that alcohol causes aggressive behaviour in humans.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Chermack, S. T. & Giancola, P. R. The relation between alcohol and aggression: an integrated biopsychosocial conceptualization. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 17, 621–649 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. Executive functioning: a conceptual framework for alcohol-related aggression. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 8, 576–597 (2000). This conceptual paper is one of the first attempts to provide an integrative framework for the role of multiple prefrontal cognitive abilities in alcohol-related aggression. More specifically, the model proposes that alcohol-induced disruption of executive functioning mediates the relationship between alcohol consumption and aggressive behaviour and that individual differences in sober-state executive functioning moderate the strength of this relationship.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ito, T. A., Miller, N. & Pollock, V. E. Alcohol and aggression: a meta-analysis on the moderating effects of inhibitory cues, triggering events, and self-focused attention. Psychol. Bull. 120, 60–82 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Diana, M., Gessa, G. L. & Rossetti, Z. L. Lack of tolerance to ethanol-induced stimulation of mesolimbic dopamine system. Alcohol Alcohol. 27, 329–333 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Puglisiallegra, S., Imperato, A., Angelucci, L. & Cabib, S. Acute stress induces time-dependent responses in dopamine mesolimbic system. Brain Res. 554, 217–222 (1991).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Mathews, T. A., John, C. E., Lapa, G. B., Budygin, E. A. & Jones, S. R. No role of the dopamine transporter in acute ethanol effects on striatal dopamine dynamics. Synapse 60, 288–294 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tsai, G. C., Gastfriend, D. R. & Coyle, J. T. The glutamatergic basis of human alcoholism. Am. J. Psychiatry 152, 332–340 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• DiChiara, G., Acquas, E. & Tanda, G. Ethanol as a neurochemical surrogate of conventional reinforcers: the dopamine-opioid link. Alcohol 13, 13–17 (1996).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Heinz, A., Beck, A., Grusser, S. M., Grace, A. A. & Wrase, J. Identifying the neural circuitry of alcohol craving and relapse vulnerability. Addict. Biol. 14, 108–118 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bradberry, C. W. Dose-dependent effect of ethanol on extracellular dopamine in mesolimbic striatum of awake rhesus monkeys: comparison with cocaine across individuals. Psychopharmacology 165, 67–76 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dazzi, L. et al. Progesterone enhances ethanol-induced modulation of mesocortical dopamine neurons: antagonism by finasteride. J. Neurochem. 83, 1103–1109 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Engleman, E. A., Ingraham, C. M., McBride, W. J., Lumeng, L. & Murphy, J. M. Extracellular dopamine levels are lower in the medial prefrontal cortex of alcohol-preferring rats compared to Wistar rats. Alcohol 38, 5–12 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Miczek, K. A., Covington, H. E., Nikulina, E. A. & Hammer, R. P. Aggression and defeat: persistent effects on cocaine self-administration and gene expression in peptidergic and aminergic mesocorticolimbic circuits. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 27, 787–802 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Nader, M. A. & Czoty, P. W. PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors in monkey models of cocaine abuse: genetic predisposition versus environmental modulation. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 1473–1482 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• de Almeida, R. M. M., Ferrari, P. F., Parmigiani, S. & Miczek, K. A. Escalated aggressive behavior: dopamine, serotonin and GABA. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 526, 51–64 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• McBride, W. J. Central nucleus of the amygdala and the effects of alcohol and alcohol-drinking behavior in rodents. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 71, 509–515 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Yokoyama, M. et al. Amygdalic levels of doparnine and serotonin rise upon exposure to conditioned fear stress without elevation of glutamate. Neurosci. Lett. 379, 37–41 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kienast, T. et al. Dopamine in amygdala gates limbic processing of aversive stimuli in humans. Nature Neurosci. 11, 1381–1382 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kringelbach, M. L. The human orbitofrontal cortex: linking reward to hedonic experience. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 6, 691–702 (2005).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Adolphs, R. The social brain: neural basis of social knowledge. