Training and Detraining Effects of the Resistance vs.... : The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research (original) (raw)
Introduction
Weight control is an important issue for health promotion and early intervention in disease prevention (20). The transition from adolescence to young adulthood is associated with a sharp weight gain because of declining physical activity and changes in eating behavior (25). This makes weight control a high priority for young adults with regard to preventing cardiovascular diseases later in life (20). Moreover, teaching young men to maintain an appropriate amount of fat percentage and regional body size, increase strength and have better cardiovascular function can not only promote health but also lead to a greater understanding of healthy behavior (25). In this respect, a key element is regular physical activity, which is strongly associated with controlling total body weight because of the increased energy expenditure involved (6).
Resistance and endurance training has long been known to increase functional abilities and health status, primarily by changing body composition (26,32) and physical performance (3,7). Moreover, both types of training can induce alterations in whole-body lean mass (LM) and fat mass (FM), which also correspond to improved health and fitness (26). Resistance training increases fat-free mass (FFM) and the respiratory exchange ratio (2), decreases total FM, and substantially increases both upper and lower body strengths (UBS, LBS [2,17,39]). In contrast, endurance training changes body composition significantly (30) and induces increases in maximal oxygen uptake and metabolic adaptations that lead to an increase in exercise capacity (21,33). Although endurance training often does not significantly increase muscle mass, aerobic endurance training may be more effective in increasing peak oxygen consumption than anaerobic resistance training (11,40).
However, not much research has been conducted on the effects of detraining adaptations with regard to different training modes and physical performance (28), although a number of recent studies focused on detraining have been based on a program of combined resistance and endurance training (4,8,35-37). Moreover, although numerous studies have also focused on obese subjects or seniors (2,8,27,37,39,40), less is known concerning changes in body weight with regard to intervention research focusing on young men (25), particularly comparing the responses to resistance vs. endurance training (28,31). This lack of research attention is despite the current high prevalence of overweight young adults (25), and thus our aim is to investigate which form of exercise training would better assist young men in maintaining better body composition and increase their physical performance. Moreover, despite the lack of research, it is widely considered important for young men to regularly engage in both resistance and endurance training and for those who are currently at a healthy weight to strive to maintain it, because both these factors are associated with a significantly decreased risk of disease.
To address this topic, we hypothesized that endurance and resistance training would have different body composition adaptations for different regions of the body in young men. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate changes in the body composition, body size, muscle strength, and O2max of untrained young men during training and detraining in response to resistance and endurance programs.
Methods
Experimental Approach to the Problem
To test the hypothesis presented above, the independent variables were endurance and resistance training, and the dependent variables were body composition, body circumferences, cardiorespiratory fitness (O2max), and muscle strength (1RM). Subjects were randomly assigned to either the control, resistance, or endurance groups. Subjects trained 3 times a week for 24 weeks, and the changes between the groups were investigated. There then followed a 24-week period of detraining, and the physical changes in the subjects were also observed. All dependent variables were measured following the balanced order principle during pretraining, posttraining, and after 24 weeks of detraining. The internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of the dependent variables was found to range from 0.68 to 0.99. All body composition and size measurements were taken in the morning on an empty stomach, and strength and cardiovascular fitness were tested 1 hour after breakfast. To avoid any residual fatigue induced by recent exercise, all subjects were informed not to do any strenuous training 2 days before the test. The resistance group performed 10 resistance exercises (SportsArt fitness, Tainan, Taiwan) at 3 different intensities. The endurance group performed a 30-minute run on a treadmill machine (T630, SportsArt fitness), maintained at an intensity of 70-85% heart rate (HR) reserve ([(HRmax − HRrest) × 0.7] + HRrest) (18). All exercise training was performed in the evening at the National Cheng Kung University fitness center.
Subjects
Thirty-four healthy nonathletic male students with a mean age of 20.4 ± 1.36 who had not been exercising regularly for the past year volunteered to participate in the study in January 2007. Four subjects were later asked to cease training because they missed more than 6 training sessions. Subjects were randomly assigned to their exercise groups (control group [CG; n = 10], endurance training group [ETG; n = 10], and resistance training [RTG; n = 10]). Subjects trained under supervision 3 times a week for 24 weeks and then underwent a 24-week detraining period in which no exercise training was allowed. Subjects' physical characteristics are presented in Table 1. There were no significant differences among the groups with respect to age, body composition, and physical activity level at baseline. All subjects were asked to complete a detailed medical history form and a health examination survey, received a complete explanation of the purpose, risks, and procedures of the study, and a written consent form was given to all of them to read and sign before participating in the research. All subjects were nonsmokers and free of significant cardiovascular, metabolic, and musculoskeletal disorders. The aims and protocols of this project were approved by the National Cheng Kung University Hospital Human Experimentation Committee.
