The neuroscience of prejudice and stereotyping (original) (raw)
References
Brewer, M. B. The psychology of prejudice: ingroup love and outgroup hate? J. Soc. Issues55, 429–444 (1999). Google Scholar
Ito, T. A. & Urland, G. R. Race and gender on the brain: electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.85, 616–626 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Ratner, K. G. & Amodio, D. M. Seeing “us versus them”: minimal group effects on the neural encoding of faces. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol.49, 298–301 (2013). Google Scholar
Allport, G. W. The Nature of Prejudice (Addison-Wesley, 1954). Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T. in The Handbook of Social Psychology Vol. 2, 4th edn (eds Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T. & Lindzey, G.) 357–411 (McGraw Hill, 1998).
Amodio, D. M. & Devine, P. G. Stereotyping and evaluation in implicit race bias: evidence for independent constructs and unique effects on behavior. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.91, 652–661 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Devine, P. G. Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.56, 5–18 (1989). Google Scholar
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C. & Williams, C. J. Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: a bona fide pipeline? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.69, 1013–1027 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G. & Banaji, M. R. Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychol. Rev.102, 4–27 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. The social neuroscience of intergroup relations. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol.19, 1–54 (2008). Google Scholar
Ito, T. A. & Bartholow, B. D. The neural correlates of race. Trends Cogn. Sci.13, 524–531 (2009). In a field dominated by fMRI studies, this review presents important research on ERP approaches to probing the neural underpinnings of sociocognitive processes involved in prejudice and stereotyping. PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Kubota, J. T., Banaji, M. R. & Phelps, E. A. The neuroscience of race. Nature Neurosci.15, 940–948 (2012). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. Can neuroscience advance social psychological theory? Social neuroscience for the behavioral social psychologist. Soc. Cogn.28, 695–716 (2010). Google Scholar
Poldrack, R. A. Can cognitive processes be inferred from neuroimaging data? Trends Cogn. Sci.10, 59–63 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Mackie, D. M. & Smith, E. R. in The Social Self: Cognitive, Interpersonal, and Intergroup Perspectives (eds Forgas, J. P. & Williams, K. D.) 309–326 (Psychology Press, 2002). Google Scholar
Cottrell, C. A. & Neuberg, S. L. Different emotional reactions to different groups: a sociofunctional threat-based approach to “prejudice”. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.88, 770–789 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Swanson, L. W. & Petrovich, G. D. What is the amygdala? Trends Neurosci.21, 323–331 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.23, 155–184 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Davis, M. Neural systems involved in fear and anxiety measured with fear-potentiated startle. Am. Psychol.61, 741–756 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Fendt, M. & Fanselow, M. S. The neuroanatomical and neurochemical basis of conditioned fear. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.23, 743–760 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E., Iwata, J., Cicchetti, P. & Reis, D. J. Different projections of the central amygdaloid nucleus mediate autonomic and behavioral correlates of conditioned fear. J. Neurosci.8, 2517–2529 (1988). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Holland, P. C. & Gallagher, M. Amygdala circuitry in attentional and representational processes. Trends Cogn. Sci.3, 65–73 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rolls, E. T. & Rolls, B. J. Altered food preferences after lesions in the basolateral region of the amygdala in the rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol.83, 248–259 (1973). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A. et al. Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. J. Cogn. Neurosci.12, 729–738 (2000). An early fMRI investigation of neural correlates of implicit prejudice, focusing on the amygdala. Relative differences in amygdala activity in response to black compared with white faces were associated with a behavioural index of implicit prejudice and startle responses to black versus white faces. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hart, A. J. et al. Differential response in the human amygdala to racial outgroup versus ingroup face stimuli. Neuroreport11, 2351–2355 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E. & Devine, P. G. Individual differences in the activation and control of affective race bias as assessed by startle eyeblink responses and self-report. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.84, 738–753 (2003). The first reported difference in amygdala activity in response to black compared with white (and Asian) faces. By using the startle-eyeblink method to assess amygdala activity related to the CeA, the results link implicit prejudice more directly to a Pavlovian conditioning mechanism of learning and behavioural expression. PubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. & Ratner, K. G. A memory systems model of implicit social cognition. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci.20, 143–148 (2011). Google Scholar
Olson, M. A. & Fazio, R. H. Reducing automatically-activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull.32, 421–433 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Kawakami, K., Phills, C. E., Steele, J. R. & Dovidio, J. F. (Close) distance makes the heart grow fonder: improving implicit racial attitudes and interracial interactions through approach behaviors. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.92, 957–971 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. & Hamilton, H. K. Intergroup anxiety effects on implicit racial evaluation and stereotyping. Emotion12, 1273–1280 (2012). PubMed Google Scholar
Chekroud, A. M., Everett, J. A. C., Bridge, H. & Hewstone, M. A review of neuroimaging studies of race-related prejudice: does amygdala response reflect threat? Front. Hum. Neurosci.8, 179 (2014). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Ronquillo, J. et al. The effects of skin tone on race-related amygdala activity: an fMRI investigation. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.2, 39–44 (2007). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Richeson, J. A., Todd, A. R., Trawalter, S. & Baird, A. A. Eye-gaze direction modulates race-related amygdala activity. Group Process. Interg. Relat.11, 233–246 (2008). Google Scholar
Freeman, J. B., Schiller, D., Rule, N. O. & Ambady, N. The neural origins of superficial and individuated judgments about ingroup and outgroup members. Hum. Brain Mapp.31, 150–159 (2010). PubMed Google Scholar
Forbes, C. E., Cox, C. L., Schmader, T. & Ryan, L. Negative stereotype activation alters interaction between neural correlates of arousal, inhibition, and cognitive control. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.7, 771–781 (2012). PubMed Google Scholar
Cunningham, W. A. et al. Separable neural components in the processing of black and white faces. Psychol. Sci.15, 806–813 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Telzer, E. H., Humphreys, K., Shapiro, M. & Tottenham, N. L. Amygdala sensitivity to race is not present in childhood but emerges in adolescence. J. Cogn. Neurosci.25, 234–244 (2013). PubMed Google Scholar
Cloutier, J., Li, T. & Correll, J. The impact of childhood experience on amygdala response to perceptually familiar black and white faces. J. Cogn. Neurosci.26, 1992–2004 (2014). PubMed Google Scholar
Olsson, A., Ebert, J. P., Banaji, M. R. & Phelps, E. A. The role of social group in the persistence of learned fear. Science309, 785–787 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Richeson, J. A. & Trawalter, S. The threat of appearing prejudiced and race-based attentional biases. Psychol. Sci.19, 98–102 (2008). PubMed Google Scholar
Ofan, R. H., Rubin, N. & Amodio, D. M. Situation-based social anxiety enhances the neural processing of faces: evidence from an intergroup context. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst087 (2013).