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 693–716 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Peterson, J. B., Rothfleisch, J., Zelazo, P. D. & Pihl, R. O. Acute alcohol-intoxication and cognitive-functioning. J. Stud. Alcohol 51, 114–122 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Easdon, C. M. & Vogel-Sprott, M. Alcohol and behavioral control: impaired response inhibition and flexibility in social drinkers. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 8, 387–394 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Finn, P. R., Justus, A., Mazas, C. & Steinmetz, J. E. Working memory, executive processes and the effects of alcohol on Go/No-Go learning: testing a model of behavioral regulation and impulsivity. Psychopharmacology 146, 465–472 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mulvihill, L. E., Skilling, T. A. & VogelSprott, M. Alcohol and the ability to inhibit behavior in men and women. J. Stud. Alcohol 58, 600–605 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schweizer, T. A. et al. Neuropsychological profile of acute alcohol intoxication during ascending and descending blood alcohol concentrations. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 1301–1309 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schreckenberger, M. et al. Acute alcohol effects on neuronal and attentional processing: striatal reward system and inhibitory sensory interactions under acute ethanol challenge. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1527–1537 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Guillot, C. R., Fanning, J. R., Bullock, J. S., McCloskey, M. S. & Berman, M. E. Effects of alcohol on tests of executive functioning in men and women: a dose response examination. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 18, 409–417 (2010).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Lyvers, M. F. & Maltzman, I. Selective effects of alcohol on wisconsin card sorting test-performance. Br. J. Addict. 86, 399–407 (1991).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ridderinkhof, K. R. et al. Alcohol consumption impairs detection of performance errors in mediofrontal cortex. Science 298, 2209–2211 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hawkins, K. A. & Trobst, K. K. Frontal lobe dysfunction and aggression: conceptual issues and research findings. Aggress. Violent Behav. 5, 147–157 (2000).
  Article Google Scholar
• Barbas, H. Connections underlying the synthesis of cognition, memory, and emotion in primate prefrontal cortices. Brain Res. Bull. 52, 319–330 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Amaral, D. G. & Price, J. L. Amygdalo-cortical projections in the monkey (macaca-fascicularis). J. Comp. Neurol. 230, 465–496 (1984).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ochsner, K. N. & Gross, J. J. The cognitive control of emotion. Trends Cogn. Sci. 9, 242–249 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Birbaumer, N. et al. Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 799–805 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Jones, A. P., Laurens, K. R., Herba, C. M., Barker, G. J. & Viding, E. Amygdala hypoactivity to fearful faces in boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. Am. J. Psychiatry 166, 95–102 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Marsh, A. A. et al. Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 165, 712–720 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Coccaro, E. F., McCloskey, M. S., Fitzgerald, D. A. & Phan, K. L. Amygdala and orbitofrontal reactivity to social threat in individuals with impulsive aggression. Biol. Psychiatry 62, 168–178 (2007). This study used fMRI to show that amygdala responses to social threat cues are increased in individuals exhibiting impulsive aggression, whereas orbitofrontal cortex resonses are reduced, providing evidence for a link between a dysfunctional corticolimbic network and aggressive behaviour.
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Lee, T. M. C., Chan, S. C. & Raine, A. Strong limbic and weak frontal activation to aggressive stimuli in spouse abusers. Mol. Psychiatry 13, 655–656 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sterzer, P., Stadler, C., Krebs, A., Kleinschmidt, A. & Poustka, F. Abnormal neural responses to emotional visual stimuli in adolescents with conduct disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57, 7–15 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Sterzer, P. & Stadler, C. Neuroimaging of aggressive and violent behaviour in children and adolescents. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 3, 35 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M. & Larson, C. L. Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation — a possible prelude to violence. Science 289, 591–594 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Muehlberger, C. W. Medicolegal aspects of alcohol intoxication. Michigan State Bar J. 35, 38–42 (1956).