Physical characteristics and physical activity levels of the subjects in each group.*†
Procedures
Body Composition
Body fat percentages were estimated with dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (GE Lunar Prodigy, Madison, WI, USA) at the National Cheng Kung University Hospital. Subjects were positioned on the scanner table, and total body cuts were positioned as per the manufacturer's standard specifications. Total body LM, FM, and regional fat mass of the total body, trunk, arms, and legs were analyzed by using enCore software (version 6.10.029; GE Lunar Corp, Madison, WI, USA) to calculate the percentage of total body fat.
Body Circumferences
Body girth was measured on the right side of the body at 5 sites (arm, abdomen, hips [buttocks], thigh, and waist) using a flexible yet inelastic tape. Measurement sites were rotated for retesting to allow time for the skin to regain normal texture (10). A further measurement at each site was taken and retested if duplicate measurements were not within 5 mm. Our data show excellent internal consistency (coefficient alpha = 0.95), and test-retest reliability shows a range from 0.82 to 0.92.
Cardiorespiratory Fitness
The O2max and HRmax were determined at baseline in a graded exercise test using a modified version of the Bruce protocol on a treadmill (Quinton 65) to determine the fitness level of the subjects (10). The AeroSport KB1-C (Model 21, AeroSport, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, USA) portable metabolic gas analyzer was used to measure O2, carbon dioxide production (CO2), minute ventilation (E), and HR with breathing by breath analysis (averaged every 20 seconds) during the testing procedure.
Strength Testing
All subjects were given standardized instructions and had several trials to familiarize themselves with the proper use of the resistance machines before the strength test to help prevent injuries. Because the subjects had never undertaken strength training before, and to further ensure their safety, a program of submaximum repetitions-to-fatigue was implemented using seated chest press (UBS) and knee extension (LBS) resistance machines (SportsArt, A915 and A957) to predict their 1RM (1).
Exercise Intervention
The resistance training group (RTG) underwent gradually progressive, supervised strength training 3 times a week with at least 48 hours of rest between the training sessions for 24 weeks. Five minutes of brisk walking on the treadmill before resistance training and a whole body stretch before and after training were employed. Subjects exercised on selected resistance machines (SportsArt fitness) to focus on 10 major muscle groups in the following order: seated chest press, lat pull down, seated shoulder press, seated biceps curl, seated triceps extension, seated leg extension, lying leg curl, seated back extension, seated abdominal curl, and standing calf raise. Subjects performed at a weight that they could lift easily in a circuit training workout of 15 repetitions for the first 8 weeks, then 1 set at 75% of 1RM for 10 repetitions for the next 8 weeks, and 2 sets at 90% 1RM for 4 repetitions thereafter. The weight lifted was increased by 5% when subjects could perform the last repetition with ease and good form. The ETG exercised with a 30-minute run on a treadmill machine (SportsArt fitness, T630), maintained at an intensity of 70-85% HR reserve ([(HRmax − HRrest) × 0.7] + HRrest) (10) 3 times a week for 24 weeks. A Polar HR (810) monitor was used to monitor the HR. Subjects in the CG were instructed to continue their habitual physical activities and reminded not to do any extra exercise during the course of the study.
Statistical Analyses
Data analysis was performed using SPSS software (version 13.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Baseline measures were presented as means and _SD_s. The comparisons of the means among 3 groups were evaluated by 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) was used to simultaneously test the differences of several measurements among 3 groups at 3 different times. When Wilk's lambda values were significant in MANOVA, 1-way ANOVA was used on physical characteristics (body composition and body size), strength, and O2max to determine whether the training programs had any effects. In addition, Scheffe's post hoc tests were used to find which 2 groups had significant differences. All tests were 2 tailed, and a p value ≤ 0.05 was considered to be significant. To complement the use of significance testing, estimates of effect size (partial eta-squares, η2) were provided for group comparison.
Results
Table 1 shows the physical characteristics for each group and the variables between baselines. Baseline characteristics of the subjects in 3 groups did not differ significantly. After 24 weeks of exercise training, the weight of the ETG and RTG continued to decrease (3%, 2%) but rose again after detraining, although there were no significant differences between groups.