Plant, E. A. & Devine, P. G. Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.75, 811–832 (1998). Google Scholar
Stephan, W. G. & Stephan, C. W. Intergroup anxiety. J. Soc. Issues41, 157–175 (1985). Google Scholar
Lieberman, M. D., Hariri, A., Jarcho, J. M., Eisenberger, N. I. & Bookheimer, S. Y. An fMRI investigation of race-related amygdala activity in African-American and Caucasian-American individuals. Nature Neurosci.8, 720–722 (2005). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wheeler, M. E. & Fiske, S. T. Controlling racial prejudice: social-cognitive goals affect amygdala and stereotype activation. Psychol. Sci.16, 56–63 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Van Bavel, J. J., Packer, D. J. & Cunningham, W. A. The neural substrates of in-group bias: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation. Psychol. Sci.11, 1131–1139 (2008). This study compared the independent effects of race and coalition (team membership) on amygdala responses to faces and showed that when team membership was salient, the amygdala responded to coalition (subject's team or other team) and not race (black or white). This finding demonstrated that the amygdala response to race is not inevitable but rather corresponds to the subject's particular task goal. Google Scholar
Richeson, J. A. et al. An fMRI investigation of the impact of interracial contact on executive function. Nature Neurosci.6, 1323–1328 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gilbert, S. J., Swencionis, J. K. & Amodio, D. M. Evaluative versus trait representation in intergroup social judgments: distinct roles of anterior temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychologia50, 3600–3611 (2012). Using fMRI, the authors distinguished neural processes involved in stereotyping and prejudiced attitudes. Stereotype-based judgements of black compared with white people uniquely involved the mPFC; affect-based judgements uniquely involved the OFC. PubMed Google Scholar
Golby, A. J., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Chiao, J. Y. & Eberhardt, J. L. Differential fusiform responses to same- and other-race faces. Nature Neurosci.4, 845–850 (2001). The first demonstration of race effects in visual processing, using fMRI. Differences in fusiform responses to black and white faces predicted the degree of 'own race bias' in memory in white subjects. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Knutson, K. M., Mah, L., Manly, C. F. & Grafman, J. Neural correlates of automatic beliefs about gender and race. Hum. Brain Mapp.28, 915–930 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Brosch, T., Bar-David, E. & Phelps, E. A. Implicit race bias decreases the similarity of neural representations of black and white faces. Psychol. Sci.24, 160–166 (2013). PubMed Google Scholar
Schreiber, D. & Iacoboni, M. Huxtables on the brain: an fMRI study of race and norm violation. Polit. Psychol.33, 313–330 (2012). Google Scholar
Whalen, P. J. Fear, vigilance, and ambiguity: initial neuroimaging studies of the human amygdala. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci.7, 177–188 (1998). Google Scholar
Said, C. P., Baron, S. & Todorov, A. Nonlinear amygdala response to face trustworthiness: contributions of high and low spatial frequency information. J. Cogn. Neurosci.21, 519–528 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Cunningham, W. A., Van Bavel, J. J. & Johnsen, I. R. Affective flexibility: evaluative processing goals shape amygdala activity. Psychol. Sci.19, 152–160 (2008). PubMed Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A., Cannistraci, C. J. & Cunningham, W. A. Intact performance on an indirect measure of race bias following amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia41, 203–208 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Bechara, A., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex10, 295–307 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
O'Doherty, J., Kringelbach, M. L., Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J. & Andrews, C. Abstract reward and punishment representations in the human orbitofrontal cortex. Nature Neurosci.4, 95–102 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rushworth, M. F. S., Noonan, M. P., Boorman, E. D., Walton, M. E. & Behrens, T. E. Frontal cortex and reward-guided learning and decision-making. Neuron70, 1054–1069 (2011). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Beer, J. S., Heerey, E. H., Keltner, D., Scabini, D. & Knight, R. T. The regulatory function of self-conscious emotion: insights from patients with orbitofrontal damage. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.85, 594–604 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. & Frith, C. D. Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nature Rev. Neurosci.7, 268–277 (2006). CAS Google Scholar
Ongu¨r, D. & Price, J. L. The organization of networks within the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex of rats, monkeys and humans. Cereb. Cortex10, 206–219 (2000). Google Scholar
Beer, J. S. et al. The Quadruple Process model approach to examining the neural underpinnings of prejudice. Neuroimage43, 775–783 (2008). PubMed Google Scholar