  Google Scholar
• Chiavegatto, S., Quadros, I. M. H., Ambar, G. & Miczek, K. A. Individual vulnerability to escalated aggressive behavior by a low dose of alcohol: decreased serotonin receptor mRNA in the prefrontal cortex of male mice. Genes Brain Behav. 9, 110–119 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. et al. Men and women, alcohol and aggression. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 17, 154–164 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. & Zeichner, A. An investigation of gender differences in alcohol-related aggression. J. Stud. Alcohol 56, 573–579 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. Executive functioning and alcohol-related aggression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 113, 541–555 (2004).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Parrott, D. J. & Zeichner, A. Effects of alcohol and trait anger on physical aggression in men. J. Stud. Alcohol 63, 196–204 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Cheong, J. & Nagoshi, C. T. Effects of sensation seeking, instruction set, and alcohol/placebo administration on aggressive behavior. Alcohol 17, 81–86 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. Difficult temperament, acute alcohol intoxication, and aggressive behavior. Drug Alcohol Depend. 74, 135–145 (2004).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Parrott, D. J. & Giancola, P. R. A further examination of the relation between trait anger and alcohol-related aggression: the role of anger control. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 28, 855–864 (2004).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Godlaski, A. J. & Giancola, P. R. Executive functioning, irritability, and alcohol-related aggression. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 23, 391–403 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. The moderating effects of dispositional empathy on alcohol-related aggression in men and women. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 112, 275–281 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Mihic, L., Wells, S., Graham, K., Tremblay, P. F. & Demers, A. Situational and respondent-level motives for drinking and alcohol-related aggression: a multilevel analysis of drinking events in a sample of Canadian University students. Addict. Behav. 34, 264–269 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Levinson, C. A. & Giancola, P. R. Beliefs about aggression moderate alcohol's effects on aggression. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 19, 64–74 (2011).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Chermack, S. T. & Taylor, S. P. Alcohol and human physical aggression — pharmacological, versus expectancy effects. J. Stud. Alcohol 56, 449–456 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rohsenow, D. J. & Bachorowski, J. A. Effects of alcohol and expectancies on verbal aggression in men and women. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 93, 418–432 (1984).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. et al. The effects of alcohol and provocation on aggressive behavior in men and women. J. Stud. Alcohol 63, 64–73 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. P., Schmutte, G. T., Leonard, K. E. & Cranston, J. W. The effects of alcohol and extreme provocation on the use of a highly noxious electric shock. Motiv. Emot. 3, 73–81 (1979).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. P., Gammon, C. B. & Capasso, D. R. Aggression as a function of interaction of alcohol and threat. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 34, 938–941 (1976).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. P. & Sears, J. D. The effects of alcohol and persuasive social pressure on human physical aggression. Aggress. Behav. 14, 237–243 (1988).
  Article Google Scholar
• Wells, S. & Graham, K. Aggression involving alcohol: relationship to drinking patterns and social context. Addiction 98, 33–42 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Salomon, R. M., Mazure, C. M., Delgado, P. L., Mendia, P. & Charney, D. S. Serotonin function in aggression — the effect of acute plasma tryptophan depletion in aggressive patients. Biol. Psychiatry 35, 570–572 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dougherty, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Bjork, J. M. & Marsh, D. M. Plasma L-tryptophan depletion and aggression. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 467, 57–65 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Delgado, P. L. et al. Serotonin and the neurobiology of depression — effects of tryptophan depletion in drug-free depressed-patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51, 865–874 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cloninger, C. R. Neurogenetic adaptive-mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 236, 410–416 (1987).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bohman, M., Cloninger, R., Sigvardsson, S. & Vonknorring, A. L. The genetics of alcoholisms and related disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 21, 447–452 (1987).