Human Sleep, Sleep Loss and Behaviour | The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core (original) (raw)

Extract

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) consists of the cortex lying in front of the primary and secondary motor cortex, and includes the dorsolateral and orbital areas, frontal eye fields, and Broca's area. Not all of the functions of the PFC are known, but key ones are the maintenance of wakefulness and non-specific arousal, and the recruiting of various cortical areas required to deal with tasks in hand (Luria, 1973; Stuss & Benson, 1986; Fuster, 1989). Other roles include (Kolb & Whishaw, 1985) planning, sensory comparisons, discrimination, decisions for action, direction and maintenance of attention at a specific task, execution of associated scanning eye movements, and initiation and production of novel goal-directed behaviour (especially with speech). Of the senses, vision makes a particular demand of the PFC, and this is reflected by the frontal eye fields.

References

Andreasen, N. C. (1989) Neural mechanisms of negative symptoms. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155 (suppl. 7), 93–98.Google Scholar

Andreasen, N. C., Ehrhardt, J. C., Swayze, V. W., et al (1990) Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 35—44.Google Scholar

Ariel, R. N., Golden, C. J., Berg, R. A., et al (1983) Regional cerebral blood flow in schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 258—263.Google Scholar

Barnes, T. R. E., (ed.) (1989) Negative symptoms in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155 (suppl. 7), 1–135.Google Scholar

Banderet, L. E., Stokes, J. W., Francesconi, R., et al (1981) Artillery teams in simulated sustained combat: performance and other measures. In Biological Rhythms, Sleep and Shift Work (ed. Johnson, L. C.), pp. 459–477. New York: Spectrum.Google Scholar

Baxter, L. R., Schwartz, J. M., Phelps, M. E., et al (1989) Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 243—250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bench, C. J., Dolan, R. J., Friston, K. J., et al (1990) Positron emission tomography in the study of brain metabolism in psychiatric and neuropsychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157 (suppl. 9), 82—95.Google Scholar

Benson, K. L., Csernansky, J. G. & Zarcone, V. P. (1990) BPRS symptoms and sleep variables in schizophrenia. Sleep Research, 19, 158.Google Scholar

Benson, K. L., Faull, K. F. & Zarcone, V. P. (1991) Evidence for the role of serotonin in the regulation of slow wave sleep in schizophrenia. Sleep, 14, 133—139.Google Scholar

Berman, K. F., Zec, R. F. & Weinberger, D. R. (1986) Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia: 2. Role of neuroleptic treatment, attention, and mental effort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 126—135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Berman, K. F., & Weinberger, D. R. (1990) The prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric diseases: in vivo physiological correlates of cognitive deficits. Progress in Brain Research, 85, 521—537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Blagrove, M., Alexander, C. & Horne, J. (1991) The effects of sleep deprivation on a test of field-independence. Sleep Research, 20A, 458.Google Scholar

Bliss, E. L., Clark, L. D. & West, C. D. (1959) Studies of sleep deprivation - relationship to schizophrenia. Archives of Neurology, 81, 348—359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bosch, R. J. van den & Rosendaal, N. (1988) Subjective cognitive dysfunction, eye tracking, and slow brain potentials in schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients. Biological Psychiatry, 24, 741—746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Buchsbaum, M. S., Mendelson, W. B., Duncan, W. C., et al (1982) Topographical cortical mapping of EEG sleep states during daytime naps in normal subjects. Sleep, 5, 248—255.Google Scholar

Buchsbaum, M. S., DeLisi, L. E., Halcomb, H. H., et al (1984) Anteroposterior gradients in cerebral glucose use in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 1159—1166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Buchsbaum, M. S., Gillin, J. C., Wu, J., et al (1989) Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Life Sciences, 45, 1349—1356.Google Scholar

Buchsbaum, M. S., Neuchterlein, K. H., Haier, R. J., et al (1990) Glucose metabolic rate in normals and schizophrenics during the continuous performance test assessed by positron emission tomography. British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 216—227.Google Scholar

