Bhatia, S. N. & Ingber, D. E. Microfluidic organs-on-chips. Nat. Biotechnol.32, 760–772 (2014). Google Scholar
Low, L. A., Mummery, C., Berridge, B. R., Austin, C. P. & Tagle, D. A. Organs-on-chips: into the next decade. Nat. Rev. Drug. Discov.20, 345–361 (2021). Google Scholar
Manz, A., Graber, N. & Widmer, H. M. Miniaturized total chemical analysis systems: a novel concept for chemical sensing. Sens. Actuator B Chem.1, 244–248 (1990). This pioneering paper introduces the concept of micro total analysis systems integrated into microfluidic chips, which led, in turn, to the introduction of OoCs and integrated read-out systems. Google Scholar
Harrison, D. J., Manz, A., Fan, Z. H., Ludi, H. & Widmer, H. M. Capillary electrophoresis and sample injection systems integrated on a planar glass chip. Anal. Chem.64, 1926–1932 (1992). Google Scholar
Whitesides, G. M. The origins and the future of microfluidics. Nature442, 368–373 (2006). ADS Google Scholar
Sahlgren, C. et al. Tailored approaches in drug development and diagnostics: from molecular design to biological model systems. Adv. Healthc. Mater.6, 1700258 (2017). Google Scholar
Jackson, E. L. & Lu, H. Three-dimensional models for studying development and disease: moving on from organisms to organs-on-a-chip and organoids. Integr. Biol.8, 672–683 (2016). Google Scholar
Sin, A., Baxter, G. & Shuler, M. Animal on a Chip: A Microscale Cell Culture Analog Device for Evaluating Toxicological and Pharmacological Profiles Vol. 4560 PWM (SPIE, 2001).
Sin, A. et al. The design and fabrication of three-chamber microscale cell culture analog devices with integrated dissolved oxygen sensors. Biotechnol. Prog.20, 338–345 (2004). This paper is the first to provide a detailed description of the construction of a multi-OoC system based on a physiologically based PK model. Google Scholar
Huh, D. et al. Reconstituting organ-level lung functions on a chip. Science328, 1662–1668 (2010). This paper is one of the pioneering works on lung OoC, which demonstrates a functional alveolar–capillary interface that is responsive to pathogen infection. ADS Google Scholar
Ronaldson-Bouchard, K. & Vunjak-Novakovic, G. Organs-on-a-chip: a fast track for engineered human tissues in drug development. Cell Stem Cell22, 310–324 (2018). Google Scholar
Jang, K.-J. & Suh, K.-Y. A multi-layer microfluidic device for efficient culture and analysis of renal tubular cells. Lab Chip10, 36–42 (2010). Google Scholar
Kim, H. J., Huh, D., Hamilton, G. & Ingber, D. E. Human gut-on-a-chip inhabited by microbial flora that experiences intestinal peristalsis-like motions and flow. Lab Chip12, 2165–2174 (2012). This work is one of the first gut OoC papers showing that physical stretching of the cell culture substrate and fluid perfusion can enhance the differentiation of Caco-2 cells into an intestinal epithelium with physiological architectures and functions. Google Scholar
Bokhari, M., Carnachan, R. J., Cameron, N. R. & Przyborski, S. A. Culture of HepG2 liver cells on three dimensional polystyrene scaffolds enhances cell structure and function during toxicological challenge. J. Anat.211, 567–576 (2007). Google Scholar
Shahin-Shamsabadi, A. & Selvaganapathy, P. R. A 3D self-assembled in vitro model to simulate direct and indirect interactions between adipocytes and skeletal muscle cells. Adv. Biosyst.4, 2000034 (2020). Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Wang, L., Guo, Y., Zhu, Y. & Qin, J. Engineering stem cell-derived 3D brain organoids in a perfusable organ-on-a-chip system. RSC Adv.8, 1677–1685 (2018). ADS Google Scholar
Lee, S.-R. et al. Modeling neural circuit, blood–brain barrier, and myelination on a microfluidic 96 well plate. Biofabrication11, 035013 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Jang, J. M., Lee, J., Kim, H., Jeon, N. L. & Jung, W. One-photon and two-photon stimulation of neurons in a microfluidic culture system. Lab Chip16, 1684–1690 (2016). Google Scholar
Park, S. M. et al. Reconstruction of in vivo-like in vitro model: enabling technologies of microfluidic systems for dynamic biochemical/mechanical stimuli. Microelectron. Eng.203–204, 6–24 (2019). Google Scholar
Herzog, N., Katzenberger, N., Martin, F., Schmidtke, K. U. & Küpper, J.-H. Generation of cytochrome P450 3A4-overexpressing HepG2 cell clones for standardization of hepatocellular testosterone 6β-hydroxylation activity. J. Cell. Biotechnol.1, 15–26 (2015). Google Scholar
Moysidou, C.-M., Barberio, C. & Owens, R. M. Advances in engineering human tissue models. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol.8, 620962 (2021). Google Scholar
Gallagher, L. B. et al. Pre-culture of mesenchymal stem cells within RGD-modified hyaluronic acid hydrogel improves their resilience to ischaemic conditions. Acta Biomater.107, 78–90 (2020). Google Scholar
Ramme, A. P. et al. Autologous induced pluripotent stem cell-derived four-organ-chip. Future Sci. OA5, FSO413 (2019). Google Scholar
Sances, S. et al. Human iPSC-derived endothelial cells and microengineered organ-chip enhance neuronal development. Stem Cell Rep.10, 1222–1236 (2018). Google Scholar
Rowe, R. G. & Daley, G. Q. Induced pluripotent stem cells in disease modelling and drug discovery. Nat. Rev. Genet.20, 377–388 (2019). Google Scholar
Ronaldson-Bouchard K., et al. Inter-organ chips with matured tissue niches linked by vascular perfusion. Nat. Biomed. Eng. (in the press). This paper reports a multi-tissue chip system in which matured human tissues are linked by recirculating vascular flow, allowing for the maintenance of their phenotypes, communication across endothelial barriers and recapitulation of interdependent organ functions.
Duffy, D. C., McDonald, J. C., Schueller, O. J. A. & Whitesides, G. M. Rapid prototyping of microfluidic systems in poly(dimethylsiloxane). Anal. Chem.70, 4974–4984 (1998). Google Scholar
Xia, Y. & Whitesides, G. M. Soft lithography. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci.28, 153–184 (1998). ADS Google Scholar
Reyes, D. R., Iossifidis, D., Auroux, P.-A. & Manz, A. Micro total analysis systems. 1. Introduction, theory, and technology. Anal. Chem.74, 2623–2636 (2002). Google Scholar
Verpoorte, E. M. J. et al. Three-dimensional micro flow manifolds for miniaturized chemical analysis systems. J. Micromech. Microeng.4, 246–256 (1994). ADS Google Scholar
Dittrich, P. S. & Manz, A. Lab-on-a-chip: microfluidics in drug discovery. Nat. Rev. Drug. Discov.5, 210–218 (2006). Google Scholar
Meyvantsson, I. & Beebe, D. J. Cell culture models in microfluidic systems. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem.1, 423–449 (2008). Google Scholar
Kim, L., Toh, Y.-C., Voldman, J. & Yu, H. A practical guide to microfluidic perfusion culture of adherent mammalian cells. Lab Chip7, 681–694 (2007). This paper offers practical help for setting up a microfluidic perfusion cell culture system, such as dealing with bubbles, proper control of temperature and gas equilibration in media. Google Scholar
Sung, J. H. et al. Recent advances in body-on-a-chip systems. Anal. Chem.91, 330–351 (2019). Google Scholar
Allwardt, V. et al. Translational roadmap for the organs-on-a-chip industry toward broad adoption. Bioengineering7, 112 (2020). Google Scholar
Abaci, H. E. & Shuler, M. L. Human-on-a-chip design strategies and principles for physiologically based pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics modeling. Integr. Biol.7, 383–391 (2015). Google Scholar
Zhang, Y. S. et al. Multisensor-integrated organs-on-chips platform for automated and continual in situ monitoring of organoid behaviors. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA114, E2293–E2302 (2017). Google Scholar
Frey, O., Misun, P. M., Fluri, D. A., Hengstler, J. G. & Hierlemann, A. Reconfigurable microfluidic hanging drop network for multi-tissue interaction and analysis. Nat. Commun.5, 4250 (2014). This paper introduces interconnected hanging drops and unifies spheroid aggregation of different organ types and their cross-communication in a parallel format. ADS Google Scholar
Santbergen, M. J. C., van der Zande, M., Bouwmeester, H. & Nielen, M. W. F. Online and in situ analysis of organs-on-a-chip. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem.115, 138–146 (2019). Google Scholar
Misun, P. M., Rothe, J., Schmid, Y. R. F., Hierlemann, A. & Frey, O. Multi-analyte biosensor interface for real-time monitoring of 3D microtissue spheroids in hanging-drop networks. Microsyst. Nanoeng.2, 16022 (2016). Google Scholar
Hargrove-Grimes, P., Low, L. A. & Tagle, D. A. Microphysiological systems: stakeholder challenges to adoption in drug development. Cell Tissues Organs211, 69–81 (2022). Google Scholar
FDA-NIH Biomarker Working Group. BEST (Biomarkers, EndpointS, and other Tools) Resource (US Food and Drug Administration & National Institutes of Health, 2016).