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cosgrove, K. P. et al. Dopamine and serotonin transporter availability during acute alcohol withdrawal: effects of comorbid tobacco smoking. Neuropsychopharmacology 34, 2218–2226 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. A relationship between serotonin transporter genotype and in vivo protein expression and alcohol neurotoxicity. Biol. Psychiatry 47, 643–649 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Clarke, H. F., Dalley, J. W., Crofts, H. S., Robbins, T. W. & Roberts, A. C. Cognitive inflexibility after prefrontal serotonin depletion. Science 304, 878–880 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Chamberlain, S. R. et al. Neurochemical modulation of response inhibition and probabilistic learning in humans. Science 311, 861–863 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• George, D. T. et al. Fluoxetine treatment of alcoholic perpetrators of domestic violence: a 12-week, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled intervention study. J. Clin. Psychiatry 72, 60–65 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dalley, J. W. et al. Nucleus Accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 315, 1267–1270 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• van Erp, A. M. M. & Miczek, K. A. Increased accumbal dopamine during daily alcohol consumption and subsequent aggressive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology 191, 679–688 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• van Erp, A. M. M. & Miczek, K. A. Aggressive behavior, increased accumbal dopamine, and decreased cortical serotonin in rats. J. Neurosci. 20, 9320–9325 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Takahashi, A., Shimamoto, A., Boyson, C. O., Debold, J. F. & Miczek, K. A. GABA(B) receptor modulation of serotonin neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus and escalation of aggression in mice. J. Neurosci. 30, 11771–11780 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Faccidomo, S., Bannai, M. & Miczek, K. A. Escalated aggression after alcohol drinking in male mice: dorsal raphe and prefrontal cortex serotonin and 5-HT1B receptors. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 2888–2899 (2008). A landmark paper that describes a blunted prefrontal serotonin release following 5-HT 1B receptor stimulation in rodents with alcohol-heightened aggression.
• Fish, E. W., McKenzie-Quirk, S. D., Bannai, M. & Miczek, K. A. 5-HT1B receptor inhibition of alcohol-heightened aggression in mice: comparison to drinking and running. Psychopharmacology 197, 145–156 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fink, K. B. & Gothert, M. 5-HT receptor regulation of neurotransmitter release. Pharmacol. Rev. 59, 360–417 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cai, X., Flores-Hernandez, J., Feng, J. & Yan, Z. Activity-dependent bidirectional regulation of GABA(A) receptor channels by the 5-HT4 receptor-mediated signalling in rat prefrontal cortical pyramidal neurons. J. Physiol. 540, 743–759 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Clarke, A. S. et al. Rearing experience and biogenic amine activity in infant rhesus monkeys. Biol. Psychiatry 40, 338–352 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jones, G. H., Hernandez, T. D., Kendall, D. A., Marsden, C. A. & Robbins, T. W. Dopaminergic and serotonergic function following isolation rearing in rats: study of behavioral responses and postmortem and in vivo neurochemistry. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 43, 17–35 (1992).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J. & Linnoila, M. A nonhuman primate model of type II excessive alcohol consumption? Part 1. Low cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentrations and diminished social competence correlate with excessive alcohol consumption. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 629–642 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J. & Linnoila, M. A nonhuman primate model of type II alcoholism? Part 2. Diminished social competence and excessive aggression correlates with low cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentrations. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 643–650 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Barr, C. S. et al. Interaction between serotonin transporter gene variation and rearing condition in alcohol preference and consumption in female primates. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 1146–1152 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. In vivo association between alcohol intoxication, aggression, and serotonin transporter availability in nonhuman primates. Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 1023–1028 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lesch, K. P. et al. Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science 274, 1527–1531 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bennett, A. J. et al. Early experience and serotonin transporter gene variation interact to influence primate CNS function. Mol. Psychiatry 7, 118–122 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. Depletion and restoration of endogenous monoamines affects beta-CIT binding to serotonin but not dopamine transporters in non-human primates. J. Neural Transm. 29–38 (2004).