Craig, A. D. How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Rev. Neurosci.3, 655–666 (2002). CAS Google Scholar
Craig, A. D. How do you feel — now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Rev. Neurosci.10, 59–70 (2009). CAS Google Scholar
Harris, L. T. & Fiske, S. T. Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: neuro-imaging responses to extreme outgroups. Psychol. Sci.17, 847–853 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Singer, T. et al. Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science303, 1157–1162 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Singer, T. et al. Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature439, 466–469 (2006). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Meltzoff, A. N. & Decety, J. How do we empathize with someone who is not like us? A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Cogn. Neurosci.22, 362–376 (2010). PubMed Google Scholar
Xu, X., Zuo, X., Wang, X. & Han, S. Do you feel my pain? Racial group membership modulates empathic neural responses. J. Neurosci.29, 8525–8529 (2009). In a demonstration of racial bias in empathy, mPFC and ACC activity linked to empathy was observed only when subjects viewed members of their own racial group being exposed to painful stimuli. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Cikara, M. & Fiske, S. T. Bounded empathy: neural responses to outgroup targets' (mis)fortunes. J. Cogn. Neurosci.23, 3791–3803 (2011). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Alexander, G. E., DeLong, M. R. & Strick, P. L. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci.9, 357–381 (1986). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Knutson, B., Adams, C. S., Fong, G. W. & Hommer, D. Anticipation of monetary reward selectively recruits nucleus accumbens. J. Neurosci.21, RC159 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
O'Doherty, J. et al. Dissociable roles of ventral and dorsal striatum in instrumental conditioning. Science304, 452–454 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Stanley, D. A. et al. Race and reputation: perceived racial group trustworthiness influences the neural correlates of trust decisions. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B367, 744–753 (2012). PubMed Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. P., Heatherton, T. F. & Macrae, C. N. Distinct neural systems subserve person and object knowledge. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA99, 15238–15243 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Van Overwalle, F. Social cognition and the brain: a meta-analysis. Hum. Brain Mapp.30, 829–858 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Krueger, F., Barbey, A. K. & Grafman, J. The medial prefrontal cortex mediates social event knowledge. Trends Cogn. Sci.13, 103–109 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Frith, C. D. & Frith, U. Interacting minds—a biological basis. Science286, 1692–1695 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Cikara, M., Bruneau, E. G. & Saxe, R. Us and them: intergroup failures of empathy. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci.20, 149–153 (2011). Google Scholar
Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J. L. & Fiske, S. T. From agents to objects: sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. J. Cogn. Neurosci.23, 540–551 (2011). PubMed Google Scholar
Hamilton, D. L. & Sherman, J. W. in Handbook of Social Cognition Vol. 2, 2nd edn (eds Wyer, R. S. Jr & Srull, T. K.) 1–68 (Erlbaum, 1994). Google Scholar
Olson, I. R., McCoy, D., Klobusicky, E. & Ross, L. A. Social cognition and the anterior temporal lobes: a review and theoretical framework. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.8, 123–133 (2013). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Quadflieg, S. & Macrae, C. N. Stereotypes and stereotyping: what's the brain got to do with it? Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol.22, 215–273 (2011). A comprehensive review of neuroscience research on social stereotyping processes. Google Scholar
Gabrieli, J. D. Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Annu. Rev. Psychol.49, 87–115 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Martin, A. The representation of object concepts in the brain. Annu. Rev. Psychol.58, 25–45 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Patterson, K., Nestor, P. J. & Rogers, T. T. Where do you know what you know? The representation of semantic knowledge in the human brain. Nature Rev. Neurosci.8, 976–987 (2007). CAS Google Scholar
Quadflieg, S. et al. Exploring the neural correlates of social stereotyping. J. Cogn. Neurosci.21, 1560–1570 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Olson, I. R., Plotzker, A. & Ezzyat, Y. The enigmatic temporal pole: a review of findings on social and emotional processing. Brain130, 1718–1731 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Zahn, R. et al. Social concepts are represented in the superior anterior temporal cortex. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA104, 6430–6435 (2007). CASPubMed Google Scholar
