Effects of Iron Intake Through Food or Supplement on Iron Status and Performance of Healthy Adolescent Swimmers During a Training Season (original) (raw)

Int J Sports Med 2004; 25(4): 306-313
DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-45250

Nutrition

1Laboratory of Sport Hygiene and Nutrition, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

Further Information

Publication History

Accepted after revision: May 30, 2003

Publication Date:
26 May 2004 (online)

Abstract

Maintenance of a normal iron status is important for swimming performance during training and competition. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether 1) the iron status of healthy adolescent swimmers changes during a training season of six months, and 2) increasing daily iron intake affects iron status or performance. Forty-two (21 male and 21 female) swimmers, aged 12 - 17, without anemia or iron deficiency were divided into three equal groups. Group A received an iron supplement of 47 mg per day, group B followed a dietary plan rich in iron (providing, on average, 26 mg per day), and group C had a regular diet. Blood samples were taken before the beginning of the study and at the end of each of three training phases (moderate intensity training, high intensity training, and tapering) for the determination of hematological and iron status parameters. To evaluate performance, swimming tests at different distances were conducted along with blood sampling. The results showed significant fluctuations of iron status during the training season, including an increase in erythrocyte parameters during moderate intensity training. No significant differences in iron status or performance were found among the three groups. In conclusion, iron status and performance of healthy adolescent swimmers were affected by training irrespective of iron intake ranging from one to over five times the RDA over a period of six months.

Key words

Erythrocyte count - packed cell volume - hemoglobin - transferrin saturation - total iron-binding capacity - ferritin

References

1 Ainsworth B E, Haskell W L, Leon A S, Jacobs D R, Montoye H J, Sallis J F, Paffenbarger R S. Compendium of physical activities: classification of energy costs of human physical activities. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993; 25 71-80
2 Ainsworth B E, Haskell W L, Whitt M C, Irwin ML, Swartz AM, Strath S J, O’Brien W L, Bassett D R, Schmitz K H, Emplaincourt P O, Jacobs D R, Leon A S. Compendium of physical activities: an update of activity codes and MET intensities. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32 S498-S516
3 Brigham D E, Beard J L, Krimmel R S, Kenney W L. Changes in iron status during competitive season in female collegiate swimmers. Nutrition. 1993; 9 418-422
4 Committee on Diet and Health, National Research Council .Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. Washington, DC: National Academy Press 1989
5 European Commission .Reports of the Scientific Committee on Human Nutrition. Luxemburg: European Communities 1994
6 Fogelholm M, Jaakkola L, Lampisjarvi T. Effects of iron supplementation in female athletes with low serum ferritin concentration. Int J Sports Med. 1992; 13 158-162
7 Friedmann B, Weller E, Mairbaurl H, Bartsch P. Effects of iron repletion on blood volume and performance capacity in young athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001; 33 741-746
8 Hallberg L. Does calcium interfere with iron absorption. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998; 68 3-4
9 Haymes E M. Trace minerals and exercise. In: Wolinski I (ed) Nutrition in Exercise and Sport. Boca Raton: CRC Press 1998: 197-218
10 Hill R J, Davies P SW. The validity of self-reported energy intake as determined using the doubly labelled water technique. Br J Nutr. 2001; 85 415-430
11 Hinton P S, Giordano C, Brownlie T, Haas J D. Iron supplementation improves endurance after training in iron-depleted, nonanemic women. J Appl Physiol. 2000; 88 1103-1111
12 Holland B, Welch A A, Unwin I D, Buss D H, Paul A A, Southgate D AT. McCance and Widdowson’s ”The Composition of Foods“. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry 1991
13 Lukaski H C, Hoverson B S, Gallagher S K, Bolonchuk W W. Physical training and copper, iron, and zinc status of swimmers. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990; 51 1093-1099
14 Lukaski H C, Siders W A, Hoverson B S, Gallagher S K. Iron, copper, magnesium and zinc status as predictors of swimming performance. Int J Sports Med. 1996; 17 535-540
15 Lyle R M, Weaver C M, Sedlock D A, Rajaram S, Martin B, Melby C L. Iron status in exercising women: the effect of oral iron therapy vs increased consumption of muscle foods. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992; 56 1049-1055
16 Mujika I, Padilla S, Geyssant A, Chatard J C. Hematological responses to training and taper in competitive swimmers: relationships with performance. Arch Physiol Biochem. 1998; 105 379-385
17 Nielsen P, Nachtigall D. Iron supplementation in athletes. Current recommendations. Sports Med. 1998; 26 207-216
18 Pizza F X, Flynn M G, Boone J B, Rodriguez-Zayas J R, Andres F F. Serum haptoglobin and ferritin during a competitive running and swimming season. Int J Sports Med. 1997; 18 233-237
19 Roughead Z K, Hunt J R. Adaptation in iron absorption: iron supplementation reduces nonheme-iron but not heme-iron absorption from food. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 72 982-989
20 Rowland T W, Kelleher J F. Iron deficiency in athletes: insights from high school swimmers. Am J Dis Child. 1989; 143 197-200
21 Samuelsen G, Bratteby LE, Berggren K, Elverby JE, Kempe B. Dietary iron intake and iron status in adolescents. Acta Paed Int J Paed. 1996; 85 1033-1038
22 Schoeller D A. Limitations in the assessment of dietary energy intake by self-report. Metabolism. 1995; 44 18-22
23 Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds and Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and Interpretation and Uses of DRIs, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press 2000
24 Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Folate, Other B Vitamins, and Choline and Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press 2000
25 Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Micronutrients and Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and on Interpretation and Use of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press 2000
26 Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington, DC: National Academy Press 1999
27 Tanner J M, Whitehouse R H, Cameron N, Marshall W A, Healy M JR, Goldstein H. Assessment of Skeletal Maturity and Prediction of Adult Height (TW2 Method). London: Academic Press 1983
28 Telford R D, Cunningham R B, Deakin V, Kerr D A. Iron status and diet in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993; 25 796-800
29 Tietz N W. Clinical Guide to Laboratory Tests. Philadelphia: Saunders 1995
30 Trappe T A, Gastaldelli A, Jozsi A C, Troup J P, Wolfe R R. Energy expenditure of swimmers during high volume training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997; 29 950-954
31 van de Vijver L PL, Kardinaal A FM, Charzewska J, Rotily M, Charles P, Maggiolini M, Ando S, Väänänen K, Wajszczyk B, Heikkinen J, Deloraine A, Schaafsma G. Calcium intake is weakly but consistently negatively associated with iron status in girls and women in six European countries. J Nutr. 1999; 129 963-968
32 Weltman A. The Blood Lactate Response to Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics 1995: 83-85
33 Willan P LT, Bagnall K M, Kellett D W. Some haematological characteristics of competitive swimmers. Br J Sports Med. 1981; 15 238-241
34 World Health Organization .Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization (Technical Report Series 724) 1985

V. Mougios

TEFAA · University of Thessaloniki

54124 Thessaloniki · Greece

Phone: +302310992238

Email: mougios@phed.auth.gr