• Ichise, M. et al. Effects of early life stress on [C-11] DASB positron emission tomography imaging of serotonin transporters in adolescent peer- and mother-reared rhesus monkeys. J. Neurosci. 26, 4638–4643 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Hummerich, R. et al. DASB - in vitro binding characteristics on human recombinant monoamine transporters with regard to its potential as positron emission tomography (PET) tracer. J. Neurochem. 90, 1218–1226 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Doudet, D. et al. Cerebral glucose-metabolism, Csf 5-hiaa levels, and aggressive behavior in rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Psychiatry 152, 1782–1787 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A., Mann, K., Weinberger, D. R. & Goldman, D. Serotonergic dysfunction, negative mood states, and response to alcohol. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 25, 487–495 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schuckit, M. A. Low level of response to alcohol as a predictor of future alcoholism. Am. J. Psychiatry 151, 184–189 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hinckers, A. S. et al. Low level of response to alcohol as associated with serotonin transporter genotype and high alcohol intake in adolescents. Biol. Psychiatry 60, 282–287 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. Serotonin transporter availability correlates with alcohol intake in non-human primates. Mol. Psychiatry 8, 231–234 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Johnson, E. O., vandenBree, M. B. M. & Pickens, R. W. Subtypes of alcohol-dependent men: A typology based on relative genetic and environmental loading. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 1472–1480 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J. & Linnoila, M. Csf monoamine metabolite concentrations vary according to age, rearing, and sex, and are influenced by the stressor of social separation in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology 103, 551–556 (1991).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Higley, J. D. et al. Paternal and maternal genetic and environmental contributions to cerebrospinal-fluid monoamine metabolites in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50, 615–623 (1993).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Oxenstierna, G. et al. Concentrations of monoamine metabolites in the cerebrospinal-fluid of twins and unrelated individuals — a genetic-study. J. Psychiatric Res. 20, 19–29 (1986).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Virkkunen, M. et al. Personality profiles and state aggressiveness in finnish alcoholic, violent offenders, fire setters, and healthy volunteers. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51, 28–33 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bohman, M., Cloninger, C. R., Sigvardsson, S. & Vonknorring, A. L. Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees. I. Genetic and environmental heterogeneity. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 39, 1233–1241 (1982).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Carey, G. Aggression and Violence: Genetic, Neurobiological, and Biosocial Perspectives. (eds Stoff, D. M. & Cairns, R. B.) 3–21 (Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 1996).
  Google Scholar
• Gray, J. A. The neuropsychology of Anxiety. An Inquiry into the Function of the Septo-hippocampal System. (Oxford University Press, New York, 1982).
  Google Scholar
• Mann, J. J. et al. Attempted suicide characteristics and cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites in depressed inpatients. Neuropsychopharmacology 15, 576–586 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kruesi, M. J. P. et al. Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites, aggression, and impulsivity in disruptive behavior disorders of children and adolescents. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 47, 419–426 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Linnoila, M. et al. Low Cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration differentiates impulsive from nonimpulsive violent behavior. Life Sciences 33, 2609–2614 (1983).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X. O., Ropers, H. H. & Vanoost, B. A. Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science 262, 578–580 (1993).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Saraceno, L., Munafo, M., Heron, J., Craddock, N. & van den Bree, M. B. M. Genetic and non-genetic influences on the development of co-occurring alcohol problem use and internalizing symptomatology in adolescence: a review. Addiction 104, 1100–1121 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Lu, R. B., Lin, W. W., Lee, J. F., Ko, H. C. & Shih, J. C. Neither antisocial personality disorder nor antisocial alcoholism is associated with the MAO-A gene in Han Chinese males. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 27, 889–893 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sabol, S. Z., Hu, S. & Hamer, D. A functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene promoter. Hum. Genet. 103, 273–279 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Raine, A. From genes to brain to antisocial behavior. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 17, 323–328 (2008).
  Article Google Scholar
• Eisenberger, N. I., Way, B. M., Taylor, S. E., Welch, W. T. & Lieberman, M. D. Understanding genetic risk for aggression: clues from the brain's response to social exclusion. Biol. Psychiatry 61, 1100–1108 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Meyer-Lindenberg, A. et al. Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 6269–6274 (2006). This study investigated the effect of the MAOA genetic polymorphism on brain structure and functions, and found differences in limbic circuitry for emotion regulation and cognitive control that may be involved in the association of MAOA with impulsive aggression.
