Protein phosphatase 2Cm is a critical regulator of branched-chain amino acid catabolism in mice and cultured cells (original) (raw)
Identification of phosphorylated BCKD complex as a PP2Cm substrate in cells. PP2Cm is a newly characterized member of the PP2C Ser/Thr phosphatase family. It is located exclusively in mitochondrial matrix and has a critical role in cell survival and vertebrate development (23). To uncover the underlying molecular mechanisms of these phenotypic effects, we sought to identify the potential substrate(s) of PP2Cm through a biochemical purification approach. We established stable HEK293 (Figure 1) and INS-1 (Supplemental Figure 1; supplemental material available online with this article; doi:10.1172/JCI38151DS1) cell lines expressing PP2Cm protein tagged with both FLAG and HA at its carboxyl terminus. Through sequential purification with anti-FLAG and anti-HA columns, PP2Cm protein complex was purified to near homogeneity. Three specific co-purified protein species were identified on silver-stained SDS PAGE gels (Figure 1A), and their molecular identities were analyzed by using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). The 3 specific binding proteins were identified as BCKD E2 subunit, E1α subunit, and E1β subunit, respectively (Supplemental Figure 1). The validity of the mass spectrometry results was confirmed by immunoblotting of the PP2Cm immunocomplex, using corresponding antibodies for E2, E1α, or total BCKD complex, respectively (Figure 1B). Notably, E3 subunit is absent from the PP2Cm immunocomplex.
PP2Cm interacts with the BCKD complex and dephosphorylates E1α at Ser293. (A) The PP2Cm immunocomplex was isolated using anti-FLAG antibody from a HEK293T cell line stably expressing PP2Cm-FLAG and separated on SDS-PAGE. Based on mass spectrometry, the molecular identity of specific protein species, as shown in a silver staining gel, was revealed as labeled. Lanes were run on the same gel but were nonadjacent. BCKDHA-E1α, branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase E1, α polypeptide; BCKDHB-E1β, branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase E1, β polypeptide; Dbt-E2, dihydrolipoamide branched-chain transacylase E2; Mr, molecular weight; CTRL, control sample from parental HEK293T cells without PP2Cm-FLAG expression following the same immunoprecipitation procedure. (B) Immunoblotting on the same SDS-PAGE gel, using specific antibodies for E2, E1α, and anti-(E1+E2) antibodies, which recognize E2, E1α, and E1β subunits to differing extents. (C) Immunoblotting on the same SDS-PAGE gel for pSer293 (pS293) E1α, total E1α, and PP2Cm is shown on separate rows as indicated (25). MEFs infected with adenoviral vector expressing PP2Cm (Adv-PP2Cm), at different MOI as indicated, were left untreated or treated with 5 mM BCKA mixture.
To investigate the potential role for PP2Cm as an pSer293 E1α phosphatase in cells, we examined ectopically expressed PP2Cm in WT MEFs. Ectopic expression of PP2Cm induced substantial pSer293 dephosphorylation under both basal conditions and after incubation with 5 mM BCKA mixture (Figure 1C). Taken together, these results indicate that PP2Cm interacts with BCKD complex and is capable of dephosphorylating pSer293 E1α as a potential substrate.
Generation of PP2Cm-deficient mouse model. To further evaluate whether PP2Cm functions as the endogenous BCKD phosphatase, we generated _PP2Cm_-deficient mice via homologous recombination in ES cells. A LacZ-expressing cassette was inserted into the translational initiation site of the PP2Cm allele, while replacing the major portion of exon 2 of the mouse PP2Cm gene (Figure 2A). The engineered PP2Cm null allele in recombinant ES cells and the subsequently derived heterozygous and homozygous animals were confirmed by genomic DNA Southern blot analysis (Supplemental Figure 2). In PP2Cm–/– animals, LacZ staining demonstrated high-level expression in brain, heart, liver, and diaphragm, recapitulating the expression profile of the endogenous PP2Cm mRNA as previously reported (23) (Supplemental Figure 3). Complete loss of PP2Cm expression in the PP2Cm–/– heart was confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR (Figure 2B) and immunoblotting (Figure 2C). In contrast, Bckdk mRNA was not changed in the PP2Cm–/– heart (Figure 2B). The distribution of WT, PP2Cm+/–, and PP2Cm–/– genotypes from PP2Cm+/– breeding pairs followed an expected Mendelian ratio (Supplemental Table 1). The PP2Cm–/– animals in a 129Sv/C57BL/6 background were generally viable and fertile when fed with a regular 18% protein diet and displayed no overt developmental abnormalities up to 1 year of age.