Crow, T. J. (1980) Molecular pathology of schizophrenia: more than one disease process? British Medical Journal, 280, 66—68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Crow, T. J. (1989) The type 2 syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155 (suppl. 7), 15—20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

David, A. S. & Cutting, J. C. (1990) Affect, affective disorder and schizophrenia. A neuropsychological investigation of right hemisphere function. British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 491—495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

DeKosky, S. T. & Bass, N. H. (1982) Aging, senile dementia and the intralaminar microchemistry of cerebral cortex. Neurology, 32, 1227—1233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Feinberg, I. & Hiatt, J. F. (1979) Sleep patterns in schizophrenia: a selective review. In Sleep Disorders, Diagnosis and Treatment (eds Williams, R. L., Karacan, I. & Frazier, S. H.), pp. 205–231. New York: Wiley Google Scholar

Frith, C. D. & Done, D. J. (1988) Towards a neuropsychology of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 437—443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fuster, J. M. (1989) The Prefrontal Cortex. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar

Ganguli, R., Reynolds, C. F. & Kupfer, D. J. (1987) Electroencephalographic sleep in young, never-medicated schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 36—44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., Obrist, W. O., et al (1987) Age and regional cerebral blood flow at rest and during cognitive activity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 617—621.Google Scholar

Hawkins, D. R., Taub, J. M. & Castle, R. L., van de (1985) Extended sleep (hypersomnia) in young depressed patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 905—910.Google ScholarPubMed

Hawton, K., Shepstone, B., Soper, N., et al (1990) Single-photon emission computerised tomography (SPECT) in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 425—427.Google Scholar

Herscovitch, J., Stuss, D. & Broughton, R. (1980) Changes in cognitive processing following short-term cumulative partial sleep deprivation and recovery oversleeping. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2, 301—319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hiatt, J. F., Floyd, T. C., Katz, P. H., et al (1985) Further evidence of abnormal non-rapid eye movement sleep in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 797—802.Google Scholar

Horne, J. A. (1988a) Sleep loss and divergent thinking ability. Sleep, 11, 528—536.Google Scholar

Horne, J. A. (1988b) Why We Sleep: the Functions of Sleep in Humans and Other Mammals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Horne, J. A. & Pettitt, A. N. (1985) High incentive effects on vigilance performance during 72 hours' total sleep deprivation. Acta Psychologica, 58, 123—139.Google Scholar

Kaiya, H., Uematsu, M., Ofuji, M., et al (1989) Computerised tomography in schizophrenia-familial versus non-familial forms of illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 444—450.Google Scholar

Kammen, D. P., van, Kammen, W. B., van Peters, J., et al (1988) Decreased slow wave sleep and enlarged lateral ventricles in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 1, 265—271.Google Scholar

Keshavan, M. S., Reynolds, C. F. & Kupfer, D. (1990) Electroencephalographic sleep in schizophrenia: a critical review. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30, 34—47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kolb, B. & Whishaw, I. Q. (1985) Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2nd edn). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar

Kollar, E. J., Slater, G. R., Palmer, J. O., et al (1966) Stress in subjects undergoing sleep deprivation. Medicine, 28, 101—113.Google Scholar

Koranyi, E. K. & Lehmann, H. E. (1960) Experimental sleep deprivation in schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 2, 534—544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kraepelin, E. (1919) Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia. Edinburgh: Livingstone.Google Scholar

Kupfer, D. J., Ulrich, R. F., Coble, P. A., et al (1985) Electroencephalographic sleep of young depressives. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 806—810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kupfer, D. J., & Reynolds, C. F. (1989) Slow wave sleep as a protective factor. In Eating, Sleeping and Sex (eds Stunkard, A. J. & Baum, A.), pp. 131—145. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Kupfer, D. J., Frank, E., McEachran, A. B., et al (1990) Delta sleep ratio-a biological correlate of early recurrence in unipolar affective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 1100—1105.Google Scholar