As shown in Figure 1 for the cardiorespiratory exercise test, the ETG improved their O2max by 17% and RTG by 12%. The results for O2max from both the ETG and RTG were significantly higher than for the CG after training and detraining (_F_[2,81] = 7.48, p = 0.001, partial η2 = 0.156), but there were no significant differences between the 2 experimental groups. Figure 2 shows the RTG improved significantly more in UBS (32%) than in the ETG (6%) and in the CG (6%) after training (_F_[2,81] = 8.0201, p = 0.001, partial η2 = 0.165). Moreover, although after detraining, the UBS of the RTG decreased, it still remained better than the baseline strength. Figure 3 shows the LBS in the RTG increased significantly more (71%) than in both the ETG (12%) and CG (−2%) (_F_[2,81] = 9.14, p <0.001, partial η2 = 0.184), and the ETG was better in strength than the CG (p = 0.012) after training. Therefore, the training and detraining effects of LBS in the RTG were significantly better than the ETG and CG in comparison to the baseline, and also within each group (_F_[2,81] = 5.91, p = 0.004, partial η2 = 0.127).
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Table 2 shows the means, _SD_s, and changes data for each of the body size tests for all 3 groups during different stages of the study. The RTG showed the greatest increase in arm size after training (_F_[2,81] = 3.17, p = 0.004, partial η2 = 0.073). However, the other variables for the body size showed no significant differences within groups with regard to the waist-hip ratio, waist, hip, and thigh after training and detraining.
Changes in the body sizes of the subjects during baseline, training, and detraining.*
As shown in Table 3, the body fat percentage increased by 10.1% in the CG after training, whereas for the ETG and RTG, the fat percentage and mass decreased 0.4-0.6%. The total LM and arm LM in the RTG increased more significantly than in the ETG and CG groups after training (total LM: _F_[2,81] = 3.49, p = 0.035, partial η2 = 0.079; arm LM: _F_[2,81] = 4.20, p = 0.007, partial η2 = 0.0.95) and also showed a steadier level of maintenance from the baseline. There were no significant differences in body FM with regard to other parts of the body.
Changes in the body composition of the subjects during training and detraining.*
Discussion
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to compare the influences of resistance and endurance training on body composition, body size, and physical performance with regard to detraining in young men. The major findings of this study are as follows: (a) that both kinds of training were effective in improving resistance and aerobic endurance and (b) that after 24 weeks of detraining, body weight, body size, and cardiovascular fitness all went back to the baseline values, and only the RTG had strength and LM that were higher than the baseline values after detraining.
The LBS and O2max increased with both endurance and resistance training, whereas strength improved significantly in the chest (UBS) and quadriceps (LBS) only with the latter. Our data support the notion that a short, moderate-intensity resistance training program produces substantial improvements in maximal muscle strength and an increase in lean weight (2,4,5).
In our experiment, the RTG showed a significant increase in LM, which proves the presence of muscle hypertrophy. Muscle hypertrophy is the increase in both myofiber size and the number of capillaries (34). The increased capillary supply of blood to the skeletal muscle may play a vital role in determining aerobic metabolic function (14). Research conducted by Hoff et al. (16) showed maximal strength training with emphasis on neural adaptations improved strength, particularly rate of force development, and improved aerobic endurance performance by improving work economy in trained young athletes. Their conclusions are echoed in our finding that resistance training improved endurance performance (O2max). Therefore, the key mechanism of the endurance performance (O2max) increase may be the increase in muscular work economy, myofiber size, and the associated changes in myofiber contractile properties induced by resistance training (14,16,34).
In contrast, it is difficult to explain the discrepancy in the lower body strength response of endurance training. This is different from the conclusions of other research, because most studies conclude that endurance training has little or no effect in progressive increases of leg strength (19,31), but our research found increases in leg strength of 11.3%, and this could be because of the sedentary lifestyles of the young adults in our sample. Previous research has shown that endurance training for the initial period stimulates the contraction of the muscles and in this way increases the leg strength (9). Moreover, a running program is a kind of low-intensity strength training, because the person exercising works with their own body weight, and this is also effective in improving strength (9). Furthermore, short-term, intermediate, and high-intensity endurance training is beneficial with regard to strengthening O2max (15). Based on the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct physical adaptations. Some studies investigating combinations of strength and endurance training found that such programs increased maximal oxygen uptake, muscle strength, and electromyography activity (14,31). However, our data support the notion that resistance and endurance training may interact to enhance rather than to hinder strength and endurance developments, in line with previous observations during training in young men (13).
The acute effects of exercise training on changing body composition are still unconfirmed, because some studies showed changes only in body FFM (28,31), some in body composition (32,37), and some no changes in body composition (9,28). Therefore, subjects, time, exercise intervention, and measurement methods all need to be considered when conducting the experiment. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry is considered to be a valid technique for fat and muscle tissue measurement and is also the most sensitive method for assessing even small changes in body composition, and thus, it was used in this study. Although both exercise training groups had an average reduction of 0.4-0.6% body fat and 1.6-1.7% body weight, our results show that body weight and FM did not change significantly between groups, but body LM and LM of the arms increased in the RTG compared with the ETG and CG. The results in Poehlman et al. (28) showed the same tendency with young women that body weight and FM did not change among the 3 groups, but LM was increased in the subjects who took part in resistance training. However, it is difficult to show significant differences with regard to the effects of different exercises on body fat and weight, and many previous investigations have obtained conflicting results (14,28,31,36). The subjects in this study were of normal weight at the baseline and thus likely to respond differently to the exercise intervention than subjects who are significantly underweight or overweight. However, the effects of resistance training on increased LM and strength gains in different subjects are uncontroversial (5,28,31). Prestes et al.'s (29) study showed decreased FM and increased LM after 12 weeks of progressive resistance training, similar to our findings.