Zhang, B. & Radisic, M. Organ-on-a-chip devices advance to market. Lab Chip17, 2395–2420 (2017). This review discusses the commercialization trajectory of OoC technologies into the drug discovery market. Google Scholar
Verpoorte, E. et al. in 2015 Transducers — 2015 18th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS) 224–227 (IEEE, 2015).
Shin, J. et al. Monolithic digital patterning of polydimethylsiloxane with successive laser pyrolysis. Nat. Mater.20, 100–107 (2021). This study describes a novel laser-based fabrication technique for PDMS devices; a high-resolution technique suitable for rapid prototyping and production of a small series of devices (10–100 devices), while also being a good alternative to replication moulding. ADS Google Scholar
Toepke, M. W. & Beebe, D. J. PDMS absorption of small molecules and consequences in microfluidic applications. Lab Chip6, 1484–1486 (2006). Google Scholar
Wang, J. D., Douville, N. J., Takayama, S. & ElSayed, M. Quantitative analysis of molecular absorption into PDMS microfluidic channels. Ann. Biomed. Eng.40, 1862–1873 (2012). Google Scholar
Ko, J. et al. Tumor spheroid-on-a-chip: a standardized microfluidic culture platform for investigating tumor angiogenesis. Lab Chip19, 2822–2833 (2019). Google Scholar
Lee, Y. et al. Microfluidics within a well: an injection-molded plastic array 3D culture platform. Lab Chip18, 2433–2440 (2018). This paper presents the basis for high-throughput microfluidic organ-on-a-chip design that is amenable for 3D co-cultures. Furthermore, the device designs described here are compatible with 3D printing and injection moulding such that they offer an alternative to traditional PDMS-based chips. Google Scholar
Homan, K. A. et al. Flow-enhanced vascularization and maturation of kidney organoids in vitro. Nat. Methods16, 255–262 (2019). Google Scholar
Berthier, E., Young, E. W. K. & Beebe, D. Engineers are from PDMS-land, biologists are from Polystyrenia. Lab Chip12, 1224–1237 (2012). This paper highlights how differences in the inherent material properties of PS and PDMS can lead to disparity between conventional and microfluidic cell cultures. Google Scholar
Jensen, C. & Teng, Y. Is it time to start transitioning from 2D to 3D cell culture? Front. Mol. Biosci.7, 33 (2020). Google Scholar
Kim, H. J., Li, H., Collins, J. J. & Ingber, D. E. Contributions of microbiome and mechanical deformation to intestinal bacterial overgrowth and inflammation in a human gut-on-a-chip. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA113, E7–E15 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Maoz, B. M. et al. A linked organ-on-chip model of the human neurovascular unit reveals the metabolic coupling of endothelial and neuronal cells. Nat. Biotechnol.36, 865–874 (2018). Google Scholar
Brown, J. A. et al. Recreating blood–brain barrier physiology and structure on chip: a novel neurovascular microfluidic bioreactor. Biomicrofluidics9, 054124 (2015). Google Scholar
Ahn, S. I. et al. Microengineered human blood–brain barrier platform for understanding nanoparticle transport mechanisms. Nat. Commun.11, 175 (2020). ADS Google Scholar
Esch, M. B. et al. On chip porous polymer membranes for integration of gastrointestinal tract epithelium with microfluidic ‘body-on-a-chip’ devices. Biomed. Microdevices14, 895–906 (2012). Google Scholar
Wang, Y. et al. Capture and 3D culture of colonic crypts and colonoids in a microarray platform. Lab Chip13, 4625–4634 (2013). Google Scholar
Uemura, M. et al. Matrigel supports survival and neuronal differentiation of grafted embryonic stem cell-derived neural precursor cells. J. Neurosci. Res.88, 542–551 (2010). Google Scholar
Afshar Bakooshli, M. et al. A 3D culture model of innervated human skeletal muscle enables studies of the adult neuromuscular junction. eLife8, e44530 (2019). Google Scholar
Horowitz, L. F., Rodriguez, A. D., Ray, T. & Folch, A. Microfluidics for interrogating live intact tissues. Microsyst. Nanoeng.6, 69 (2020). This article is a reference for readers interested in the integration of live intact tissue slices into a microfluidic system. ADS Google Scholar
Shi, Y., Inoue, H., Wu, J. C. & Yamanaka, S. Induced pluripotent stem cell technology: a decade of progress. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov.16, 115–130 (2017). Google Scholar
van den Berg, A., Mummery, C. L., Passier, R. & van der Meer, A. D. Personalised organs-on-chips: functional testing for precision medicine. Lab Chip19, 198–205 (2019). Google Scholar
Diederichs, S. & Tuan, R. S. Functional comparison of human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal cells and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells from the same donor. Stem Cell Dev.23, 1594–1610 (2014). Google Scholar
Verma, A., Verma, M. & Singh, A. in Animal Biotechnology 2nd edn (eds Verma, A. S. & Singh, A.) 269–293 (Academic, 2020).
Yeste, J., Illa, X., Alvarez, M. & Villa, R. Engineering and monitoring cellular barrier models. J. Biol. Eng.12, 18 (2018). Google Scholar
Yang, F., Cohen, R. N. & Brey, E. M. Optimization of co-culture conditions for a human vascularized adipose tissue model. Bioengineering7, 114 (2020). Google Scholar
Chang, S.-Y. et al. Human liver–kidney model elucidates the mechanisms of aristolochic acid nephrotoxicity. JCI Insight2, e95978 (2017). Google Scholar
Zhang, C., Zhao, Z., Abdul Rahim, N. A., van Noort, D. & Yu, H. Towards a human-on-chip: culturing multiple cell types on a chip with compartmentalized microenvironments. Lab Chip9, 3185–3192 (2009). Google Scholar
Jang, K. J. et al. Reproducing human and cross-species drug toxicities using a liver-chip. Sci. Transl. Med.11, eaax5516 (2019). Google Scholar
Wufuer, M. et al. Skin-on-a-chip model simulating inflammation, edema and drug-based treatment. Sci. Rep.6, 37471 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Even, M. S., Sandusky, C. B. & Barnard, N. D. Serum-free hybridoma culture: ethical, scientific and safety considerations. Trends Biotechnol.24, 105–108 (2006). Google Scholar
Kongsuphol, P. et al. In vitro micro-physiological model of the inflamed human adipose tissue for immune-metabolic analysis in type II diabetes. Sci. Rep.9, 4887 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Massa, S. et al. Bioprinted 3D vascularized tissue model for drug toxicity analysis. Biomicrofluidics11, 044109 (2017). Google Scholar
Ong, L. J. Y. et al. Self-aligning Tetris-Like (TILE) modular microfluidic platform for mimicking multi-organ interactions. Lab Chip19, 2178–2191 (2019). This paper demonstrates a modular design of assembling pre-established tissue chips into a recirculating multi-OoC system. Google Scholar
Satoh, T. et al. A pneumatic pressure-driven multi-throughput microfluidic circulation culture system. Lab Chip16, 2339–2348 (2016). Google Scholar
Lee, K. K. et al. Human stomach-on-a-chip with luminal flow and peristaltic-like motility. Lab Chip18, 3079–3085 (2018). Google Scholar
Ong, L. J. Y. et al. A pump-free microfluidic 3D perfusion platform for the efficient differentiation of human hepatocyte-like cells. Biotechnol. Bioeng.114, 2360–2370 (2017). Google Scholar
Yu, F. et al. A pump-free tricellular blood–brain barrier on-a-chip model to understand barrier property and evaluate drug response. Biotechnol. Bioeng.117, 1127–1136 (2020). Google Scholar
Lohasz, C., Rousset, N., Renggli, K., Hierlemann, A. & Frey, O. Scalable microfluidic platform for flexible configuration of and experiments with microtissue multiorgan models. SLAS Technol.24, 79–95 (2019). This paper describes a scalable and automation-compatible multi-spheroid culture system in a microtitre plate format based on gravity-driven flow that is actuated by tilting. Google Scholar
Wang, Y. I. & Shuler, M. L. UniChip enables long-term recirculating unidirectional perfusion with gravity-driven flow for microphysiological systems. Lab Chip18, 2563–2574 (2018). Google Scholar
Oleaga, C. et al. Multi-organ toxicity demonstration in a functional human in vitro system composed of four organs. Sci. Rep.6, 20030 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Chen, L., Yang, Y., Ueno, H. & Esch, M. B. Body-in-a-cube: a microphysiological system for multi-tissue co-culture with near-physiological amounts of blood surrogate. Microphys. Syst.4, 1 (2020). Google Scholar
Yang, Y. et al. Pumpless microfluidic devices for generating healthy and diseased endothelia. Lab Chip19, 3212–3219 (2019). Google Scholar