de Schotten, M. T., Dell'Acqua, F., Valabregue, R. & Catani, M. Monkey to human comparative anatomy of the frontal lobe association tracts. Cortex48, 82–96 (2012). Google Scholar
Contreras, J. M., Banaji, M. R. & Mitchell, J. P. Dissociable neural correlates of stereotypes and other forms of semantic knowledge. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.7, 764–770 (2012). An fMRI study on the neural underpinnings of stereotyping that distinguishes the role of trait inference processes from that of object knowledge representation. PubMed Google Scholar
Gallate, J., Wong, C., Ellwood, S., Chi, R. & Snyder, A. Noninvasive brain stimulation reduces prejudice scores on an implicit association test. Neuropsychology25, 185–192 (2011). PubMed Google Scholar
Milne, E. & Grafman, J. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions in humans eliminate implicit gender stereotyping. J. Neurosci.21, 1–6 (2001). Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. P., Macrae, C. N. & Banaji, M. R. Dissociable medial prefrontal contributions to judgments of similar and dissimilar others. Neuron50, 655–663 (2006). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Quadflieg, S. et al. Stereotype-based modulation of person perception. Neuroimage57, 549–557 (2011). PubMed Google Scholar
Forbes, C. E. et al. Identifying temporal and causal contributions of neural processes underlying the Implicit Association Test. (IAT). Front. Hum. Neurosci.6, 320 (2012). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gilbert, S. J. et al. Distinct regions of medial rostral prefrontal cortex supporting social and nonsocial functions. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.2, 217–226 (2007). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Baetens, K., Ma, N., Steen, J. & van Overwalle, F. Involvement of the mentalizing network in social and non-social high construal. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.9, 817–824 (2014). PubMed Google Scholar
Saxe, R. Uniquely human social cognition. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.16, 235–239 (2006). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Frith, C. D. & Frith, U. Implicit and explicit processes in social cognition. Neuron60, 503–510 (2008). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Uddin, L. Q., Iacoboni, M., Lange, C. & Keenan, J. P. The self and social cognition: the role of cortical midline structures and mirror neurons. Trends Cogn. Sci.11, 153–157 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Blaxton, T. A. et al. Functional mapping of human memory using PET: comparisons of conceptual and perceptual tasks. Can. J. Exp. Psychol.50, 42–56 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Buckner, R. L. & Tulving, E. in Handbook of Neuropsychology Vol. 10 (eds Boller, F. & Grafman, J.) 439–466 (Elsevier, 1995). Google Scholar
Demb, J. B. et al. Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: a functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. J. Neurosci.15, 5870–5878 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Thompson-Schill, S. L. Neuroimaging studies of semantic memory: inferring “how” from “where”. Neuropsychologia41, 280–292 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Miller, E. K., Freedman, D. J. & Wallis, J. D. The prefrontal cortex: categories, concepts and cognition. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B357, 1123–1136 (2002). Google Scholar
Balleine, B. W., Delgado, M. R. & Hikosaka, O. The role of the dorsal striatum in reward and decision-making. J. Neurosci.27, 8161–8165 (2007). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. P., Ames, D. L., Jenkins, A. C. & Banaji, M. R. Neural correlates of stereotype application. J. Cogn. Neurosci.21, 594–604 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Aron, A. R., Robbins, T. W. & Poldrack, R. A. Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends Cogn. Sci.8, 170–177 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Bodenhausen, G. V., Sheppard, L. & Kramer, G. P. Negative affect and social perception: the differential impact of anger and sadness. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol.24, 45–62 (1994). Google Scholar
DeSteno, D., Dasgupta, N., Bartlett, M. Y. & Cajdric, A. Prejudice from thin air: the effect of emotion on automatic intergroup attitudes. Psychol. Sci.15, 319–324 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Choi, E. Y., Yeo, B. T. & Buckner, R. L. The organization of the human striatum estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity. J. Neurophysiol.108, 2242–2263 (2012). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Bush, G., Luu, P. & Posner, M. L. Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex. Trends Cogn. Sci.4, 215–222 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mansouri, F. A., Tanaka, K. & Buckley, M. J. Conflict-induced behavioral adjustment: a clue to the executive functions of the prefrontal cortex. Nature Rev. Neurosci.10, 141–152 (2009). CAS Google Scholar
Gerhing, W. J., Goss, B., Coles, M. G. H., Meyer, D. E. & Donchin, E. A neural system for error detection and compensation. Psychol. Sci.4, 385–390 (1993). Google Scholar
