Hmar language (original) (raw)

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Tibeto-Burman language spoken in India

The Hmar language (Hmar: Khawsak Țawng) is a Northern Mizo language spoken by the Hmar people of Northeast India. It belongs to the Kuki-Chin branch of this language family. Speakers of Hmar often use Mizo as their second language.[8][9]

The Hmar language is a member of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It is specifically classified under the Zohnahtlak languages group.[6][10] The Zohnahtlak languages, including Hmar, are spoken in Mizoram, neighboring areas of Northeast India, and also in adjacent countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar.[6] The language is verb-final.[10]

According to VanBik's (2007) classification of Kuki-Chin languages, Hmar is placed within the 'Central' branch.[6] This branch also includes languages like Mizo and Lai. For context, Kuki-Chin languages are broadly divided by VanBik into Central, Peripheral (Northern and Southern), and Maraic branches. Another grouping, often termed 'Northwestern Kuki-Chin' or historically 'Old Kuki' (including languages like Aimol, Anal, Kom), is also recognized and is characterized by lacking some typical features of the core Kuki-Chin group, such as verb stem alternations.[6]

The broader classification of Tibeto-Burman (often referred to as Sino-Tibetan) is a subject of ongoing scholarly discussion. Some researchers, like Blench and Post (2013), propose the term Trans-Himalayan for the phylum to better reflect the geographical distribution and diversity of these languages, particularly highlighting the numerous languages in Northeast India that may represent independent branches and challenge traditional binary classifications that privilege Sinitic or well-known literary languages like Tibetan and Burmese.[11] These scholars emphasize the complexity arising from extensive language contact and the need to give equal weight to lesser-documented languages in phylogenetic considerations.[11]

Hmar, like many languages in the region, is considered to be in a developing stage and requires further standardization in several linguistic areas.[10]

Geographical distribution

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Regions and speaker numbers

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The 2011 Census of India recorded 98,988 speakers of Hmar as a mother tongue.[5] The significant dispersion of Hmar speakers may contribute to slight dialectal distinctions across different regions.

In Manipur, Hmar exhibits partial mutual intelligibility with the other Kukish dialects of the area including Thadou, Paite, Aimol, Vaiphei, Simte, Kom and Gangte languages.[12]

The Hmar language, as it is recognized today, was previously known as the Khawsak dialect.[13] This dialect was accepted by the various Hmar groups as a common language for literary and teaching purposes, although other Hmar languages and dialects continue to be widely spoken.[10]

The Hmar people were first recognized as a distinct tribal community in the North-Eastern States of India. Prior to official recognition, they were often grouped under the term 'Kuki' or 'Old Kuki', a label applied by outsiders to various hill tribes in the region.[10] The Government of India officially recognized the Hmar tribe by including it in the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956 (Ministry of Home Affairs Order No. S.R.O. 2477, dated 29 October 1956).[10] This allowed different tribes, including the Hmar, to be known by their specific names rather than generic terms.[10]

Early documentation

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The Hmar language was first documented in written form in the early 20th century by George Abraham Grierson in his extensive Linguistic Survey of India.[10]

Alphabet (Hmar Hawrawp) and Orthography

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The Hmar alphabets, known as Hmar Hawrawp, has 25 letters: 6 vowels and 19 consonants.[14][10] It is a modified version of the Roman script with some diacritic marks to help pronounce the dialect.[15]

Hmar Hawrawp

Pronunciation Guide

The Hmar language uses a Roman script-based alphabet consisting of 25 letters, as detailed in the "Phonology" section.[10] The Khawsak dialect has been adopted as the common standard for literary purposes and language teaching among the various Hmar groups.[10]

Early literature and publications

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Early efforts in Hmar literature were significantly driven by religious purposes and the desire for literacy in the native language.[10]

• Dr. Thanglung authored a Hmar language primer titled Bu Hmasa (First Primer) around 1928-1929, which was instrumental in promoting literacy and is reportedly still used in primary schools in Manipur.[10]
• Hymn books were among the earliest published materials.[10]
• The New Testament of the Bible in Hmar was published in 1947, followed by the complete Bible in 1972.[10]
• A notable early non-religious work was a dictionary compiled by Dr. Thanglung, a medical practitioner.[10]
• Various community-led efforts resulted in the publication of weekly, fortnightly, monthly, and annual news magazines, though many faced challenges in sustaining publication.[10]

Since the mid-20th century, a more substantial number of books have been published, contributing to the development of Hmar as a Modern Indian Language (MIL).[10]

Official Status and Usage

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Hmar has been recognized as a language for educational purposes and as a Modern Indian Language (MIL) in several states in Northeast India.