Maschmeyer, I. et al. A four-organ-chip for interconnected long-term co-culture of human intestine, liver, skin and kidney equivalents. Lab Chip15, 2688–2699 (2015). Google Scholar
Vernetti, L. et al. Functional coupling of human microphysiology systems: intestine, liver, kidney proximal tubule, blood–brain barrier and skeletal muscle. Sci. Rep.7, 42296 (2017). This paper combines multiple single-OoCs by manual transfer of culture medium from one organ to the next to simulate multi-organ functions; termed ‘functional’ coupling rather than direct coupling of organs in a flow-through system. ADS Google Scholar
Novak, R. et al. Robotic fluidic coupling and interrogation of multiple vascularized organ chips. Nat. Biomed. Eng.4, 407–420 (2020). Google Scholar
van Midwoud, P. M. et al. On-line HPLC analysis system for metabolism and inhibition studies in precision-cut liver slices. Anal. Chem.83, 84–91 (2011). Google Scholar
Young, E. W. & Beebe, D. J. Fundamentals of microfluidic cell culture in controlled microenvironments. Chem. Soc. Rev.39, 1036–1048 (2010). This review covers fundamental concepts on how microfluidics alter physical and biochemical microenvironmental factors, which are important for successful microscale cell culture. Google Scholar
Blagovic, K., Kim, L. Y. & Voldman, J. Microfluidic perfusion for regulating diffusible signaling in stem cells. PLoS ONE6, e22892 (2011). ADS Google Scholar
Przybyla, L. M. & Voldman, J. Attenuation of extrinsic signaling reveals the importance of matrix remodeling on maintenance of embryonic stem cell self-renewal. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA109, 835–840 (2012). ADS Google Scholar
Bhattacharjee, N. & Folch, A. Large-scale microfluidic gradient arrays reveal axon guidance behaviors in hippocampal neurons. Microsyst. Nanoeng.3, 17003 (2017). Google Scholar
McCarty, W. J., Usta, O. B. & Yarmush, M. L. A microfabricated platform for generating physiologically-relevant hepatocyte zonation. Sci. Rep.6, 26868 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Tilles, A. W., Baskaran, H., Roy, P., Yarmush, M. L. & Toner, M. Effects of oxygenation and flow on the viability and function of rat hepatocytes cocultured in a microchannel flat-plate bioreactor. Biotechnol. Bioeng.73, 379–389 (2001). Google Scholar
Lindner, M., Laporte, A., Block, S., Elomaa, L. & Weinhart, M. Physiological shear stress enhances differentiation, mucus-formation and structural 3D organization of intestinal epithelial. Cell Vitro. Cell10, 2062 (2021). Google Scholar
Marrero, D. et al. Gut-on-a-chip: mimicking and monitoring the human intestine. Biosens. Bioelectron.181, 113156 (2021). Google Scholar
Trieu, D., Waddell, T. K. & McGuigan, A. P. A microfluidic device to apply shear stresses to polarizing ciliated airway epithelium using air flow. Biomicrofluidics8, 064104 (2014). Google Scholar
Arora, S., Srinivasan, A., Leung, M. C. & Toh, Y.-C. Bio-mimicking shear stress environments for enhancing mesenchymal stem cell differentiation. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther.15, 414–427 (2020). Google Scholar
Ergir, E., Bachmann, B., Redl, H., Forte, G. & Ertl, P. Small force, big impact: next generation organ-on-a-chip systems incorporating biomechanical cues. Front. Physiol.9, 1417 (2018). Google Scholar
Takano, A., Tanaka, M. & Futai, N. On-chip multi-gas incubation for microfluidic cell cultures under hypoxia. Biomicrofluidics8, 061101 (2014). Google Scholar
Toh, Y.-C. et al. A novel 3D mammalian cell perfusion-culture system in microfluidic channels. Lab Chip7, 302–309 (2007). Google Scholar
Imura, Y., Asano, Y., Sato, K. & Yoshimura, E. A microfluidic system to evaluate intestinal absorption. Anal. Sci.25, 1403–1407 (2009). Google Scholar
Bein, A. et al. Enteric coronavirus infection and treatment modeled with an immunocompetent human intestine-on-a-chip. Front. Pharmacol.12, 718484 (2021). Google Scholar
Viravaidya, K., Sin, A. & Shuler, M. L. Development of a microscale cell culture analog to probe naphthalene toxicity. Biotechnol. Prog.20, 316–323 (2004). Google Scholar
Edington, C. D. et al. Interconnected microphysiological systems for quantitative biology and pharmacology studies. Sci. Rep.8, 4530 (2018). ADS Google Scholar
McAleer, C. W. et al. Multi-organ system for the evaluation of efficacy and off-target toxicity of anticancer therapeutics. Sci. Transl. Med.https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aav1386 (2019). Together with Viravaidya et al. (2004) and Edington et al. (2018), this paper and the above-mentioned papers have been selected as case studies to highlight evolution in the design of multi-OoC systems for ADME-Tox studies. Article Google Scholar
Grist, S. M., Chrostowski, L. & Cheung, K. C. Optical oxygen sensors for applications in microfluidic cell culture. Sensors10, 9286–9316 (2010). ADS Google Scholar
Rivera, K. R., Yokus, M. A., Erb, P. D., Pozdin, V. A. & Daniele, M. Measuring and regulating oxygen levels in microphysiological systems: design, material, and sensor considerations. Analyst144, 3190–3215 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Oomen, P. E., Skolimowski, M. D. & Verpoorte, E. Implementing oxygen control in chip-based cell and tissue culture systems. Lab Chip16, 3394–3414 (2016). Google Scholar
Brennan, M. D., Rexius-Hall, M. L., Elgass, L. J. & Eddington, D. T. Oxygen control with microfluidics. Lab Chip14, 4305–4318 (2014). Google Scholar
Scheidecker, B. et al. Induction of in vitro metabolic zonation in primary hepatocytes requires both near-physiological oxygen concentration and flux. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol.8, 524 (2020). Google Scholar
Farzaneh, Z. et al. Dissolved oxygen concentration regulates human hepatic organoid formation from pluripotent stem cells in a fully controlled bioreactor. Biotechnol. Bioeng.117, 3739–3756 (2020). Google Scholar
Kietzmann, T. Metabolic zonation of the liver: the oxygen gradient revisited. Redox Biol.11, 622–630 (2017). Google Scholar
Sung, J. H., Choi, J. R., Kim, D. & Shuler, M. L. Fluorescence optical detection in situ for real-time monitoring of cytochrome P450 enzymatic activity of liver cells in multiple microfluidic devices. Biotechnol. Bioeng.104, 516–525 (2009). Google Scholar
Choi, J. R., Sung, J. H., Shuler, M. L. & Kim, D. Investigation of portable in situ fluorescence optical detection for microfluidic 3D cell culture assays. Opt. Lett.35, 1374–1376 (2010). ADS Google Scholar
Weltin, A. et al. Cell culture monitoring for drug screening and cancer research: a transparent, microfluidic, multi-sensor microsystem. Lab Chip14, 138–146 (2014). Google Scholar
Toh, Y. C. & Voldman, J. Fluid shear stress primes mouse embryonic stem cells for differentiation in a self-renewing environment via heparan sulfate proteoglycans transduction. FASEB J.25, 1208–1217 (2011). Google Scholar
Vit, F. F. et al. A modular, reversible sealing, and reusable microfluidic device for drug screening. Analytica Chim. Acta1185, 339068 (2021). Google Scholar
Morsink, M. A. J., Willemen, N. G. A., Leijten, J., Bansal, R. & Shin, S. R. Immune organs and immune cells on a chip: an overview of biomedical applications. Micromachines11, 849 (2020). Google Scholar
Chen, Y. Y. et al. Clarifying intact 3D tissues on a microfluidic chip for high-throughput structural analysis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA113, 14915–14920 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Wardwell-Swanson, J. et al. A framework for optimizing high-content imaging of 3D models for drug discovery. SLAS Discov.25, 709–722 (2020). Google Scholar
Chen, Z. et al. Automated evaluation of tumor spheroid behavior in 3D culture using deep learning-based recognition. Biomaterials272, 120770 (2021). Google Scholar
Wolff, A., Antfolk, M., Brodin, B. & Tenje, M. In vitro blood-brain barrier models — an overview of established models and new microfluidic approaches. J. Pharm. Sci.104, 2727–2746 (2015). Google Scholar
Brown, C. D. A. et al. Characterisation of human tubular cell monolayers as a model of proximal tubular xenobiotic handling. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.233, 428–438 (2008). Google Scholar
Henry, O. Y. F. et al. Organs-on-chips with integrated electrodes for trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements of human epithelial barrier function. Lab Chip17, 2264–2271 (2017). Google Scholar
van der Helm, M. W. et al. Direct quantification of transendothelial electrical resistance in organs-on-chips. Biosens. Bioelectron.85, 924–929 (2016). Google Scholar