Generation of PP2Cm–/– mice. (A) Schematic illustration of gene-targeting strategy for the mouse PP2Cm gene. The NLS-LacZ (nuclear-localized lacZ) fragment was used to replace the coding sequence of PP2Cm in exon 2. (B) Real-time RT-PCR analysis of mRNA levels of BCKD kinase and PP2Cm in the heart, using primers against different PP2Cm exons as indicated. The relative mRNA levels were normalized against GAPDH and shown as relative levels to the signals from PP2Cm+/+ exon 1. The results were generated from 3 independent experiments and are shown as mean ± SEM. (C) Immunoblot analysis of total heart lysate from PP2Cm+/+ and _PP2Cm_–/– mice using anti-PP2Cm–specific polyclonal antibody. H, HindIII; NSB, nonspecific band.
PP2Cm is the essential BCKD phosphatase in MEFs. To investigate whether PP2Cm deficiency has any impact on E1α phosphorylation, we used MEFs prepared from both PP2Cm–/– and WT embryos. Equivalent Ser293 E1α phosphorylation was detected in PP2Cm–/– and WT MEFs in either the basal conditions or after 2 hours of amino acid starvation (Figure 3A). Thirty minutes after treatment of BCKA, Ser293 E1α was completely dephosphorylated in WT MEFs but not in PP2Cm–/– cells (Figure 3A). This result suggests that PP2Cm is an essential phosphatase for pSer293 E1α dephosphorylation in cells. Figure 3A also shows that compared with incubation in DMEM cell culture media, the protein level of BCKD kinase was substantially increased after amino acid starvation and subsequently decreased following exposure to BCKA in both PP2Cm–/– and WT MEFs. However, the relative concentration of BCKD kinase protein was substantially lower in PP2Cm–/– MEFs compared with WT controls (Figure 3A). In contrast, Bckdk mRNA was not changed in PP2Cm–/– MEFs (Figure 2B).
PP2Cm is the essential BCKD phosphatase in vitro. (A) PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– MEFs were first incubated in Krebs-Ringer-HEPES media at 37°C for 2 hours (basal conditions [Basal] and amino acid starvation [–AA]) and then treated with DMEM culture medium containing 5 mM each of the BCKA for an additional 30 minutes (treatment of BCKA [+KA]) as illustrated. Total cell lysates collected at different time points were subjected to immunoblotting analysis using anti–pSer293 E1α antibodies, BCKD kinase, and β-actin as indicated. PP2Cm protein was detected by immunoprecipitation and subsequent immunoblot using PP2Cm antibody as described (23). (B) PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– MEFs were infected with MOI 50 of Adv-PP2Cm (WT) or Adv–PP2Cm-R236G (R236G) for 48 hours. Cells were challenged by media containing 5 mM each of the BCKA for 30 minutes, and total cell lysates were analyzed by immunoblotting with the antibodies as indicated. (C) PP2Cm+/+ or PP2Cm–/– MEFs were stimulated with media containing 5 mM each of the BCKA in culture medium for up to 8 hours. The pSer293 and total E1α were measured by immunoblotting as indicated. The last 2 lanes were loaded with additional PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– samples from the 60-minute time point as internal controls.
We next attempted to determine whether the defect in pSer293 E1α dephosphorylation in PP2Cm–/– MEFs (Figure 3A) was specifically caused by the loss of PP2Cm. Using adenovirus-mediated gene transfer, we reintroduced either the WT or R236G, a phosphatase-dead mutant of PP2Cm, into _PP2Cm_–/– MEFs. As shown in Figure 3B, BCKA-stimulated dephosphorylation of pSer293 was restored by the WT PP2Cm but not the phosphatase-dead mutant. Moreover, in WT MEFs, ectopic expression of the WT PP2Cm enhanced pSer293 E1α dephosphorylation, while the phosphatase-dead mutant attenuated it, therefore functioning in a dominant-negative manner (Figure 3B). These data support the hypothesis that functional PP2Cm is fully responsible for E1α dephosphorylation activity.
To further test the specificity and relative contribution of PP2Cm in its BCKD phosphatase activity, WT or PP2Cm–/– MEFs were exposed to 5 mM BCKA for up to 8 hours; and the Ser293 E1α phosphorylation status was subsequently monitored. In WT MEFs, pSer293 E1α underwent robust dephosphorylation within 20 minutes of BCKA addition. However, it was only partially phosphorylated 3 hours later, presumably reflecting a gradual clearance of BCKA in the culture medium, leading to subsequent rephosphorylation of Ser293 (Figure 3C, upper panel). In PP2Cm–/– MEFs, however, the Ser293 E1α phosphorylation state was maintained for the entire 8 hours of BCKA exposure (Figure 3C, lower panel). These findings suggest that PP2Cm is indispensable and, most likely, the only mitochondrial BCKD phosphatase responsible for pSer293 dephosphorylation.