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Buckholtz, J. W. et al. Genetic variation in MAOA modulates ventromedial prefrontal circuitry mediating individual differences in human personality. Mol. Psychiatry 13, 313–324 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Caspi, A. et al. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297, 851–854 (2002). A landmark study providing evidence for a gene–environment interaction in humans that is linked to violence in the MAOA VNTR genetic polymorphism.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kim-Cohen, J. et al. MAOA, maltreatment, and gene–environment interaction predicting children's mental health: new evidence and a meta-analysis. Mol. Psychiatry 11, 903–913 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Reif, A. et al. Nature and nurture predispose to violent behavior: serotonergic genes and adverse childhood environment. Neuropsychopharmacology 32, 2375–2383 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pezawas, L. et al. 5-HTTLPR polymorphism impacts human cingulate-amygdala interactions: a genetic susceptibility mechanism for depression. Nature Neurosci. 8, 828–834 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. Amygdala-prefrontal coupling depends on a genetic variation of the serotonin transporter. Nature Neurosci. 8, 20–21 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schwandt, M. L. et al. Gene–environment interactions and response to social intrusion in male and female rhesus macaques. Biol. Psychiatry 67, 323–330 (2010). A non-human primate study showing a genotype–environment interaction. Increased aggressiveness was found in male rhesus monkeys that were exposed to early social adversity and carry a serotonin transporter loss-of-function allele ( 5-HTTLPR S allele).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Freedman, N. M. T. et al. In vivo measurement of brain monoamine oxidase B occupancy by rasagiline, using C-11-L-deprenyl and PET. J. Nucl. Med. 46, 1618–1624 (2005).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bevilacqua, L. et al. A population-specific HTR2B stop codon predisposes to severe impulsivity. Nature 468, 1061–1066 (2010). This study shows that in rodents, knockout of the 5-HT 2B gene is associated with increased impulsivity. In humans, a 5-HT 2B stop codon was associated with high impulsivity in Finnish violent offenders who mainly acted out when alcohol-intoxicated.
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Schuckit, M. A. et al. Selective genotyping for the role of 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C, and GABA(alpha 6) receptors and the serotonin transporter in the level of response to alcohol: a pilot study. Biol. Psychiatry 45, 647–651 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Moeller, F. G., Barratt, E. S., Dougherty, D. M., Schmitz, J. M. & Swann, A. C. Psychiatric aspects of impulsivity. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 1783–1793 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bechara, A. Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nature Neurosci. 8, 1458–1463 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rubio, G. et al. The role of behavioral impulsivity in the development of alcohol dependence: a 4-year follow-up study. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res., 32, 1681–1687 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Dom, G., D'Haene, P., Hulstijn, W. & Sabbe, B. Impulsivity in abstinent early- and late-onset alcoholics: differences in self-report measures and a discounting task. Addiction 101, 50–59 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lejoyeux, M., Feuche, N., Loi, S., Solomon, J. & Ades, J. Impulse-control disorders in alcoholics are related to sensation seeking and not to impulsivity. Psychiatry Res. 81, 149–155 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Volkow, N. D. et al. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 1594–1598 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. Psychopathological and behavioral correlates of dopaminergic sensitivity in alcohol-dependent patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53, 1123–1128 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. Correlation between dopamine D(2) receptors in the ventral striatum and central processing of alcohol cues and craving. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 1783–1789 (2004).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Rommelspacher, H., Raeder, C., Kaulen, P. & Bruning, G. Adaptive changes of dopamine-D(2) receptors in rat brain following ethanol withdrawal: a quantitative autoradiographic investigation. Alcohol 9, 355–362 (1992).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Beck, A. et al. Ventral striatal activation during reward anticipation correlates with impulsivity in alcoholics. Biol. Psychiatry 66, 734–742 (2009). This study in human patients with alcohol dependence and healthy controls shows that neuronal activation elicited by reward anticipation in the ventral striatum is blunted in detoxified patients. Low ventral striatal activation was associated with increased impulsivity in both patients and controls.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hariri, A. R. et al. Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity. J. Neurosci. 26, 13213–13217 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Corte, C. M. & Sommers, M. S. Alcohol and risky behaviors. Annu. Rev. Nurs. Res. 23, 327–360 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Park, S. Q. et al. Prefrontal cortex fails to learn. from reward prediction errors in alcohol dependence. J. Neurosci. 30, 7749–7753 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Edwards, D. W., Scott, C. L., Yarvis, R. M., Paizis, C. L. & Panizzon, M. S. Impulsiveness, impulsive aggression, personality disorder, and spousal violence. Violence Vict. 18, 3–14 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• McCloskey, M. S., Lee, R., Berman, M. E., Noblett, K. L. & Coccaro, E. F. The relationship between impulsive verbal aggression and intermittent explosive disorder. Aggress. Behav. 34, 51–60 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Barratt, E. S. Impulsivity, behavioral dyscontrol, and conscious awareness. Behav. Mot. Contr. Psychiatr. Disord. S04, 217 (1982).