Demircan Yalcin, Y. & Luttge, R. Electrical monitoring approaches in 3-dimensional cell culture systems: toward label-free, high spatiotemporal resolution, and high-content data collection in vitro. Organs-on-a-Chip3, 100006 (2021). Google Scholar
Elbakary, B. & Badhan, R. K. S. A dynamic perfusion based blood–brain barrier model for cytotoxicity testing and drug permeation. Sci. Rep.10, 3788 (2020). ADS Google Scholar
Bürgel, S. C., Diener, L., Frey, O., Kim, J. Y. & Hierlemann, A. Automated, multiplexed electrical impedance spectroscopy platform for continuous monitoring of microtissue spheroids. Anal. Chem.88, 10876–10883 (2016). Google Scholar
Srinivasan, B. et al. TEER measurement techniques for in vitro barrier model systems. J. Lab. Autom.20, 107–126 (2015). This paper reviews different methods of making TEER measurements in barrier tissues, and their strengths and weaknesses, and addresses issues where the technique is applied incorrectly. Google Scholar
Soucy, J. R., Bindas, A. J., Koppes, A. N. & Koppes, R. A. Instrumented microphysiological systems for real-time measurement and manipulation of cellular electrochemical processes. iScience21, 521–548 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Ferrari, E., Palma, C., Vesentini, S., Occhetta, P. & Rasponi, M. Integrating biosensors in organs-on-chip devices: a perspective on current strategies to monitor microphysiological systems. Biosensors10, 110 (2020). This review covers the integration of sensors into OoC devices for real-time measurements of oxygen, soluble metabolites (for example, glucose or lactate cytokines), TEER and electrical activity. Google Scholar
Oleaga, C. et al. A human in vitro platform for the evaluation of pharmacology strategies in cardiac ischemia. APL. Bioeng.3, 036103 (2019). Google Scholar
Kussauer, S., David, R. & Lemcke, H. hiPSCs derived cardiac cells for drug and toxicity screening and disease modeling: what micro-electrode-array analyses can tell us. Cells8, 1331 (2019). Google Scholar
van de Wijdeven, R. et al. A novel lab-on-chip platform enabling axotomy and neuromodulation in a multi-nodal network. Biosens. Bioelectron.140, 111329 (2019). Google Scholar
Oiwa, K. et al. A device for co-culturing autonomic neurons and cardiomyocytes using micro-fabrication techniques. Integr. Biol.8, 341–348 (2016). Google Scholar
Yuan, X. et al. Versatile live-cell activity analysis platform for characterization of neuronal dynamics at single-cell and network level. Nat. Commun.11, 4854 (2020). ADS Google Scholar
Sung, J. H., Wang, Y. & Shuler, M. L. Strategies for using mathematical modeling approaches to design and interpret multi-organ microphysiological systems (MPS). APL Bioeng.3, 021501 (2019). This paper provides a useful guide to design principles and scaling rules for multi-OoC systems to be used for PK and PD studies. Google Scholar
Moutaux, E., Charlot, B., Genoux, A., Saudou, F. & Cazorla, M. An integrated microfluidic/microelectrode array for the study of activity-dependent intracellular dynamics in neuronal networks. Lab Chip18, 3425–3435 (2018). Google Scholar
Stancescu, M. et al. A phenotypic in vitro model for the main determinants of human whole heart function. Biomaterials60, 20–30 (2015). Google Scholar
Coln, E. A. et al. Piezoelectric BioMEMS cantilever for measurement of muscle contraction and for actuation of mechanosensitive cells. MRS Commun.9, 1186–1192 (2019). Google Scholar
Maoz, B. M. et al. Organs-on-chips with combined multi-electrode array and transepithelial electrical resistance measurement capabilities. Lab Chip17, 2294–2302 (2017). Google Scholar
Balijepalli, A. & Sivaramakrishan, V. Organs-on-chips: research and commercial perspectives. Drug. Discov. Today22, 397–403 (2017). Google Scholar
Livingston, C. A., Fabre, K. M. & Tagle, D. A. Facilitating the commercialization and use of organ platforms generated by the microphysiological systems (Tissue Chip) program through public–private partnerships. Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J.14, 207–210 (2016). Google Scholar
Reyes, D. R. et al. Accelerating innovation and commercialization through standardization of microfluidic-based medical devices. Lab Chip21, 9–21 (2021). Google Scholar
Fabre, K. et al. Introduction to a manuscript series on the characterization and use of microphysiological systems (MPS) in pharmaceutical safety and ADME applications. Lab Chip20, 1049–1057 (2020). Google Scholar
Sung, J. H., Kam, C. & Shuler, M. L. A microfluidic device for a pharmacokinetic–pharmacodynamic (PK–PD) model on a chip. Lab Chip10, 446–455 (2010). Google Scholar
Tatosian, D. A. & Shuler, M. L. A novel system for evaluation of drug mixtures for potential efficacy in treating multidrug resistant cancers. Biotechnol. Bioeng.103, 187–198 (2009). Google Scholar
Stokes, C. L., Cirit, M. & Lauffenburger, D. A. Physiome-on-a-chip: the challenge of “scaling” in design, operation, and translation of microphysiological systems. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol.4, 559–562 (2015). Google Scholar
Wikswo, J. P. et al. Scaling and systems biology for integrating multiple organs-on-a-chip. Lab Chip13, 3496–3511 (2013). Google Scholar
Yu, J. et al. Quantitative systems pharmacology approaches applied to microphysiological systems (MPS): data interpretation and multi-MPS integration. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol.4, 585–594 (2015). Google Scholar
Bai, J. et al. A novel 3D vascular assay for evaluating angiogenesis across porous membranes. Biomaterials268, 120592 (2021). Google Scholar
Carter, S. D., Barbe, L., Tenje, M. & Mestres, G. Exploring microfluidics as a tool to evaluate the biological properties of a titanium alloy under dynamic conditions. Biomater. Sci.8, 6309–6321 (2020). Google Scholar
Chueh, B. H. et al. Leakage-free bonding of porous membranes into layered microfluidic array systems. Anal. Chem.79, 3504–3508 (2007). Google Scholar
Winkler, T. E., Feil, M., Stronkman, E., Matthiesen, I. & Herland, A. Low-cost microphysiological systems: feasibility study of a tape-based barrier-on-chip for small intestine modeling. Lab Chip20, 1212–1226 (2020). Google Scholar
Schneider, S., Gruner, D., Richter, A. & Loskill, P. Membrane integration into PDMS-free microfluidic platforms for organ-on-chip and analytical chemistry applications. Lab Chip21, 1866–1885 (2021). Google Scholar
Kuo, C. H., Xian, J., Brenton, J. D., Franze, K. & Sivaniah, E. Complex stiffness gradient substrates for studying mechanotactic cell migration. Adv. Mater.24, 6059–6064 (2012). Google Scholar
Zink, C., Hall, H., Brunette, D. M. & Spencer, N. D. Orthogonal nanometer–micrometer roughness gradients probe morphological influences on cell behavior. Biomaterials33, 8055–8061 (2012). Google Scholar
Kim, T. H. et al. Creating stiffness gradient polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel using a simple gradual freezing–thawing method to investigate stem cell differentiation behaviors. Biomaterials40, 51–60 (2015). Google Scholar
Oh, S. H., An, D. B., Kim, T. H. & Lee, J. H. Wide-range stiffness gradient PVA/HA hydrogel to investigate stem cell differentiation behavior. Acta Biomater.35, 23–31 (2016). Google Scholar
Mei, Y. et al. Combinatorial development of biomaterials for clonal growth of human pluripotent stem cells. Nat. Mater.9, 768–778 (2010). ADS Google Scholar
Jana, S., Levengood, S. K. & Zhang, M. Anisotropic materials for skeletal-muscle-tissue engineering. Adv. Mater.28, 10588–10612 (2016). Google Scholar
Kim, D.-H. et al. Mechanosensitivity of fibroblast cell shape and movement to anisotropic substratum topography gradients. Biomaterials30, 5433–5444 (2009). Google Scholar
Park, J. et al. Directed migration of cancer cells guided by the graded texture of the underlying matrix. Nat. Mater.15, 792–801 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Zhou, Q. et al. Screening platform for cell contact guidance based on inorganic biomaterial micro/nanotopographical gradients. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces9, 31433–31445 (2017). Google Scholar
Perlman, R. L. Mouse models of human disease: an evolutionary perspective. Evol. Med. Public Health2016, 170–176 (2016). Google Scholar
Mestas, J. & Hughes, C. C. W. Of mice and not men: differences between mouse and human immunology. J. Immunol.172, 2731–2738 (2004). Google Scholar
Dellaquila, A., Thomée, E. K., McMillan, A. H. & Lesher-Pérez, S. C. in Organ-on-a-Chip (eds Hoeng, J., Bovard, D. & Peitsch, M. C.) 133–180 (Academic, 2020).