PP2Cm is required for E1α dephosphorylation in vivo. The above results demonstrate that PP2Cm is the essential BCKD phosphatase responsible for BCKA-stimulated Ser293 dephosphorylation in cultured cells. To determine whether PP2Cm plays a similar role in vivo, we evaluated Ser293 phosphorylation in various mouse tissues, including liver and heart from PP2Cm–/– animals (Figure 4A). It is well established that BCAA transamination occurs in extrahepatic organs, such as the heart, whereas BCKD-mediated oxidative decarboxylation is mostly active in the liver (2, 24). In WT mice with constant access to a standard 18% protein diet, hepatic Ser293 is hypophosphorylated (with some variation, perhaps due to random food intake), whereas cardiac Ser293 was hyperphosphorylated, consistent with a more activated state of the BCKD complex in liver relative to heart (Figure 4A). In contrast, hepatic pSer293 E1α was elevated in PP2Cm–/– mice fed with the same diet (Figure 4A). We have previously shown that hepatic immunoreactivity of the pSer293 antibody is directly correlated with BCKD activity state (25). To examine the effect of an increased body load of leucine and KIC, we administrated leucine suspension or vehicle to mice using oral gavage, as elevated plasma leucine would be rapidly converted to KIC in extrahepatic tissues and subsequently accumulate in the liver. After 30 minutes of leucine treatment, significant induction of pSer293 dephosphorylation was observed in liver samples isolated from WT mice, but the already elevated pSer293 phosphorylation was not affected in PP2Cm–/– liver (Figure 4, B–E). Thus, PP2Cm is an essential phosphatase for the dephosphorylation of E1α in vivo, either at normal or elevated BCAA/BCKA concentrations, further supporting the idea that PP2Cm is indeed the indispensable endogenous BCKD phosphatase.
PP2Cm is the essential BCKD phosphatase in vivo. (A) Immunoblotting analysis of total tissue lysates from the liver (top panel) and heart (bottom panel) of PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– mice, for both total and pSer293 E1α as indicated. (B) Representative immunoblots of liver lysate for pSer293 E1α, total E1α, and β-actin from PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– mice 30 minutes after oral administration with either saline vehicle (Veh) or leucine (Leu) as described in Methods. (C–E) The relative levels of pSer293 E1α (C) and total E1α (D) and their ratio (E) from PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– livers were quantified. The quantification of the pSer293 to total E1α ratio was normalized against vehicle-treated WT mice. All bar graphs represent mean ± SEM. *P < 0.01, saline-treated PP2Cm–/– versus _PP2Cm+/+_mice; #P < 0.01, leucine-treated versus saline-treated PP2Cm+/+ mice.
PP2Cm interacts with the BCKD complex through E2 and E1α subunits. To characterize the molecular mechanism underlying the specificity and function of PP2Cm as an E1α phosphatase, we first examined the interaction among PP2Cm and different subunits of the BCKD complex. Using an in vitro pull down assay, recombinant PP2Cm–glutathione-_S_-transferase (PP2Cm-GST) fusion protein showed direct interaction with recombinant His-tagged E2, whereas its binding with His-tagged E1α was much weaker and no direct interaction was detected with either the E1β or the E3 subunit under the same condition (Figure 5A). Although this result suggests that PP2Cm is recruited to its E1α substrate via direct binding to the E2 subunit, similar to what has been described for the BCKD kinase (26), the functional significance of its interaction with E1α and E1β subunits remains to be determined, as the E1 component of BCKD normally exists as a thiamine diphosphate-containing heterotetramer. The interaction between PP2Cm and BCKD was independent of PP2Cm phosphatase activity, since mutations of 3 residues required for PP2Cm catalytic activity (H129A, R236G, and D298A) (23) had no significant effect on PP2Cm interaction with E1α or E2 when overexpressed in COS7 cells (Figure 5B). In contrast, a PP2Cm mutant (PP2Cm-MD) lacking the mitochondrial targeting signal (23) had much diminished binding activity with the endogenous E2 or E1α (Figure 5B), supporting the notion that full binding activity requires colocalization of PP2Cm and BCKD complex in mitochondria. We also sought to address whether Ser293 and/or Ser303 residues of E1α were required for E1α interaction with PP2Cm. As shown in Figure 5C, substitution of Ser293, but not Ser303, to Ala substantially abrogated E1α interaction with PP2Cm, implying that Ser293 was the critical residue for PP2Cm binding, consistent with it being the critical phosphorylation/dephosphorylation residue targeted by both BCKD kinase and PP2Cm.