  Google Scholar
• Dougherty, D. M., Marsh-Richard, D. M., Hatzis, E. S., Nouvion, S. O. & Mathias, C. W. A test of alcohol dose effects on multiple behavioral measures of impulsivity. Drug Alcohol Depend. 96, 111–120 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Marczinski, C. A., Combs, S. W. & Fillmore, M. T. Increased sensitivity to the disinhibiting effects of alcohol in binge drinkers. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 21, 346–354 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Higley, J. D. & Linnoila, M. Low central nervous system serotonergic activity is traitlike and correlates with impulsive behavior. A nonhuman primate model investigating genetic and environmental influences on neurotransmission. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 836, 39–56 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lemarquand, D., Pihl, R. O. & Benkelfat, C. Serotonin and alcohol intake, abuse, and dependence: findings of animal studies. Biol. Psychiatry 36, 395–421 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. & Moselhy, H. F. Executive cognitive functioning in alcohol use disorders. Recent Dev. Alcohol. 14, 227–251 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Loeber, S. et al. Effects of repeated withdrawal from alcohol on recovery of cognitive impairment under abstinence and rate of relapse. Alcohol Alcohol. 45, 541–547 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ratti, M. T., Bo, P., Giardini, A. & Soragna, D. Chronic alcoholism and the frontal lobe: which executive functions are impaired? Acta Neurol. Scand. 105, 276–281 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sullivan, E. V., Rosenbloom, M. J. & Pfefferbaum, A. Pattern of motor and cognitive deficits in detoxified alcoholic men. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 24, 611–621 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Moselhy, H. F., Georgiou, G. & Kahn, A. Frontal lobe changes in alcoholism: a review of the literature. Alcohol Alcohol. 36, 357–368 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Siever, L. J. et al. d,l-fenfluramine response in impulsive personality disorder assessed with [F-18]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Neuropsychopharmacology 20, 413–423 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Raine, A. et al. Reduced prefrontal and increased subcortical brain functioning assessed using positron emission tomography in predatory and affective murderers. Behav. Sci. Law 16, 319–332 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Heinz, A. et al. Reduced central serotonin transporters in alcoholism. Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 1544–1549 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Anderson, G. M. et al. Time course of the effects of the serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitor sertraline on central and peripheral serotonin neurochemistry in the rhesus monkey. Psychopharmacology 178, 339–346 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Knutson, B. et al. Selective alteration of personality and social behavior by serotonergic intervention. Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 373–379 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Knutson, B., Panksepp, J. & Pruitt, D. Effects of fluoxetine on play dominance in juvenile rats. Aggress. Behav. 22, 297–307 (1996).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Raleigh, M. A. & McGuire, M. T. Kynurenine and Serotonin Pathways. Progress in Tryptophan Research. (eds Schwarcz, R., Young, S. N. & Brown, R. R.) 289–298 (Plenum Press, New York, london, 1991).
  Book Google Scholar
• Knutson, B., Panksepp, J., Narayanana, T. K. & Rossi, J. Early central serotonin damage increases “anxious” behaviors in juvenile rats. Soc. Neurosci. 22, 446 (1996).
  Google Scholar
• Phillips, J. P. & Giancola, P. R. Experimentally induced anxiety attenuates alcohol-related aggression in men. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16, 43–56 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Petty, F., Kramer, G., Wilson, L. & Jordan, S. In vivo serotonin release and learned helplessness. Psychiatry Res. 52, 285–293 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Glenn, A. L. & Raine, A. The neurobiology of psychopathy. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 31, 463–475 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Luria, A. Higher Cortical functions in Man. (Basic Books, New York, 1980).