Bliley, J. M. et al. Dynamic loading of human engineered heart tissue enhances contractile function and drives a desmosome-linked disease phenotype. Sci. Transl. Med.13, eabd1817 (2021). Google Scholar
Trapecar, M. et al. Gut–liver physiomimetics reveal paradoxical modulation of IBD-related inflammation by short-chain fatty acids. Cell Syst.10, 223–239.e9 (2020). Google Scholar
Ahn, J., Sei, Y. J., Jeon, N. L. & Kim, Y. Tumor microenvironment on a chip: the progress and future perspective. Bioengineering4, 64 (2017). Google Scholar
Park, D., Lim, J., Park, J. Y. & Lee, S. H. Concise review: stem cell microenvironment on a chip: current technologies for tissue engineering and stem cell biology. Stem Cell Transl. Med.4, 1352–1368 (2015). Google Scholar
Selimović, Š., Kaji, H., Bae, H. & Khademhosseini, A. in Microfluidic Cell Culture Systems 2nd edn (eds Borenstein, J. T., Tandon, V., Tao, S. L & Charest, J. L) 31–63 (Elsevier, 2019).
Shang, M., Soon, R. H., Lim, C. T., Khoo, B. L. & Han, J. Microfluidic modelling of the tumor microenvironment for anti-cancer drug development. Lab Chip19, 369–386 (2019). Google Scholar
Przybyla, L. & Voldman, J. Probing embryonic stem cell autocrine and paracrine signaling using microfluidics. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem.5, 293–315 (2012). This review paper explains the physics governing the use of microfluidic cell culture to control the presentation of soluble factors to cells in order to investigate paracrine and autocrine signalling. Google Scholar
Toh, A. G. G., Wang, Z. P., Yang, C. & Nguyen, N.-T. Engineering microfluidic concentration gradient generators for biological applications. Microfluidics Nanofluidics16, 1–18 (2014). Google Scholar
Wang, X., Liu, Z. & Pang, Y. Concentration gradient generation methods based on microfluidic systems. RSC Adv.7, 29966–29984 (2017). ADS Google Scholar
Gómez-Sjöberg, R., Leyrat, A. A., Pirone, D. M., Chen, C. S. & Quake, S. R. Versatile, fully automated, microfluidic cell culture system. Anal. Chem.79, 8557–8563 (2007). Google Scholar
Titmarsh, D. M. et al. Induction of human iPSC-derived cardiomyocyte proliferation revealed by combinatorial screening in high density microbioreactor arrays. Sci. Rep.6, 24637 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Cosson, S. & Lutolf, M. P. Hydrogel microfluidics for the patterning of pluripotent stem cells. Sci. Rep.4, 4462 (2014). ADS Google Scholar
Manfrin, A. et al. Engineered signaling centers for the spatially controlled patterning of human pluripotent stem cells. Nat. Methods16, 640–648 (2019). Google Scholar
Rhee, S. W. et al. Patterned cell culture inside microfluidic devices. Lab Chip5, 102–107 (2005). Google Scholar
Chiu, D. T. et al. Patterned deposition of cells and proteins onto surfaces by using three-dimensional microfluidic systems. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA97, 2408–2413 (2000). ADS Google Scholar
Jeon, K. J. et al. Combined effects of flow-induced shear stress and micropatterned surface morphology on neuronal differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. J. Biosci. Bioeng.117, 242–247 (2014). Google Scholar
Tu, C. et al. A microfluidic chip for cell patterning utilizing paired microwells and protein patterns. Micromachines8, 1 (2017). Google Scholar
Skelley, A. M., Kirak, O., Suh, H., Jaenisch, R. & Voldman, J. Microfluidic control of cell pairing and fusion. Nat. Methods6, 147–152 (2009). Google Scholar
Flaim, C. J., Chien, S. & Bhatia, S. N. An extracellular matrix microarray for probing cellular differentiation. Nat. Methods2, 119–125 (2005). Google Scholar
McCain, M. L., Yuan, H., Pasqualini, F. S., Campbell, P. H. & Parker, K. K. Matrix elasticity regulates the optimal cardiac myocyte shape for contractility. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circul. Physiol.306, H1525–H1539 (2014). Google Scholar
Vázquez-Victorio, G. et al. Building a microfluidic cell culture platform with stiffness control using Loctite 3525 glue. Lab Chip19, 3512–3525 (2019). Google Scholar
Pasman, T., Grijpma, D., Stamatialis, D. & Poot, A. Flat and microstructured polymeric membranes in organs-on-chips. J. R. Soc. Interface15, 20180351 (2018). Google Scholar
Arora, S., Lin, S., Cheung, C., Yim, E. K. F. & Toh, Y.-C. Topography elicits distinct phenotypes and functions in human primary and stem cell derived endothelial cells. Biomaterials234, 119747 (2020). Google Scholar
Chau, L., Doran, M. & Cooper-White, J. A novel multishear microdevice for studying cell mechanics. Lab Chip9, 1897–1902 (2009). Google Scholar
Arora, S., Lam, A. J. Y., Cheung, C., Yim, E. K. F. & Toh, Y.-C. Determination of critical shear stress for maturation of human pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells towards an arterial subtype. Biotechnol. Bioeng.116, 1164–1175 (2019). Google Scholar
Visone, R. et al. A microscale biomimetic platform for generation and electro-mechanical stimulation of 3D cardiac microtissues. APL. Bioeng.2, 046102 (2018). Google Scholar
Duc, P. et al. Human neuromuscular junction on micro-structured microfluidic devices implemented with a custom micro electrode array (MEA). Lab Chip21, 4223–4236 (2021). Google Scholar
Beckwitt, C. H. et al. Liver ‘organ on a chip’. Exp. Cell Res.363, 15–25 (2018). Google Scholar
Deng, J. et al. Engineered liver-on-a-chip platform to mimic liver functions and its biomedical applications: a review. Micromachines10, 676 (2019). Google Scholar
Starokozhko, V. & Groothuis, G. M. Judging the value of ‘liver-on-a-chip’ devices for prediction of toxicity. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol.13, 125–128 (2017). Google Scholar
Khetani, S. R. & Bhatia, S. N. Microscale culture of human liver cells for drug development. Nat. Biotechnol.26, 120–126 (2008). Google Scholar
Sivaraman, A. et al. A microscale in vitro physiological model of the liver: predictive screens for drug metabolism and enzyme induction. Curr. Drug Metab.6, 569–591 (2005). Google Scholar
Boon, R. et al. Amino acid levels determine metabolism and CYP450 function of hepatocytes and hepatoma cell lines. Nat. Commun.11, 1393 (2020). ADS Google Scholar
Chao, P., Maguire, T., Novik, E., Cheng, K. C. & Yarmush, M. L. Evaluation of a microfluidic based cell culture platform with primary human hepatocytes for the prediction of hepatic clearance in human. Biochem. Pharmacol.78, 625–632 (2009). Google Scholar
Goral, V. N. et al. Perfusion-based microfluidic device for three-dimensional dynamic primary human hepatocyte cell culture in the absence of biological or synthetic matrices or coagulants. Lab Chip10, 3380–3386 (2010). Google Scholar
Hegde, M. et al. Dynamic interplay of flow and collagen stabilizes primary hepatocytes culture in a microfluidic platform. Lab Chip14, 2033–2039 (2014). Google Scholar
Lee, P. J., Hung, P. J. & Lee, L. P. An artificial liver sinusoid with a microfluidic endothelial-like barrier for primary hepatocyte culture. Biotechnol. Bioeng.97, 1340–1346 (2007). Google Scholar
Toh, Y. C. et al. A microfluidic 3D hepatocyte chip for drug toxicity testing. Lab Chip9, 2026–2035 (2009). Google Scholar
Clark, A. M. et al. A liver microphysiological system of tumor cell dormancy and inflammatory responsiveness is affected by scaffold properties. Lab Chip17, 156–168 (2016). Google Scholar
Deng, J. et al. A liver-on-a-chip for hepatoprotective activity assessment. Biomicrofluidics14, 064107 (2020). Google Scholar
Vernetti, L. A. et al. A human liver microphysiology platform for investigating physiology, drug safety, and disease models. Exp. Biol. Med.241, 101–114 (2016). Google Scholar
Ströbel, S. et al. A 3D primary human cell-based in vitro model of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis for efficacy testing of clinical drug candidates. Sci. Rep.11, 22765 (2021). ADS Google Scholar
Müller, F. A. & Sturla, S. J. Human in vitro models of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Curr. Opin. Toxicol.16, 9–16 (2019). Google Scholar
Ronaldson-Bouchard, K. et al. Advanced maturation of human cardiac tissue grown from pluripotent stem cells. Nature556, 239–243 (2018). ADS Google Scholar
Zhao, Y. et al. A platform for generation of chamber-specific cardiac tissues and disease modeling. Cell176, 913–927.e918 (2019). Google Scholar
Kaisar, M. A. et al. New experimental models of the blood–brain barrier for CNS drug discovery. Expert Opin. Drug Discov.12, 89–103 (2017). Google Scholar
Herland, A. et al. Distinct contributions of astrocytes and pericytes to neuroinflammation identified in a 3D human blood–brain barrier on a chip. PLoS ONE11, e0150360 (2016). Google Scholar
Wang, J. D., Khafagy el, S., Khanafer, K., Takayama, S. & ElSayed, M. E. Organization of endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytes into a 3D microfluidic in vitro model of the blood–brain barrier. Mol. Pharm.13, 895–906 (2016). Google Scholar
Wevers, N. R. et al. A perfused human blood–brain barrier on-a-chip for high-throughput assessment of barrier function and antibody transport. Fluids Barriers CNS15, 23 (2018). Google Scholar
Park, T.-E. et al. Hypoxia-enhanced blood–brain barrier chip recapitulates human barrier function and shuttling of drugs and antibodies. Nat. Commun.10, 2621 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Jin, L. Y. et al. Blood–spinal cord barrier in spinal cord injury: a review. J. Neurotrauma38, 1203–1224 (2021). Google Scholar
Zheng, W. et al. Differentiation of glial cells from hiPSCs: potential applications in neurological diseases and cell replacement therapy. Front. Cell. Neurosci.12, 239 (2018). Google Scholar
Chiaradia, I. & Lancaster, M. A. Brain organoids for the study of human neurobiology at the interface of in vitro and in vivo. Nat. Neurosci.23, 1496–1508 (2020). Google Scholar
Eugène, E. et al. An organotypic brain slice preparation from adult patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. J. Neurosci. Methods235, 234–244 (2014). Google Scholar
Schwarz, N. et al. Long-term adult human brain slice cultures as a model system to study human CNS circuitry and disease. eLife8, e48417 (2019). Google Scholar
Cakir, B. et al. Engineering of human brain organoids with a functional vascular-like system. Nat. Methods16, 1169–1175 (2019). Google Scholar
Liu, J., Pan, L., Cheng, X. & Berdichevsky, Y. Perfused drop microfluidic device for brain slice culture-based drug discovery. Biomed. Microdevices18, 46 (2016). Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Wang, L., Zhu, Y. & Qin, J. Human brain organoid-on-a-chip to model prenatal nicotine exposure. Lab Chip18, 851–860 (2018). Google Scholar
Sharma, A. D. et al. Engineering a 3D functional human peripheral nerve in vitro using the nerve-on-a-chip platform. Sci. Rep.9, 8921 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Hyung, S. et al. A 3D disease and regeneration model of peripheral nervous system-on-a-chip. Sci. Adv.7, eabd9749 (2021). ADS Google Scholar
Johnson, B. N. et al. 3D printed nervous system on a chip. Lab Chip16, 1393–1400 (2016). Google Scholar
Benam, K. H. et al. Small airway-on-a-chip enables analysis of human lung inflammation and drug responses in vitro. Nat. Methods13, 151–157 (2016). Google Scholar
Humayun, M., Chow, C. W. & Young, E. W. K. Microfluidic lung airway-on-a-chip with arrayable suspended gels for studying epithelial and smooth muscle cell interactions. Lab Chip18, 1298–1309 (2018). Google Scholar
Shrestha, J. et al. A rapidly prototyped lung-on-a-chip model using 3D-printed molds. Organs-on-a-Chip1, 100001 (2019). Google Scholar
Si, L. et al. A human-airway-on-a-chip for the rapid identification of candidate antiviral therapeutics and prophylactics. Nat. Biomed. Eng.5, 815–829 (2021). Google Scholar
Zamprogno, P. et al. Second-generation lung-on-a-chip with an array of stretchable alveoli made with a biological membrane. Commun. Biol.4, 168 (2021). Google Scholar
Ataç, B. et al. Skin and hair on-a-chip: in vitro skin models versus ex vivo tissue maintenance with dynamic perfusion. Lab Chip13, 3555–3561 (2013). Google Scholar
Lee, S. et al. Construction of 3D multicellular microfluidic chip for an in vitro skin model. Biomed. Microdevices19, 22 (2017). Google Scholar
Sriram, G. et al. Full-thickness human skin-on-chip with enhanced epidermal morphogenesis and barrier function. Mater. Today21, 326–340 (2018). Google Scholar
de Haan, P. et al. A versatile, compartmentalised gut-on-a-chip system for pharmacological and toxicological analyses. Sci. Rep.11, 4920 (2021). ADS Google Scholar
Kasendra, M. et al. Duodenum intestine-chip for preclinical drug assessment in a human relevant model. eLife9, e50135 (2020). Google Scholar
Abdalkader, R. & Kamei, K. I. Multi-corneal barrier-on-a-chip to recapitulate eye blinking shear stress forces. Lab Chip20, 1410–1417 (2020). Google Scholar
Bai, J., Fu, H., Bazinet, L., Birsner, A. E. & D’Amato, R. J. A method for developing novel 3D cornea-on-a-chip using primary murine corneal epithelial and endothelial cells. Front. Pharmacol.11, 453 (2020). Google Scholar
Bennet, D., Estlack, Z., Reid, T. & Kim, J. A microengineered human corneal epithelium-on-a-chip for eye drops mass transport evaluation. Lab Chip18, 1539–1551 (2018). Google Scholar
Cao, X. et al. Invited review: human air–liquid-interface organotypic airway tissue models derived from primary tracheobronchial epithelial cells — overview and perspectives. In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. Anim.57, 104–132 (2021). Google Scholar
Chiba, H., Osanai, M., Murata, M., Kojima, T. & Sawada, N. Transmembrane proteins of tight junctions. Biochim. Biophys. Acta1778, 588–600 (2008). Google Scholar
Park, J. Y. et al. Development of a functional airway-on-a-chip by 3D cell printing. Biofabrication11, 015002 (2018). ADS Google Scholar
Stucki, J. D. et al. Medium throughput breathing human primary cell alveolus-on-chip model. Sci. Rep.8, 14359 (2018). ADS Google Scholar
Gijzen, L. et al. An intestine-on-a-chip model of plug-and-play modularity to study inflammatory processes. SLAS Technol.25, 585–597 (2020). Google Scholar
van der Helm, M. W. et al. Non-invasive sensing of transepithelial barrier function and tissue differentiation in organs-on-chips using impedance spectroscopy. Lab Chip19, 452–463 (2019). Google Scholar
Zoio, P., Lopes-Ventura, S. & Oliva, A. Barrier-on-a-chip with a modular architecture and integrated sensors for real-time measurement of biological barrier function. Micromachines12, 816 (2021). Google Scholar
Ramadan, Q. & Ting, F. C. W. In vitro micro-physiological immune-competent model of the human skin. Lab Chip16, 1899–1908 (2016). Google Scholar
Yu, Z., Hao, R., Zhang, Y. & Yang, H. in 2021 IEEE 34thInt. Conf.Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) 982–985 (IEEE, 2021).