Botvinick, M., Nystrom, L., Fissell, K., Carter, C. & Cohen, J. Conflict monitoring versus selection-for-action in anterior cingulate cortex. Nature402, 179–181 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S. & Cohen, J. D. Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychol. Rev.108, 624–652 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shackman, A. J. et al. The integration of negative affect, pain and cognitive control in the cingulate cortex. Nature Rev. Neurosci.12, 154–167 (2011). CAS Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. & Devine, P. G. in Self Control in Society, Mind and Brain (eds Hassin, R. R., Ochsner, K. N. & Trope, Y.). 49–75 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2010). Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. et al. Neural signals for the detection of unintentional race bias. Psychol. Sci.15, 88–93 (2004). This study demonstrated the role of the ACC in the control of racial bias. Using ERPs, the authors found an increase ACC activity to stereotype-based conflict that predicted enhanced control of bias in behaviour. PubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M., Kubota, J. T., Harmon-Jones, E. & Devine, P. G. Alternative mechanisms for regulating racial responses according to internal versus external cues. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.1, 26–36 (2006). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M., Devine, P. G. & Harmon-Jones, E. Individual differences in the regulation of intergroup bias: the role of conflict monitoring and neural signals for control. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.94, 60–74 (2008). PubMed Google Scholar
Bartholow, B. D., Dickter, C. L. & Sestir, M. A. Stereotype activation and control of race bias: cognitive control of inhibition and its impairment by alcohol. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.90, 272–287 (2006). PubMed Google Scholar
Correll, J., Urland, G. R. & Ito, T. A. Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: the role of threat perception and cognitive control. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol.42, 120–128 (2006). Google Scholar
Gonsalkorale, K., Sherman, J. W., Allen, T. J., Klauer, K. C. & Amodio, D. M. Accounting for successful control of implicit racial bias: the roles of association activation, response monitoring, and overcoming bias. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull.37, 1534–1545 (2011). PubMed Google Scholar
Fourie, M. M., Thomas, K. G. F., Amodio, D. M., Warton, C. M. R. & Meintjes, E. M. Neural correlates of experienced moral emotion: an fMRI investigation of emotion in response to prejudice feedback. Soc. Neurosci.9, 203–218 (2014). PubMed Google Scholar
Van Nunspeet, F., Ellemers, N., Derks, B. & Nieuwenhuis, S. Moral concerns increase attention and response monitoring during IAT performance: ERP evidence. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.9, 141–149 (2014). PubMed Google Scholar
Fuster, J. M. The prefrontal cortex—an update: time is of the essence. Neuron2, 319–333 (2001). Google Scholar
Badre, D. & D'Esposito, M. Is the rostro–caudal axis of the frontal lobe hierarchical? Nature Rev. Neurosci.10, 659–669 (2009). CAS Google Scholar
Koechlin, E., Ody, C. & Kouneiher, F. The architecture of cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex. Science302, 1181–1185 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Aron, A. R. The neural basis of inhibition in cognitive control. Neuroscientist13, 214–228 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Ghashghaei, H. T., Hilgetag, C. C. & Barbas, H. Sequence of information processing for emotions based on the anatomic dialogue between prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Neuroimage34, 905–923 (2007). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M. Coordinated roles of motivation and perception in the regulation of intergroup responses: frontal cortical asymmetry effects on the P2 event-related potential and behavior. J. Cogn. Neurosci.22, 2609–2617 (2010). This study demonstrated the role of the PFC in the behavioural control of racial bias and showed that this effect involves changes in early perceptual attention to racial cues. The study provided initial evidence for a 'motivated perception' account of self-regulation. PubMed Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M., Devine, P. G. & Harmon-Jones, E. A dynamic model of guilt: implications for motivation and self-regulation in the context of prejudice. Psychol. Sci.18, 524–530 (2007). PubMed Google Scholar
Gozzi, M., Raymont, V., Solomon, J., Koenigs, M. & Grafman, J. Dissociable effects of prefrontal and anterior temporal cortical lesions on stereotypical gender attitudes. Neuropsychologia47, 2125–2132 (2009). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Milad, M. R. & Quirk, G. J. Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction. Nature420, 70–74 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sloman, S. A. The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychol. Bull.119, 3–22 (1996). Google Scholar
Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S. & Russin, A. Just say no (to stereotyping): effects of training on the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.78, 871–888 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mallan, K. M., Sax, J. & Lipp, O. V. Verbal instruction abolishes fear conditioned to racial out-group faces. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol.45, 1303–1307 (2009). Google Scholar
Bouton, M. E. Conditioning, remembering, and forgetting. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. B20, 219–231 (1994). Google Scholar
Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E. & Vance, S. L. The regulation of explicit and implicit racial bias: the role of motivations to respond without prejudice. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.82, 835–848 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Kleiman, T., Hassin, R. R. & Trope, Y. The control-freak mind: stereotypical biases are eliminated following conflict-activated cognitive control. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen.143, 498–503 (2014). PubMed Google Scholar
Monteith, M. J., Ashburn-Nardo, L., Voils, C. I. & Czopp, A. M. Putting the brakes on prejudice: on the development and operation of cues for control. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.83, 1029–1050 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Mendoza, S. A., Gollwitzer, P. M. & Amodio, D. M. Reducing the expression of implicit stereotypes: reflexive control through implementation intentions. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull.36, 512–523 (2010). PubMed Google Scholar
Bar, M. et al. Top-down facilitation of visual recognition. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA103, 449–454 (2006). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Van Bavel, J. J., Packer, D. J. & Cunningham, W. A. Modulation of the fusiform face area following minimal exposure to motivationally relevant faces: evidence of in-group enhancement (not out-group disregard). J. Cogn. Neurosci.23, 3343–3354 (2011). PubMed Google Scholar
Ratner, K. G., Dotsch, R., Wigboldus, D., van Knippenberg, A. & Amodio, D. M. Visualizing minimal ingroup and outgroup faces: implications for impressions, attitudes, and behavior. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.106, 897–911 (2014). PubMed Google Scholar
Krosch, A. K. & Amodio, D. M. Economic scarcity alters the perception of race. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA111, 9079–9084 (2014). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ofan, R. H., Rubin, N. & Amodio, D. M. Seeing race: N170 responses to race and their relation to automatic racial attitudes and controlled processing. J. Cogn. Neurosci.23, 3152–3161 (2011). Google Scholar
Brebner, J. L., Krigolson, O., Handy, T. C., Quadflieg, S. & Turk, D. J. The importance of skin color and facial structure in perceiving and remembering others: an electro-physiological study. Brain Res.1388, 123–133 (2011). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Caldara, R., Rossion, B., Bovet, P. & Hauert, C. A. Event-related potentials and time course of the 'other-race' face classification advantage. Neuroreport15, 905–910 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Caldara, R. et al. Face versus non-face object perception and the 'other-race' effect: a spatiotemporal event-related potential study. Clin. Neurophysiol.114, 515–528 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ito, T. A. & Urland, G. R. The influence of processing objectives on the perception of faces: an ERP study of race and gender perception. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci.5, 21–36 (2005). PubMed Google Scholar
Walker, P. M., Silvert, L., Hewstone, M. & Nobre, A. C. Social contact and other-race face processing in the human brain. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.3, 16–25 (2008). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Wiese, H., Stahl, J. & Schweinberger, S. R. Configural processing of other-race faces is delayed but not decreased. Biol. Psychol.81, 103–109 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Contreras, J. M., Banaji, M. R. & Mitchell, J. P. Multivoxel patterns in fusiform face area differentiate faces by sex and race. PLoS ONE8, e69684 (2013). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Ratner, K. G., Kaul, C. & Van Bavel, J. J. Is race erased? Decoding race from patterns of neural activity when skin color is not diagnostic of group boundaries. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci.8, 750–755 (2013). PubMed Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. & Banaji, M. R. Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. meta-analysis of predictive validity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.97, 17–41 (2009). PubMed Google Scholar
Payne, B. K. Prejudice and perception: the role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.81, 181–192 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E. & Schwartz, J. K. L. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the Implicit Association Test. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.74, 1464–1480 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar