Framing effects in inference tasks—and why they are normatively defensible (original) (raw)
References
Allan.L. G. (1980). A note on measurement of contingency between two binary variables in judgment tasks.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society,15, 147–149. Google Scholar
Allan, L. G. (1993). Human contingency judgments: Rule based or associative?Psychological Bulletin,114, 325–448. Article Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1990).The adaptive character of thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R., &Sheu, C.-F. (1995). Causal inferences as perceptual judgments.Memory & Cognition,23, 510–524. Google Scholar
Arkes, H. R., &Harkness, A. R. (1983). Estimates of contingency between two dichotomous variables.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,112, 117–135. Article Google Scholar
Cheng, P. W. (1997). From covariation to causation: A causal power theory.Psychological Review,104, 367–405. Article Google Scholar
Cheng, P. W., &Novick, L. R. (1990). A probabilistic contrast model of causal induction.Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,58, 545–567. Article Google Scholar
Cheng, P.W., &Novick, L. R. (1992). Covariation in natural causal induction.Psychological Review,99, 365–382. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Crocker, J. (1981). Judgment of covariation by social perceivers.Psychological Bulletin,90, 272–292. Article Google Scholar
Crocker, J. (1982). Biased questions in judgment of covariation studies.Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin,8, 214–220. Article Google Scholar
Einhorn, H. J., &Hogarth, R. M. (1986). Judging probable cause.Psychological Bulletin,99, 3–19. Article Google Scholar
Evans, J. St. B. T. (1989).Bias in human reasoning: Causes and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
Fischhoff, B., &Beyth-Marom, R. (1983). Hypothesis testing from a Bayesian perspective.Psychological Review,90, 239–260. Article Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, G. (1991). How to make cognitive illusions disappear: Beyond “heuristics and biases.”European Review of Social Psychology,2, 83–115. Article Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, G., Hoffrage, U., &Kleinbölting, H. (1991). Probabilistic mental models: A Brunswikian theory of confidence.Psychological Review,98, 506–528. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Hilgard, E. R., &Bower, G. H. (1975).Theories of learning (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Google Scholar
Hilton, D. J. (1995). The social context of reasoning: Conversational inference and rational judgment.Psychological Bulletin,118, 248–271. Article Google Scholar
Holland, J. H., Holyoak, K. J., Nisbett, R. E., &Thagard, P. R. (1986).Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar
Horwich, P. (1982).Probability and evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar
Inhelder, B., &Piaget, J. (1958).The growth of logical thinking: From childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books. Book Google Scholar
Jenkins, H. M., & Ward, W. C. (1965). Judgment of contingency between responses and outcomes.Psychological Monographs: General & Applied,79(1, Whole No. 594).
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1968a). The choice of the passive voice in a communicative task.British Journal of Psychology,59, 7–15. PubMed Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1968b). The interpretation of the passive voice.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,20, 69–73. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Kahneman, D., &Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk.Econometrica,47, 263–291. Article Google Scholar
Kahneman, D., &Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames.American Psychologist,39, 341–350. Article Google Scholar
Kao, S.-F., &Wasserman, E. A. (1993). Assessment of an information integration account of contingency judgment with examination of subjective cell importance and method of information presentation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 1363–1386. Article Google Scholar
Klayman, J. (1995). Varieties of confirmation bias. In D. L. Medin (Series Ed.) & J. Busemeyer & R. Hastie (Vol. Eds.),The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 32, pp. 385–418). San Diego: Academic Press. Google Scholar
Klayman, J., &Ha, Y.-W. (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing.Psychological Review,94, 211–228. Article Google Scholar
Kotovsky, K., Hayes, J. R., &Simon, H. A. (1985). Why are some problems hard? Evidence from Tower of Hanoi.Cognitive Psychology,17, 248–294. Article Google Scholar
Kühberger, A. (1998). The influence of framing on risky decisions: A meta-analysis.Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes,75, 23–55. Article Google Scholar
Levin, I. P., &Gaeth, G. J. (1988). How consumers are affected by the framing of attribute information before and after consuming the product.Journal of Consumer Research,15, 374–378. Article Google Scholar
Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., &Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects.Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes,76, 149–188. Article Google Scholar
Levin, I. P., Schnittjer, S. K., &Thee, S. L. (1988). Information framing effects in social and personal decisions.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,24, 520–529. Article Google Scholar
Levin, I. P., Wasserman, E. A., &Kao, S.-F. (1993). Multiple methods for examining biased information use in contingency judgments.Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes,55, 228–250. Article Google Scholar
Lipe, M. G. (1990). A lens-model analysis of covariation research.Journal of Behavioral Decision Making,3, 47–59. Google Scholar
Mackie, J. L. (1963). The paradox of confirmation.British Journal for the Philosophy of Science,13, 265–277. Article Google Scholar
Mackie, J. L. (1974).The cement of the universe: A study of causation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press. Google Scholar
Mandel, D. R., &Lehman, D. R. (1998). Integration of contingency information in judgments of cause, covariation, and probability.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,127, 269–285. Article Google Scholar
Marteau, T. M. (1989). Framing of information: Its influence upon decisions of doctors and patients.British Journal of Social Psychology,28, 89–94. PubMed Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M. (1994). The accuracy of intuitive judgment strategies: Covariation assessment and Bayesian inference.Cognitive Psychology,26, 209–239. Article Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M. (1998). Taking into account the strength of an alternative hypothesis.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,24, 771–792. Article Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M. (1999). (Non)complementary updating of belief in two hypotheses.Memory & Cognition,27, 152–165. Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M. (2004). Hypothesis testing and evaluation. In D. J. Koehler & N. Harvey (Eds.),Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making (pp. 200–219). Oxford: Blackwell. Chapter Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M., &Amin, M. B. (2002). When wrong predictions provide more support than right ones.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,9, 821–828. Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M., Ferreira, V. S., Mikkelsen, L. A., McDermott, K. J., &Skrable, R. P. (2001). Do conditional hypotheses target rare events?Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes,85, 291–309. Article Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M., &Mikkelsen, L. A. (2000). The psychological side of Hempel’s paradox of confirmation.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,7, 360–366. Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M., & Mikkelsen, L. A. (in press). A Bayesian view of covariation assessment.Cognitive Psychology.