  Book Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. The underlying role of aggressivity in the relation between executive functioning and alcohol consumption. Addict. Behav. 32, 765–783 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Morgan, A. B. & Lilienfeld, S. O. A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 20, 113–136 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• MacAndrews, C. & Edgerton, R. Drunken Comportment. (Aldine, Chicago. 1969).
  Google Scholar
• Goldman, M. S., Darkes, J. & Del Boca, F. K. How Expectancies Shape Experience. (ed. Kirch, L.) 233–262 (American Psychological Association, Washington D.C., 1999).
  Book Google Scholar
• Goldman, M. S., Del Boca, F. K. & Darkes, J. Psychological Theories Of Drinking And Alcoholism. (eds Leonard, K. E. & Blane, H. T.) 203–246 (Guilford Press, New York, 1999).
  Google Scholar
• Jones, B. T., Corbin, W. & Fromme, K. A review of expectancy theory and alcohol consumption. Addiction 96, 57–72 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zucker, R. A., Kincaid, S. B., Fitzgerald, H. E. & Bingham, C. R. Alcohol schema acquisition in preschoolers: differences between children of alcoholics and children of nonalcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 19, 1011–1017 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Social Learning Theory. (Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1977).
  Google Scholar
• Maisto, S. A., Carey, K. B. & Bradizza, C. M. Psychological Theories of Drinking and Alcoholism. (eds Leonard, K. E. & Blane, H. T.) 106–163 (Guilford Press, New York, 1999).
  Google Scholar
• Leigh, B. C. & Stacy, A. W. Individual differences in memory associations involving the positive and negative outcomes of alcohol use. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 12, 39–46 (1998).
  Article Google Scholar
• Tiffany, S. T. A Cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: role of automatic and nonautomatic processes. Psychol. Rev. 97, 147–168 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bartholow, B. D. & Heinz, A. Alcohol and aggression without consumption. Alcohol cues, aggressive thoughts, and hostile perception bias. Psychol. Sci. 17, 30–37 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Buckholtz, J. W. & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. Trends Neurosci. 31, 120–129 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M. & Josephs, R. A. Alcohol myopia. Its prized and dangerous effects. Am. Psychol. 45, 921–933 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M. & Southwick, L. Alcohol and social behavior I: The psychology of drunken excess. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 48, 18–34 (1985).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Giancola, P. R. & Corman, M. D. Alcohol and aggression: a test of the attention-allocation model. Psychol. Sci. 18, 649–655 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Nasby, W., Hayden, B. & Depaulo, B. M. Attributional bias among aggressive boys to interpret unambiguous social-stimuli as displays of hostility. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 89, 459–468 (1980).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hull, J. G. A self-awareness model of the causes and effects of alcohol-consumption. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 90, 586–600 (1981).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sayette, M. A., Wilson, G. T. & Elias, M. J. Alcohol and aggression: a social information-processing analysis. J. Stud. Alcohol 54, 399–407 (1993).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pihl, R. O., Peterson, J. B. & Lau, M. A. A biosocial model of the alcohol-aggression relationship. J. Stud. Alcohol Suppl. 11, 28–139 (1993).
  Google Scholar
• Hoaken, P. N. S., Campbell, T., Stewart, S. H. & Pihl, R. O. Effects of alcohol on cardiovascular reactivity and the mediation of aggressive behaviour in adult men and women. Alcohol Alcohol. 38, 84–92 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Lange, J. E. Alcohol's effect on aggression identification: a two-channel theory. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 16, 47–55 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Wiers, R. W., Beckers, L., Houben, K. & Hofmann, W. A short fuse after alcohol: implicit power associations predict aggressiveness after alcohol consumption in young heavy drinkers with limited executive control. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 93, 300–305 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Deutsch, R. & Strack, F. Handbook on Implicit Cognition and Addiction. (eds Wiers, R. W. and Stacy, A. W.) 45–57 (Sage publishers, California, 2006).
  Book Google Scholar