Roberts, N. & Horsley, V. Developing stratified epithelia: lessons from the epidermis and thymus. WIREs Dev. Biol.3, 389–402 (2014). Google Scholar
Ma, C., Peng, Y., Li, H. & Chen, W. Organ-on-a-chip: a new paradigm for drug development. Trends Pharmacol. Sci.42, 119–133 (2021). Google Scholar
Viravaidya, K. & Shuler, M. L. Incorporation of 3T3-L1 cells to mimic bioaccumulation in a microscale cell culture analog device for toxicity studies. Biotechnol. Prog.20, 590–597 (2004). Google Scholar
Renggli, K. & Frey, O. in Organ-on-a-chip (eds Hoeng, J., Bovard, D. & Peitsch, M. C.) 393–427 (Academic, 2020).
Picollet-D’hahan, N., Zuchowska, A., Lemeunier, I. & Le Gac, S. Multiorgan-on-a-chip: a systemic approach to model and decipher inter-organ communication. Trends Biotechnol.39, 788–810 (2021). This paper provides a comprehensive review of the various applications of multi-OoCs and the different design approaches of coupling individual organ systems. Google Scholar
Lee, J. & Kim, S. Kidney-on-a-chip: a new technology for predicting drug efficacy, interactions, and drug-induced nephrotoxicity. Curr. Drug Metab.19, 577–583 (2018). Google Scholar
Lee, J., Kim, K. & Kim, S. in Methods in Cell Biology Vol. 146 (eds Doh, J., Fletcher, D. & Piel, J.) 85–104 (Academic, 2018).
Miller, P. G. & Shuler, M. L. Design and demonstration of a pumpless 14 compartment microphysiological system. Biotechnol. Bioeng.113, 2213–2227 (2016). Google Scholar
Piergiovanni, M., Leite, S. B., Corvi, R. & Whelan, M. Standardisation needs for organ on chip devices. Lab Chip21, 2857–2868 (2021). Google Scholar
Kilic, T., Navaee, F., Stradolini, F., Renaud, P. & Carrara, S. Organs-on-chip monitoring: sensors and other strategies. Microphysiol. Syst.2, 1–32 (2018). Google Scholar
EU Science Hub. European Union Reference Laboratory for alternatives to animal testing. EURL ECVAM. Europrean Commissionhttps://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/eurl/ecvam (2021).
Piergiovanni, M. et al. Organ on Chip: Building a Roadmap Towards Standardisation (European Commission, 2021).
Piergiovanni, M. et al. Putting Science into Standards workshop on standards for organ-on-chip. Stem Cell Rep.16, 2076–2077 (2021). Google Scholar
Peirsman, A. et al. MISpheroID: a knowledgebase and transparency tool for minimum information in spheroid identity. Nat. Methods18, 1294–1303 (2021). Google Scholar
Greaney, A. M. et al. Platform effects on regeneration by pulmonary basal cells as evaluated by single-cell RNA sequencing. Cell Rep.30, 4250–4265.e6 (2020). Google Scholar
Vunjak-Novakovic, G., Ronaldson-Bouchard, K. & Radisic, M. Organs-on-a-chip models for biological research. Cell184, 4597–4611 (2021). This article is complementary to the present Primer and provides a perspective of how the tissue engineering paradigm, which involves the integration of cells, scaffolds and bioreactors, has been applied to drive the development of OoCs intended for biological research. Google Scholar
Johnson, B. P. et al. A microphysiological approach to evaluate effectors of intercellular hedgehog signaling in development. Front. Cell Dev. Biol.9, 621442 (2021). Google Scholar
Komeya, M. et al. Pumpless microfluidic system driven by hydrostatic pressure induces and maintains mouse spermatogenesis in vitro. Sci. Rep.7, 15459 (2017). ADS Google Scholar
Glieberman, A. L. et al. Synchronized stimulation and continuous insulin sensing in a microfluidic human islet on a chip designed for scalable manufacturing. Lab Chip19, 2993–3010 (2019). Google Scholar
Modena, M. M., Chawla, K., Misun, P. M. & Hierlemann, A. Smart cell culture systems: integration of sensors and actuators into microphysiological systems. ACS Chem. Biol.13, 1767–1784 (2018). Google Scholar
Liao, Z. et al. Microfluidic chip coupled with optical biosensors for simultaneous detection of multiple analytes: a review. Biosens. Bioelectron.126, 697–706 (2019). Google Scholar
Hiramoto, K., Ino, K., Nashimoto, Y., Ito, K. & Shiku, H. Electric and electrochemical microfluidic devices for cell analysis. Front. Chem.7, 396 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
van Meer, B. J. et al. Small molecule absorption by PDMS in the context of drug response bioassays. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.482, 323–328 (2017). Google Scholar
Kim, S. et al. Anchor-IMPACT: a standardized microfluidic platform for high-throughput antiangiogenic drug screening. Biotechnol. Bioeng.118, 2524–2535 (2021). Google Scholar
Werner, M. et al. Surface curvature differentially regulates stem cell migration and differentiation via altered attachment morphology and nuclear deformation. Adv. Sci.4, 1600347 (2017). Google Scholar
Wang, J. D. Development of a 3D in Vitro Model of the Blood–Brain Barrier in Layered Microfluidic Devices. PhD thesis, Univ. of Michigan (2015).
Shin, W., Hinojosa, C. D., Ingber, D. E. & Kim, H. J. Human intestinal morphogenesis controlled by transepithelial morphogen gradient and flow-dependent physical cues in a microengineered gut-on-a-chip. iScience15, 391–406 (2019). ADS Google Scholar
Albrecht, W. et al. Prediction of human drug-induced liver injury (DILI) in relation to oral doses and blood concentrations. Arch. Toxicol.93, 1609–1637 (2019). Google Scholar
Park, J. et al. A 3D human triculture system modeling neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease. Nat. Neurosci.21, 941–951 (2018). Google Scholar
Ekert, J. E. et al. Recommended guidelines for developing, qualifying, and implementing complex in vitro models (CIVMs) for drug discovery. SLAS Discov.25, 1174–1190 (2020). Google Scholar
Kopec, A. K. et al. Microphysiological systems in early stage drug development: perspectives on current applications and future impact. J. Toxicol. Sci.46, 99–114 (2021). Google Scholar
Chou, D. B. et al. On-chip recapitulation of clinical bone marrow toxicities and patient-specific pathophysiology. Nat. Biomed. Eng.4, 394–406 (2020). Google Scholar
LaValley, D. J., Miller, P. G. & Shuler, M. L. Pumpless, unidirectional microphysiological system for testing metabolism-dependent chemotherapeutic toxicity. Biotechnol. Prog.37, e3105 (2021). Google Scholar
McCracken, K. W. et al. Modelling human development and disease in pluripotent stem-cell-derived gastric organoids. Nature516, 400–404 (2014). ADS Google Scholar
Park, D., Lee, J., Chung, J. J., Jung, Y. & Kim, S. H. Integrating organs-on-chips: multiplexing, scaling, vascularization, and innervation. Trends Biotechnol.38, 99–112 (2020). Google Scholar
Vila, O. F. et al. Bioengineered optogenetic model of human neuromuscular junction. Biomaterials276, 121033 (2021). Google Scholar
Habert, R. et al. Concerns about the widespread use of rodent models for human risk assessments of endocrine disruptors. Reproduction147, R119–R129 (2014). Google Scholar
Sun, H., Jia, Y., Dong, H., Dong, D. & Zheng, J. Combining additive manufacturing with microfluidics: an emerging method for developing novel organs-on-chips. Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng.28, 1–9 (2020). This review provides an update on the integration of additive manufacturing technologies such as 3D printing to fabricate OoC devices. Google Scholar
Trietsch, S. J., Israëls, G. D., Joore, J., Hankemeier, T. & Vulto, P. Microfluidic titer plate for stratified 3D cell culture. Lab Chip13, 3548–3554 (2013). This paper presents a stratified 3D cell culture platform with side-by-side gel and liquid lanes in a microtitre plate format. Cells in neighbouring lanes can interact, and analysis can be done in high throughput. Google Scholar