McKenzie, C. R. M., &Nelson, J. D. (2003). What a speaker’s choice of frame reveals: Reference points, frame selection, and framing effects.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,10, 596–602. Google Scholar
McKenzie, C. R. M., Wixted, J. T., Noelle, D. C., &Gyurjyan, G. (2001). Relation between confidence in yes-no and forced-choice tasks.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,130, 140–155. Article Google Scholar
Meyerowitz, B. E., &Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior.Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,52, 500–510. Article Google Scholar
Moxey, L. M., &Sanford, A. J. (2000). Communicating quantities: A review of psycholinguistic evidence of how expressions determine perspectives.Applied Cognitive Psychology,14, 237–255. Article Google Scholar
Mynatt, C. R., Doherty, M. E., &Tweney, R. D. (1977). Confirmation bias in a simulated research environment: An experimental study of scientific inference.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,29, 85–95. Article Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1996). Hempel’s paradox and Wason’s selection task: Logical and psychological puzzles of confirmation.Thinking & Reasoning,2, 1–31. Article Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises.Review of General Psychology,2, 175–220. Article Google Scholar
Oaksford, M., &Chater, N. (1994). A rational analysis of the selection task as optimal data selection.Psychological Review,101, 608–631. Article Google Scholar
Oaksford, M., &Chater, N. (1996). Rational explanation of the selection task.Psychological Review,103, 381–391. Article Google Scholar
Oaksford, M., &Chater, N. (2003). Optimal data selection: Revision, review, and re-evaluation.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,10, 289–318. Google Scholar
Oaksford, M., Chater, N., &Grainger, B. (1999). Probabilistic effects in data selection.Thinking & Reasoning,5, 193–243. Article Google Scholar
Oaksford, M., Chater, N., Grainger, B., &Larkin, J. (1997). Optimal data selection in the reduced array selection task (RAST).Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,23, 441–458. Article Google Scholar
Sanford, A. J., Fay, N., Stewart, A., &Moxey, L. (2002). Perspective in statements of quantity, with implications for consumer psychology.Psychological Science,13, 130–134. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Schustack, M.W., &Sternberg, R. J. (1981). Evaluation of evidence in causal inference.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,110, 101–120. Article Google Scholar
Schwarz, N. (1996).Cognition and communication: Judgmental biases, research methods, and the logic of conversation. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
Shaklee, H., &Tucker, D. (1980). A rule analysis of judgments of covariation between events.Memory & Cognition,8, 459–467. Google Scholar
Sher, S., & McKenzie, C. R. M. (2004).Information leakage from logically equivalent frames. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Smedslund, J. (1963). The concept of correlation in adults.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,4, 165–173. Article Google Scholar
Smith, E. E., &Medin, D. L. (1981).Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar
Snyder, M. (1981). Seek and ye shall find: Testing hypotheses about other people. In E. T. Higgins, C. P. Heiman, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.),Social cognition: The Ontario symposium on personality and social psychology (pp. 277–303). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar
Snyder, M., &Swann, W. B., Jr. (1978). Hypothesis testing in social interaction.Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,36, 1202–1212. Article Google Scholar
Tversky, A., &Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice.Science,211, 453–458. ArticlePubMed Google Scholar
Tversky, A., &Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational choice and the framing of decisions.Journal of Business,59, S251-S278. Article Google Scholar
Ward, W. C., &Jenkins, H. M. (1965). The display of information and the judgment of contingency.Canadian Journal of Psychology,19, 231–241. PubMed Google Scholar
Wason, P. C. (1960). On the failure to eliminate hypotheses in a conceptual task.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,12, 129–140. Article Google Scholar
Wasserman, E. A., Dorner, W.W., &Kao, S.-F. (1990). Contributions of specific cell information to judgments of interevent contingency.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,16, 509–521. Article Google Scholar
Wilson, D. K., Kaplan, R. M., &Schneiderman, L. J. (1987). Framing of decisions and selections of alternatives in health care.Social Behaviour,2, 51–59. Google Scholar