Specific association of PP2Cm with the BCKD complex. (A) Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) immunoprecipitation followed by anti-His or anti-GST immunoblotting, after incubation of GST-PP2Cm with His-tagged BCKD subunits as indicated. Five percent of the total input for the immunoprecipitation assay was also subjected to immunoblotting as shown. (B) COS7 cells were infected with adenoviruses expressing FLAG-tagged PP2Cm WT or mutants (H129A, R236G, D298A, and mitochondria-targeting defective [MD]) as indicated (MOI 50). Twenty-four hours later, total cell lysates were immunoprecipitated with M2 beads, followed by immunoblotting using anti-E1/E2 and anti-PP2Cm antibodies as indicated. The full-length PP2Cm (premature) and cleaved PP2Cm (mature) proteins were detected. (C) PP2Cm-FLAG was coexpressed with either HA-tagged WT E1α (E1α-HA) or mutants (Ser293A, Ser303A, and E1α-Ser293A/Ser303A) in HEK293T cells. Immunoblotting for E1α and PP2Cm in total cell lysates (input) or anti-FLAG immunoprecipitates are shown as indicated. (D–F) PP2Cm-FLAG–expressing 293T cells were treated with 5 mM BCKA for 1 hour (KA1H) or 3 days (KA3D). Total cell lysates were analyzed by immunoblot directly with the antibodies as labeled (D) or following immunoprecipitation with anti-E1α (E) or anti-FLAG (F) antibodies.
Nutrient signal differentially affects BCKD interaction with PP2Cm and BCKD kinase. BCKD activity is potently activated by elevated BCKA concentration via E1α dephosphorylation, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for this remain unclear. In the PP2Cm-FLAG–expressing HEK293 cells, incubation with 5 mM BCKA for 3 days led to marked Ser293 dephosphorylation, while total protein levels of BCKD subunits (E1α, E1β, and E2) were not affected (Figure 5D). In BCKD immunocomplexes isolated with anti-E1α antibody, the BCKD kinase was dramatically depleted to a nondetectable level after 1-hour exposure to BCKA, while PP2Cm-FLAG was only modestly reduced at this time point. After 3-day BCKA treatment, BCKD kinase levels remained very low in the BCKD complex, and PP2Cm-FLAG protein levels also showed marked reduction (Figure 5E). This result is consistent with a previous study demonstrating that elevated BCKA levels can prevent the association of BCKD kinase with the BCKD complex (22). Consistent with this observation, concentrations of BCKD subunits were gradually reduced in the PP2Cm immunocomplex over time as demonstrated by immunoprecipitation with anti-FLAG antibody (Figure 5F). Therefore, α-ketoacid substrates induced an immediate dissociation of BCKD kinase from the BCKD complex; in contrast, the PP2Cm interaction with the BCKD complex was only affected after longer periods of exposure. The differential impact of the nutrient signal on PP2Cm versus BCKD kinase interaction with the enzyme complex provides a potential molecular basis for the rapid Ser293 dephosphorylation of E1α when plasma BCAA concentrations increase (Figure 5F).
PP2Cm deficiency impaired the catabolism of BCAA and BCKA in mice. Because the phosphorylation level of E1α at Ser293 inversely correlates with the plasma level of leucine (25), we asked whether the plasma level of BCAA was altered in PP2Cm–/– mice in which hepatic E1α was constitutively hyperphosphorylated. As shown in Figure 6A, plasma BCAA concentrations were indeed significantly higher in randomly fed PP2Cm–/– mice compared with WT controls of the same genetic background (PP2Cm–/–, 1,122 ± 79 μM; n = 9 vs. WT, 691 ± 111 μM; n = 8; P < 0.05). In WT mice deprived of food for 6 hours, an i.p. injection of leucine increased the plasma BCAA level to approximately 950 μM in 30 minutes, which then recovered to near the basal level after 1 hour (n = 4; Figure 6B). However, the same leucine administration in PP2Cm–/– mice led to higher BCAA concentrations, approximately 1,500 μM at 30 minutes, which remained elevated over time compared with the WT controls, even after 4 hours (Figure 6, B and C). In response to a higher dose of leucine administrated orally to animals deprived of food overnight, PP2Cm–/– mice also had approximately 2-fold higher plasma BCAA levels than the WT mice (Figure 6D). The plasma levels of BCKA were higher, or trended to be higher, in vehicle-treated PP2Cm–/– mice compared with WT mice (Figure 6, E–G). Thirty minutes after leucine administration, plasma BCKA concentrations were not changed significantly in WT animals (Figure 6, E–G), even though their plasma BCAA concentrations rose by an approximately 4-fold increase (leucine treated, 3,963 ± 461 μM vs. saline treated, 969 ± 235 μM; P < 0.05; Figure 6D) at the same time point, suggesting a robust clearance capacity for BCKA. In contrast, the plasma KIC concentration in PP2Cm–/– animals rose dramatically, by a more than 8-fold increase (leucine treated, 413.5 ± 43.4 μM vs. saline treated, 47.9 ± 8.2 μM; P < 0.001; Figure 6E). These data clearly indicate that loss of PP2Cm leads to elevated BCAA plasma concentration and impaired BCKA clearance, as would be expected for BCKD deficiency in MSUD patients.