• 1956: The Hmar language was formally recognized by the Government of Manipur.[10]
• 1968: Permission was granted to teach Hmar at the primary level in Manipur.[10]
• 1985: Hmar was elevated to the status of an MIL and included in the High School Leaving Certificate (HSLC) Examination as a half-paper carrying fifty marks.[10]
• 1997: Hmar became a full paper in the HSLC Examinations.[10]
• 2000: Hmar was included at the higher secondary level.[10]
• 2003 onwards: Manipur University granted permission for the study of Hmar at the degree level, with examinations permitted from 2003.[10]
• There have been ongoing efforts to introduce Hmar as an Elective and Major subject in degree courses at Manipur University.[10]

Textbooks developed in Manipur, such as "Readers," have also been adopted by some vernacular schools in Cachar, Assam, for upper primary schooling.[10]

• The Government of Assam recognized Hmar as a medium of instruction via Memo No. EMI. 82/67/199 dated Shillong, 25 March 1969.[10]
• 1984-1985: Hmar was introduced as the medium of instruction in primary classes in the autonomous district of North Cachar Hills.[10]
• Vernacular Middle Schools teaching in Hmar up to the Upper Primary level were established in places like Hmarkhawlien and Diphucherra in Cachar. A similar school was established in Saron (North Cachar Hills) but was later recognized as a Middle English School where Hmar was taught as a language paper only, due to changes in government policy regarding vernacular schools.[10]
• Initially, Manipur textbooks were unofficially used. However, due to the need for content relevant to Assam's local history, geography, and culture, and following the National Policy on Education (1986) requiring NCERT norms, new textbooks from Pre-Primary to Secondary stages were developed by the Hmar community in Assam. The SCERT Assam later developed primers and textbooks, with Hmar adapting to these patterns.[10]
• 2007: The Board of Secondary Education Assam (SEBA) recognized and introduced Hmar as a language paper in the HSLC Examinations (vide No. SEBA/AB/HMAR/2007/01 dated 23 August 2007).[10]
• 2008: The Assam Higher Secondary Education Council (AHSEC) allowed the introduction of Hmar as an MIL paper in classes XI and XII (vide AHSEC/ACA/CURR. SYLL/01/96/94 dated 3 January 2008).[10]
• 2010: Assam University, Silchar, recognized Hmar as an MIL paper for the first Degree (TDC) (vide No. AUD-56/2009-10/2004 dated 23 July 2010).[10]

New textbooks had to be written for all these levels according to the norms laid down by the respective educational authorities.[10]

Mizoram and Meghalaya

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In both Mizoram and Meghalaya, the Hmar tribe is recognized as a Scheduled Tribe (Hills).[10] There have been efforts to introduce the teaching of Hmar language at the primary level in these states, though significant progress had not been reported by the time of V.L. Bapui's 2017 article.[10]The earlier statement "Hmar is a recognised language in the School curriculum of Assam, Manipur and Mizoram..." requires nuance based on this source, particularly for Mizoram where introduction at primary level was still an ongoing effort.

• Mizo language
• Kuki-Chin languages
• Languages of Northeast India
• Hmar people

1. ^ "Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India". data.gov.in. 21 January 2022.
2. ^ "Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India". data.gov.in. 21 January 2022.
3. ^ "Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India". data.gov.in. 21 January 2022.
4. ^ "Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India". data.gov.in. 21 January 2022.
5. ^ a b c "Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011". www.censusindia.gov.in. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
6. ^ a b c d e Post, Mark W. & Burling, Robbins. (2013). "The Tibeto-Burman languages of Northeast India". In Owen-Smith, Thomas & Hill, Nathan (Eds.), Trans-Himalayan Linguistics : Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area. De Gruyter.
7. ^ a b Glottolog 4.8. Hamric. Retrieved 10 July 2024 from https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/hmar1241
8. ^ "Did you know Hmar is vulnerable?". Endangered Languages. Retrieved 31 July 2023. ... Hmar speakers of Manipur use Manipuri while Assamese and Bengali are used in Assam. Ethnic Hmars living in Mizoram speak Mizo as their first language....
9. ^ Lisam, Khomdan Singh (2011). Encyclopaedia Of Manipur (3 Vol.). Gyan Publishing House. p. 561. ISBN 978-81-7835-864-2. ... They speak Hmar language and converse well in Manipuri (Meiteilon) ...
10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj Bapui, Vanlal Tluonga. (2017). "Teaching of Hmar Language with Special Reference to Assam". Language and Language Teaching, 6(2), Issue 12, pp. 1-4.
11. ^ a b Blench, Roger & Post, Mark W. (2013). "Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of North East Indian languages". In Owen-Smith, Thomas & Hill, Nathan (Eds.), Trans-Himalayan Linguistics : Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area. De Gruyter.
12. ^ Singh, Chungkham Yashawanta (1995). "The linguistic situation in Manipur" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 18 (1): 129–134. doi:10.32655/LTBA.18.1.09. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
13. ^ Infimate, Marina Laltlinzo (2022). "Causativization in Hmar". Himalayan Linguistics. 21 (2). doi:10.5070/H921255411.
14. ^ Pangamte, L. Ruoivel (2019). New Hmar Grammar And Composition. Hmar Literature Society Manipur. p. 1.
15. ^ a b Bapui, VL Tluonga (2012). Hmar Tawng Inchukna (A Lexical Study of the Hmar Language & Usages). The Assam Institute of Research for Tribals and Scheduled Castes.

• VIRTHL-Ushering Change: News & Info House of the Hmars Visit Site
• Hmar Rûnpui : Hmar Social Networking Visit Site
• Manipur Online The Unresolved Issues of the Hmar
• Hmar.in
• Hmarram.com
• Sinlung News Sinlung
• Hmar Language Dataset Project