Luby, E. D. & Gottlieb, J. S. (1966) Sleep deprivation. In American Handbook of Psychiatry (ed. Arieti, S.), pp. 406–419. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar

Luby, E. D. & Caldwell, D. F. (1967) Sleep deprivation and EEG slow wave activity in chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 17, 361—364.Google Scholar

Maquet, P., Dive, D., Salmon, E., et al (1990) Cerebral glucose utilisation during sleep-wake cycle in man determined by positron emission tomography and [18F] 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose method. Brain Research, 513, 136—143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mathew, R. J. (1989) Hyperfrontality of regional blood flow distribution in normals during resting wakefulness: fact or artifact? Biological Psychiatry, 26, 717—724.Google Scholar

Milner, B. & Petrides, M. (1984) Behavioural effects of frontallobe lesions in man. Trends in Neurosciences, 7, 403—407.Google Scholar

Morris, G. O., Williams, H. L. & Lubin, A. (1960) Misperception and disorientation during sleep deprivation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 2, 247—254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mortimer, A. M., Lund, C. E. & McKenna, P. J. (1990) The positive-negative dichotomy in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 41—49.Google Scholar

Naitoh, P., Johnson, L. C. & Lubin, A. (1971) A modification of surface negative slow potential (CNV) in the human brain after sleep loss. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 30, 17—22.Google Scholar

Nielsen, T., Godbout, R., Petit, D., et al (1991) Intrahemispheric EEG coherence: role of frontal lobe connections in EEG slow wave generation. Sleep Research, 20, 28.Google Scholar

Norton, R. (1970) The effects of acute sleep deprivation on selective attention. British Journal of Psychology, 61, 157—161.Google Scholar

Parkin, A. J. & Walter, B. M. (1991) Aging, short-term memory and frontal dysfunction. Psychobiology, 19, 175—179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pettigrew, J. W., Keshavan, M., Panchalingham, K., et al (1992) Alterations in brain high energy phosphate and membrane phospholipid metabolism in first episode, drug naive schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Reynolds, G. P. (1989) Beyond the dopamine hypothesis the neurochemical pathology of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 305—316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Reynolds, C. F., Kupfer, D. J., Thase, M. E., et al (1990) Sleep, gender and depression: an analysis of gender effects on the electroencephalographic sleep of 302 depressed outpatients. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 673—684.Google Scholar

Roland, P. E. (1984) Metabolic measurements of the working frontal cortex in man. Trends in Neuroscience, 7, 430—435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ross, E. D. (1981) The aprosodias. Archives of Neurology, 38, 561—569.Google Scholar

Sawaya, R. & Ingvar, D. H. (1989) Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in sleep. Acta Neurologia Scandinavica, 80, 481—491.Google Scholar

Scheibel, M. E., Lindsay, R. D., Tomiyasu, U., et al (1975) Progressive dendritic changes in aging human cortex. Experimental Neurology, 47, 392—403.Google Scholar

Smith, G. N., Iacono, W. G., Moreau, M., et al (1988) Choice of comparison group and findings of computerised tomography in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 667—674.Google Scholar

Stuss, D. T. & Benson, D. F. (1986) The Frontal Lobes. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar

Tandon, R., Shipley, J. E., Taylor, S., et al (1992) Electroencephalographic sleep in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 185—194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Taylor, M. A. & Abrahams, R. (1984) Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 196—201.Google ScholarPubMed

Thaker, G. K., Wagman, A. M. I. & Tamminga, C. A. (1990) Sleep polygraphy in: methodological issues. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 240—246.Google Scholar

Webb, W. B. (1982) Sleep in older persons: sleep structures of 50 to 60 year old men and women. Journal of Gerontology, 37, 581—586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Weintraub, S., Mesulam, M. M. & Kramer, L. (1981) Disturbances in prosody - a right hemisphere contribution to language. Archives of Neurology, 38, 742—744.Google Scholar

Wu, J. C. & Bunney, W. E. (1990) The biological basis of an antidepressant response to sleep deprivation and relapse: review and hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 14—21.Google Scholar