Although not significant, our data show a trend toward a reduction in body fat and change in body circumference in the RTG. In particular, the increase in the LM of the arms was significant from baseline to training. The reason for the increase in arm circumference in the RTG was probably because of muscle hypertrophy, because our data also show a significant increase in both the lean body mass and strength. The upper arm belongs to a small muscle group, and the early gains in strength and LM were accompanied by muscle hypertrophy and, presumably, faster neural adaptation (5,27). In contrast to the arm, the thigh belongs to a larger muscle group, and thus, the more prolonged neural adaptation related to the more complex bench and leg press movements may have delayed hypertrophy in these regions. Another reason could be that legs involve more joints and fixator muscles and were used in with more complex exercises, and thus, learning and coordination played a significant role early in training, and this may also have delayed hypertrophy (5). Different times for neural adaptation and muscle hypertrophy could also explain why the 24 weeks of short-term resistance training resulted in different effects for larger and smaller muscle groups (5).
Although there were positive effects on physical performance, body composition, and some body circumferences that occurred after training ended, the results returned to baseline levels after detraining in the exercise groups. On the other hand, this study observed that LM, RTG strength, and ETG waistline were able to be maintained for the 24 weeks of detraining. The prolonged detraining resulted in reduced cardiorespiratory efficiency, reduction in fiber cross-sectional area, and decreased capillary density (12,23,24). The O2max loss during detraining seems to be dependent on time and initial fitness level, because the recently acquired O2max gains were completely lost after training was stopped for a period >4 weeks (22,24). In addition, the results of this study were also in agreement with those of previous research, because UBS and LBS were maintained above baseline values after the 24-week detraining period (9,12). Although previous investigations support the idea that resistance training may maintain strength gains for a more prolonged period of time after training ceases (7,32), prolonged detraining did result in muscle atrophy and decreased voluntary strength (9,12,38). We found from our results that the effects of short-term training or detraining cause changes in regional body composition and size. This could be because the muscle adaptation happens at different times and is especially obvious in the small muscle groups during strength training (5,26). However, further observations on the changes of the regional body composition with different modes of exercise training need to be conducted.
In our research, the LM of the leg and muscle size of the calf went back to the baseline values after detraining in the RTG, but LBS remained higher than the pretraining value, which means the neural adaptation was still in effect. The results of this study suggest that detraining induced strength losses because of deterioration of fiber size and motor unit recruitment efficiency, although the strength declined more slowly than muscle size, perhaps because neural adaptation seemed to play a greater role than muscle hypertrophy in detraining (38).
This study has some important limitations. First, none of the subjects' daily physical activity and dietary regimes were assessed during the investigation. Second, the subjects were instructed to retain their normal lifestyles while avoiding any form of regular exercise during the detraining, but there was no way of preventing individuals from engaging in more physical activity during this period. However, the fact that there were significant decreases in several measurements suggests that the subjects were able to comply with these restrictions.
Practical Applications
This study finds that both endurance and resistance training programs are effective interventions to enhance strength, cardiovascular fitness, and body composition in nonobese, untrained young men. Specifically, running can improve cardiovascular function and lower body strength, whereas whole-body resistance training not only benefits strength but also enhances cardiovascular function. Moreover, either form of training alone can lead to training-specific improvements in body composition and body size, and there was also an interacting and enhancing effect with regard to physical performance. Furthermore, short-term resistance training can cause small muscle groups, such as the upper arm, to change their muscle size, and this kind of training can also help maintain the gains in strength and lean body mass for longer periods after training ceases. Therefore, resistance training is a better choice than endurance training for young men to stay fit. It is thus plausible to hypothesize that resistance training is also more beneficial than endurance training for long lasting positive muscle adaptations (strength and lean body mass) in young men. Therefore, for coaches and personal trainers who are training young men to gain and maintain strength for specific sports, even after training has stopped or to lose weight, resistance training must be incorporated into their training programs.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank all participants for their help and effort in this study. The study was supported by the National Science Council, 95-2413-H-006-010, Taiwan, ROC.
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Keywords:
lean body mass; body fat; muscle strength; maximal oxygen consumption; body circumference
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