Esch, M. B., Ueno, H., Applegate, D. R. & Shuler, M. L. Modular, pumpless body-on-a-chip platform for the co-culture of GI tract epithelium and 3D primary liver tissue. Lab Chip16, 2719–2729 (2016). Google Scholar
Loskill, P., Marcus, S. G., Mathur, A., Reese, W. M. & Healy, K. E. μOrgano: a lego®-like plug & play system for modular multi-organ-chips. PLoS ONE10, e0139587 (2015). Google Scholar
Vollertsen, A. R. et al. Facilitating implementation of organs-on-chips by open platform technology. Biomicrofluidics15, 051301 (2021). Google Scholar
Castillo-Armengol, J., Fajas, L. & Lopez-Mejia, I. C. Inter-organ communication: a gatekeeper for metabolic health. EMBO Rep.20, e47903 (2019). Google Scholar
Gancheva, S., Jelenik, T., Álvarez-Hernández, E. & Roden, M. Interorgan metabolic crosstalk in human insulin resistance. Physiol. Rev.98, 1371–1415 (2018). Google Scholar
Ogurtsova, K. et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: global estimates for the prevalence of diabetes for 2015 and 2040. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract.128, 40–50 (2017). Google Scholar
Lee, S. Y. & Sung, J. H. Gut–liver on a chip toward an in vitro model of hepatic steatosis. Biotechnol. Bioeng.115, 2817–2827 (2018). Google Scholar
Jeon, J.-W., Lee, S. H., Kim, D. & Sung, J. H. In vitro hepatic steatosis model based on gut–liver-on-a-chip. Biotechnol. Prog.37, e3121 (2021). Google Scholar
Essaouiba, A. et al. Development of a pancreas–liver organ-on-chip coculture model for organ-to-organ interaction studies. Biochem. Eng. J.164, 107783 (2020). Google Scholar
Bauer, S. et al. Functional coupling of human pancreatic islets and liver spheroids on-a-chip: towards a novel human ex vivo type 2 diabetes model. Sci. Rep.7, 14620 (2017). ADS Google Scholar
Cho, I. & Blaser, M. J. The human microbiome: at the interface of health and disease. Nat. Rev. Genet.13, 260–270 (2012). Google Scholar
Tan, H.-Y. & Toh, Y.-C. What can microfluidics do for human microbiome research? Biomicrofluidics14, 051303 (2020). This review highlights OoC systems that specifically model microbial–mammalian host tissue interactions. Google Scholar
Polini, A. et al. Towards the development of human immune-system-on-a-chip platforms. Drug Discov. Today24, 517–525 (2019). This review provides an overview of key characteristics of the human immune system and how different aspects of human immunity can be modelled by OoC systems. Google Scholar
Miller, C. P., Shin, W., Ahn, E. H., Kim, H. J. & Kim, D.-H. Engineering microphysiological immune system responses on chips. Trends Biotechnol.38, 857–872 (2020). Google Scholar
Park, D. et al. High-throughput microfluidic 3D cytotoxicity assay for cancer immunotherapy (CACI-IMPACT Platform). Front. Immunol.10, 1133 (2019). Google Scholar
Lee, S. et al. Modeling 3D human tumor lymphatic vessel network using high-throughput platform. Adv. Biol.5, 2000195 (2021). Google Scholar
Hind, L. E., Ingram, P. N., Beebe, D. J. & Huttenlocher, A. Interaction with an endothelial lumen increases neutrophil lifetime and motility in response to P. aeruginosa. Blood132, 1818–1828 (2018). Google Scholar
Hind, L. E. et al. Immune cell paracrine signaling drives the neutrophil response to A. fumigatus in an infection-on-a-chip model. Cell. Mol. Bioeng.14, 133–145 (2021). Google Scholar
Weerappuli, P. D. et al. Extracellular trap-mimicking DNA–histone mesostructures synergistically activate dendritic cells. Adv. Healthc. Mater.8, 1900926 (2019). Google Scholar
Tao, T. et al. Microengineered multi-organoid system from hipscs to recapitulate human liver–islet axis in normal and type 2 diabetes. Adv. Sci.9, e2103495 (2022). Google Scholar
Yin, F. et al. HiPSC-derived multi-organoids-on-chip system for safety assessment of antidepressant drugs. Lab Chip21, 571–581 (2021). Google Scholar
Osaki, T., Uzel, S. G. M. & Kamm, R. D. On-chip 3D neuromuscular model for drug screening and precision medicine in neuromuscular disease. Nat. Protoc.15, 421–449 (2020). Google Scholar
Douville, N. J. et al. Fabrication of two-layered channel system with embedded electrodes to measure resistance across epithelial and endothelial barriers. Anal. Chem.82, 2505–2511 (2010). Google Scholar
Poussin, C. et al. 3D human microvessel-on-a-chip model for studying monocyte-to-endothelium adhesion under flow — application in systems toxicology. Altex37, 47–63 (2020). Google Scholar
Mori, N., Morimoto, Y. & Takeuchi, S. Skin integrated with perfusable vascular channels on a chip. Biomaterials116, 48–56 (2017). Google Scholar
Ong, L. J. Y. et al. A 3D printed microfluidic perfusion device for multicellular spheroid cultures. Biofabrication9, 045005 (2017). ADS Google Scholar
Asif, A., Kim, K. H., Jabbar, F., Kim, S. & Choi, K. Real-time sensors for live monitoring of disease and drug analysis in microfluidic model of proximal tubule. Microfluid. Nanofluidics24, 1–10 (2020). Google Scholar
Khoshfetrat Pakazad, S., Savov, A., van de Stolpe, A. & Dekker, R. A novel stretchable micro-electrode array (SMEA) design for directional stretching of cells. J. Micromech. Microeng.24, 034003 (2014). ADS Google Scholar
Liu, Y. et al. Adipose-on-a-chip: a dynamic microphysiological in vitro model of the human adipose for immune-metabolic analysis in type II diabetes. Lab Chip19, 241–253 (2019). Google Scholar
Huh, D. et al. Microfabrication of human organs-on-chips. Nat. Protoc.8, 2135–2157 (2013). Google Scholar
Zhang, W., Zhang, H., Williams, S. E. & Zhou, A. Microfabricated three-electrode on-chip PDMS device with a vibration motor for stripping voltammetric detection of heavy metal ions. Talanta132, 321–326 (2015). Google Scholar
Lee, B. et al. 3D micromesh-based hybrid bioprinting: multidimensional liquid patterning for 3D microtissue engineering. NPG Asia Mater.14, 6 (2022). ADS Google Scholar
Kang, H.-W. et al. A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity. Nat. Biotechnol.34, 312–319 (2016). Google Scholar
Lee, S.-Y., Kim, D.-S., Kim, E.-S. & Lee, D.-W. Nano-textured polyimide cantilever for enhancing the contractile behavior of cardiomyocytes and its application to cardiac toxicity screening. Sens. Actuators B Chem.301, 126995 (2019). Google Scholar
Riahi, R. et al. Automated microfluidic platform of bead-based electrochemical immunosensor integrated with bioreactor for continual monitoring of cell secreted biomarkers. Sci. Rep.6, 24598 (2016). ADS Google Scholar
Zervantonakis, I. K. et al. Three-dimensional microfluidic model for tumor cell intravasation and endothelial barrier function. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA109, 13515–13520 (2012). ADS Google Scholar
LeCluyse, E. L., Witek, R. P., Andersen, M. E. & Powers, M. J. Organotypic liver culture models: meeting current challenges in toxicity testing. Crit. Rev. Toxicol.42, 501–548 (2012). Google Scholar
Zhang, S. et al. A robust high-throughput sandwich cell-based drug screening platform. Biomaterials32, 1229–1241 (2011). Google Scholar
Bircsak, K. M. et al. A 3D microfluidic liver model for high throughput compound toxicity screening in the OrganoPlate®. Toxicology450, 152667 (2021). Google Scholar
Domansky, K. et al. Perfused multiwell plate for 3D liver tissue engineering. Lab Chip10, 51–58 (2010). Google Scholar
Boos, J. A., Misun, P. M., Michlmayr, A., Hierlemann, A. & Frey, O. Microfluidic multitissue platform for advanced embryotoxicity testing in vitro. Adv. Sci.6, 1900294 (2019). Google Scholar
Freag, M. S. et al. Human nonalcoholic steatohepatitis on a chip. Hepatol. Commun.5, 217–233 (2021). Google Scholar
Herland, A. et al. Quantitative prediction of human pharmacokinetic responses to drugs via fluidically coupled vascularized organ chips. Nat. Biomed. Eng.4, 421–436 (2020). Google Scholar