BCAA catabolic defects in _PP2Cm_-deficient mice. (A) Plasma concentrations of BCAA in randomly fed PP2Cm+/+ (n = 8) and _PP2Cm_–/– (n = 9) mice. Results are presented as mean ± SEM. **P < 0.05, Student’s t test. (B and C) WT (n = 4) and _PP2Cm_–/– (n = 4) mice were fasted for 6 hours and then i.p. administered a 150-mM leucine solution. Blood samples were collected and BCAA were measured at different time points as indicated. The changes in total (B) and baseline-corrected (C) plasma levels of BCAA upon leucine challenge are presented as mean ± SEM. *P < 0.05, Student’s t test. (D–G) Plasma levels of BCAA (D), KIC (E), α-keto-β-methylvalerate (KMV) (F), and α-ketoisovalerate (KIV) (G) in WT (black bars) and PP2Cm–/– (white bars) animals 30 minutes after oral administration of 1.027 M leucine slurry (n = 5–6) or saline (n = 3) following overnight fast. Results are presented as mean ± SEM. *P < 0.05, ***P < 0.001, Student’s t test.
Loss of PP2Cm increases reactive oxygen species. Elevated lipid peroxidation and impaired antioxidant defense have been implicated in human MSUD patients, indicative of increased level of oxidative stress (27–29). In addition, it has been shown that BCKA treatment triggers elevation of reactive oxygen species in cells and animals, presumably through cytotoxic inactivation of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase (30, 31). To investigate whether PP2Cm deficiency also resulted in induction of oxidative stress, we measured the level of reactive oxygen species in PP2Cm–/– and WT MEFs using dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCF-DA) fluorescent dye. Reactive oxygen species levels were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in PP2Cm–/– MEFs compared with WT MEFs, either before or after incubation with BCKA (Figure 7A). Superoxide concentrations were also significantly (P < 0.05) higher in PP2Cm–/– compared with WT MEFs. Importantly, superoxide levels in both WT and PP2Cm–/– MEFs were significantly decreased by ectopically expressed WT PP2Cm (Figure 7B), clearly demonstrating that PP2Cm deficiency was the specific cause of the increased oxidative stress. More significantly, in all PP2Cm–/– tissues tested, including aorta, liver, and lung, there was a marked induction of superoxide level relative to the WT controls (Figure 7C and Supplemental Figure 4). Thus, PP2Cm deficiency led to oxidative stress both in vitro and in vivo.
Oxidative stress in _PP2Cm_-deficient cells and tissues. (A) Representative dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCF-DA) fluorescence images of PP2Cm+/+ and PP2Cm–/– MEFs treated with or without 5 mM BCKA at 37°C for 30 minutes. Fluorescent signals were recorded digitally under the same setting, and the relative fluorescence intensity compared with the control is shown as labeled. Scale bars: 100 μm. (B) Electron spin resonance measurement of superoxide level in WT and _PP2Cm_–/– MEFs under basal conditions, infected with (gray bars) or without (white bars) Adv-PP2Cm (MOI = 100). Results are presented as mean ± SEM. *P < 0.05, Student’s t test. (C) Electron spin resonance measurement of superoxide production in liver from randomly fed animals. Results are presented as mean ± SEM. *P < 0.05, Student’s t test. (D) Survival curve of offspring from the breeding of male PP2Cm–/– mice and female PP2Cm+/– mice fed a high-protein diet.
Loss of PP2Cm sensitizes neonates to premature death when fed a high-protein diet. Classic type MSUD patients develop adverse symptoms soon after birth and have high postnatal mortality in the absence of proper dietary control. When PP2Cm+/– females were bred with PP2Cm–/– males and fed a high-protein diet during and after their pregnancies, the PP2Cm–/– offspring had a substantially higher incidence of premature death compared with PP2Cm+/– littermates (Figure 7D).