Olli Wood | University of East Anglia (original) (raw)

Papers by Olli Wood

Drafts by Olli Wood

The rise of Japanese nationalism in the 1920s and 1930s was one of the most significant events in... more The rise of Japanese nationalism in the 1920s and 1930s was one of the most significant events in the history of East Asia. The interwar expansion of the Japanese empire was largely orchestrated by generals (and lower-ranking officers) who, while subordinate to the Emperor, believed in the concept of Hokushin-ron, or 'Northern Expansion Doctrine', and who implemented decisions which would bring this about 1. This concept arguably caused, in part, the 'February 26 th Incident' of 1936, the Mukden Incident (and subsequent Japanese political society) demonstrate the longevity of Japanese nationalist sentiment. Article 9 of Japan's pacifist constitution (a legacy of the postwar American occupation) is being reinterpreted by Ultra-Conservatives in order to 'throw off history's embrace' and formally legalise a standing army 4. These efforts have been passionately resisted by many Japanese civilians and politicians; one man committed suicide in protest in an event known as the 2014 'Shinjuku Self-Immolation Incident' 5. While there are significant differences in the level-of-analysis between nationalist officers in the interwar period and Abe's reinterpretation of Article 9, the two are similar enough to be relevant. It is worth noting here that Shinzo Abe's grandfather, Nobusuke Kishi, was a politician responsible for overseeing the industrialisation of Manchukuo in the mid-1930s (he was a brutal leader who earned the nickname the 'Devil of Shōwa' for his actions). Kishi was temporarily detained as a war criminal by the U.S. after the war, for having 'overseen the forced conscription of hundreds of thousands of Korean and Chinese laborers '6. There is therefore a direct familial link between the Japanese nationalists' actions in Manchuria and the modern ruling class. Japanese military culture from the Meiji Restoration (1868) onwards was one of loyalty to the imperial system and its rulers. This culture was perpetuated through a number of traditions and routines, such as a daily reading of the Gunjin Chokuyu, or 'Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors', in parade formation. The 'Imperial Rescript' was a document developed by Meiji oligarchs in the early 1880s and became the code of ethics for Japanese military personnel until the post-Second World War constitutional reforms. It was designed to express the absolute subservience of the military to the Emperor. As McClain suggests, even the ceremony during which the document was (personally) presented by the Emperor was designed to 'symbolize the throne's direct authority over the military. In its very first article, the document proclaimed "loyalty" to be the "essential duty" of the soldier and sailor' 7. The Emperor's requirement for servitude and sacrifice is best represented by the infamous phrase, 'duty is heavier than a mountain; death is lighter than a feather' 8. This form of hierarchical and authoritarian culture shared many characteristics with Confucianism. For example, the focus on loyalty to one's country and respect for the

The rise of Japanese nationalism in the 1920s and 1930s was one of the most significant events in... more The rise of Japanese nationalism in the 1920s and 1930s was one of the most significant events in the history of East Asia. The interwar expansion of the Japanese empire was largely orchestrated by generals (and lower-ranking officers) who, while subordinate to the Emperor, believed in the concept of Hokushin-ron, or 'Northern Expansion Doctrine', and who implemented decisions which would bring this about 1. This concept arguably caused, in part, the 'February 26 th Incident' of 1936, the Mukden Incident (and subsequent Japanese political society) demonstrate the longevity of Japanese nationalist sentiment. Article 9 of Japan's pacifist constitution (a legacy of the postwar American occupation) is being reinterpreted by Ultra-Conservatives in order to 'throw off history's embrace' and formally legalise a standing army 4. These efforts have been passionately resisted by many Japanese civilians and politicians; one man committed suicide in protest in an event known as the 2014 'Shinjuku Self-Immolation Incident' 5. While there are significant differences in the level-of-analysis between nationalist officers in the interwar period and Abe's reinterpretation of Article 9, the two are similar enough to be relevant. It is worth noting here that Shinzo Abe's grandfather, Nobusuke Kishi, was a politician responsible for overseeing the industrialisation of Manchukuo in the mid-1930s (he was a brutal leader who earned the nickname the 'Devil of Shōwa' for his actions). Kishi was temporarily detained as a war criminal by the U.S. after the war, for having 'overseen the forced conscription of hundreds of thousands of Korean and Chinese laborers '6. There is therefore a direct familial link between the Japanese nationalists' actions in Manchuria and the modern ruling class. Japanese military culture from the Meiji Restoration (1868) onwards was one of loyalty to the imperial system and its rulers. This culture was perpetuated through a number of traditions and routines, such as a daily reading of the Gunjin Chokuyu, or 'Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors', in parade formation. The 'Imperial Rescript' was a document developed by Meiji oligarchs in the early 1880s and became the code of ethics for Japanese military personnel until the post-Second World War constitutional reforms. It was designed to express the absolute subservience of the military to the Emperor. As McClain suggests, even the ceremony during which the document was (personally) presented by the Emperor was designed to 'symbolize the throne's direct authority over the military. In its very first article, the document proclaimed "loyalty" to be the "essential duty" of the soldier and sailor' 7. The Emperor's requirement for servitude and sacrifice is best represented by the infamous phrase, 'duty is heavier than a mountain; death is lighter than a feather' 8. This form of hierarchical and authoritarian culture shared many characteristics with Confucianism. For example, the focus on loyalty to one's country and respect for the