Carol Jaensch | University of Essex (original) (raw)

Books by Carol Jaensch

Research paper thumbnail of L3 acquisition of the German determiner phrase: The role of L1 Japanese and L2 English

Papers by Carol Jaensch

Research paper thumbnail of Sources of fluctuation in article choice in English and German by Syrian Arabic and Japanese native speakers

Eurosla Yearbook, 2009

Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al. 2004a; Ionin et al. 2008) has suggested t... more Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al. 2004a; Ionin et al. 2008) has suggested that native speakers of article-less languages may fluctuate between selecting articles based on definiteness and selecting them based on specificity. This was termed the Fluctuation Hypothesis (Ionin et al. 2004a). The Fluctuation Hypothesis assumes learners to have full access to Universal Grammar (UG) properties, including those which are not instantiated in their L1 grammars. This contrasts with the Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (Hawkins and Chan 1997), now termed the Representational Deficit Hypothesis (Hawkins and Franceschina 2004; Hawkins et al. 2006). This proposes that learners will fail to acquire uninterpretable features, if these are not present in their L1. The current study tests the Fluctuation Hypothesis with two new groups of speakers acquiring languages with definite and indefinite articles which are marked for definiteness, whilst still allowing a semantic distinction between [+specific] and [–specific]. The languages acquired are German, by native speakers of Japanese, a language without articles; and English, by native speakers of Syrian Arabic, a language with an overt marker for definiteness, but not for indefiniteness. Although the initial results seem to indicate that fluctuation may be responsible for optionality amongst these learners, further analysis shows that this variation may be due to other factors.

Research paper thumbnail of Accounting for English article interpretation by L2 speakers

Research paper thumbnail of Acquisition of L3 German

Studies in Bilingualism, 2012

Research paper thumbnail of What Plurals and Compounds Reveal about Constraints in Word Formation

Language Acquisition, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Non-target-like article use in L2 English–implications for current UG-based theories of SLA

A draft paper for Eurosla, …, 2005

Research paper thumbnail of What is special about L3 processing?

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2013

While research on third language (L3) and multilingualism has recently shown remarkable growth, t... more While research on third language (L3) and multilingualism has recently shown remarkable growth, the fundamental question of what makes trilingualism special compared to bilingualism, and indeed monolingualism, continues to be evaded. In this contribution we consider whether there is such a thing as a true monolingual, and if there is a difference between dialects, styles, registers and languages. While linguistic and psycholinguistic studies suggest differences in the processing of a third, compared to the first or second language, neurolinguistic research has shown that generally the same areas of the brain are activated during language use in proficient multilinguals. It is concluded that while from traditional linguistic and psycholinguistic perspectives there are grounds to differentiate monolingual, bilingual and multilingual processing, a more dynamic perspective on language processing in which development over time is the core issue, leads to a questioning of the notion of la...

Research paper thumbnail of IRAL would like to recognize and thank the following external reviewers who contributed to this volume

Jump to ContentJump to Main Navigation: Log in; Register; Help; German; English; Take a Tour; Sig... more Jump to ContentJump to Main Navigation: Log in; Register; Help; German; English; Take a Tour; Sign up for a free trial; Subscribe. Advanced SearchHelp. My Content (1) Recently viewed (1). External reviewers : I... My Searches (0). (0) Shopping Cart. Check Out. SUBJECTS: Art and Music; Books and Publishing, Libraries, Information and Documentation; Classical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies; General Reference Works; History; Law; Linguistics, Communications; Literary Studies; Mathematics; Medicine; Natural Sciences; Philosophy; ...

Research paper thumbnail of Third language acquisition: where are we now?

"Up until around ten years ago, third language acquisition (L3A) research was generally subsumed ... more "Up until around ten years ago, third language acquisition (L3A) research was generally subsumed under the umbrella term of second language acquisition (L2A). In this short space of time, however, L3A has established itself as an independent strand of linguistic research, providing an invaluable source of information into language and language acquisition. This paper emphasises the crucial differences between L2A and L3A. It provides a snapshot of the current state of cognitive research into L3A, discussing studies in the domains of morphology, syntax, phonology and lexicon. Recently proposed (specific L3) generative models are discussed, (such as Cumulative Enhancement Model (Flynn, Foley & Vinnitskaya, 2004), L2 Status Factor (Bardel & Falk, 2007) and Typological Primacy Model (Rothman, 2011) together with an alternative proposal (Contextual Complexity Hypothesis, Hawkins & Casillas, 2007). Finally this paper highlights the gaps in our knowledge and the direction for future research in this fast-growing area of research."

Research paper thumbnail of Acquisition of L3 German: Do some learners have it easier?

In order to test current generative third language (L3) acquisition theories, this study attempts... more In order to test current generative third language (L3) acquisition theories, this study attempts to tease apart the effect of first (L1) and second language (L2) knowledge on properties in the L3 of German. The properties tested are gender assignment, gender concord and the definite/indefinite contrast. The groups are L1 Spanish and L1 Japanese, both groups with L2 English. The L2 proficiency level was also considered and a general trend was observed such that learners with a higher L2 proficiency outperformed those with a lower one. In relation to the question of access to Universal Grammar (UG) by non-native learners, a task effect was found in that the results from the definiteness task offer some limited support for ‘Full Access’ accounts; however overall there is stronger, albeit indirect, support for representational deficit accounts.

Research paper thumbnail of L3 Acquisition of German adjectival inflection - a generative account

Second Language Research 27 (1)

Studies testing the knowledge of syntactic properties have resulted in two potentially contrastin... more Studies testing the knowledge of syntactic properties have resulted in two potentially contrasting proposals in relation to third language acquisition (TLA); the Cumulative Enhancement Model (Flynn et al., 2004), which proposes that previously learned languages will positively affect the acquisition of a third language (L3); and the ‘second language (L2) status factor’ hypothesis (Bardel and Falk, 2007), which proposes that the primacy of the L2 can block the potential positive effects that may be transferable from the first language (L1). This article attempts to extend these hypotheses to the domain of morphosyntax, in relation to the TLA of the properties of grammatical number and gender concord marking on German attributive adjectives; these properties not present in the L1 of Japanese, or the L2 of English. Two further factors are of interest in the current study; first, the performance of the learners according to their L3 and their L2 proficiency levels, a variable not discussed in the above-mentioned studies; and, second, the role that the type of task has on the performance of these learners. Three groups of Japanese native speakers (matched for proficiency within each German group), but with differing English proficiencies, completed a carefully balanced gap-filling task, together with two oral elicitation tasks in the form of games; both of these elicited tokens of adjectival inflection. Initial results offer partial support for weaker versions of the two hypotheses mentioned above. However, neither of the L3 models tested can fully account for the results obtained, which are more consistent with a feature-based account of the organization of grammar in the domain of morphosyntax, such as that of Distributed Morphology (DM) (Halle and Marantz, 1993). DM is a model for language acquisition which — coupled with a view that the Subset Principle proposed by this account is not observed by non-primary language learners — has recently been proposed to explain the optionality observed in L2 learners’ production (Hawkins et al., 2006). The data presented here suggest that it could be extended to L3 learners’ production.

Research paper thumbnail of L3 enhanced feature sensitivity as a result of higher proficiency in the L2

In the relatively new field of third language (L3) acquisition, determining the role that transfe... more In the relatively new field of third language (L3) acquisition, determining the role that transfer from the first language (L1) and/or the second language (L2) plays is an important issue. Recent studies have provided evidence that L3 learners who have L2 experience of functional categories not present in the L1 acquire them faster in the L3 than those learners who first encounter the said categories in an L2 (Leung, 2005). The present study uses three written gap-filling tasks to look at the L3 acquisition of uninterpretable features on the determiner phrase (DP) in German, specifically the features of Case and grammatical gender on the determiner and on the attributive adjective, by adult native speakers of Japanese who have English as an L2. The focus is not on whether features have been transferred from the L1 or the L2 to the L3, but instead on whether learners of advanced L2 proficiency are more sensitive to these properties in the L3. Results seem to support this, indicating that those L3 learners who have achieved a higher proficiency in their L2 are more target-like in their performance on these features than learners of an equivalent L3 proficiency but a lower L2 proficiency. It is proposed that these learners seem to exhibit an improved lexical knowledge together with superior metalinguistic and cognitive abilities, and these in turn aid the L3 learners in triggering the setting of UG parameters.

Research paper thumbnail of Article choice and article omission in the L3 German of native speakers of Japanese with L2 English

Ionin, Ko & Wexler (2004), investigating knowledge of article choice in English by second languag... more Ionin, Ko & Wexler (2004), investigating knowledge of article choice in English by second language (L2) learners, have found that native speakers of article-less languages go through a period of ‘fluctuation’, where articles can express either definiteness or specificity. White (2003) and Trenkic (2007), investigating the use of English articles in L2 speech, have found considerable omission in obligatory contexts for the and a/an. The present study investigates article choice and article omission in the third language (L3) acquisition of German of native speakers of Japanese (a language without articles), who have acquired L2 English to different levels of proficiency. Results show: (a) little evidence of fluctuation in participants’ article choice on the basis of definiteness/specificity; (b) persistent omission of German articles in speech by the participants, regardless of their proficiency in L2 English; (c) a role for Case (specifically dative Case) in determining misuse of article forms and omission.

Research paper thumbnail of Sources of fluctuation in article choice in English and German by Syrian Arabic and Japanese native speakers

Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al., 2004a; Ionin et al., 2008) has suggested... more Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al., 2004a; Ionin et al., 2008) has suggested that native speakers of article-less languages may fluctuate between selecting articles based on definiteness and selecting them based on specificity. This was termed the Fluctuation Hypothesis (Ionin et al., 2004a). The Fluctuation Hypothesis assumes learners to have full access to Universal Grammar (UG) properties, including those which are not instantiated in their L1 grammars. This contrasts with the Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (Hawkins and Chan, 1997), now termed the Representational Deficit Hypothesis (Hawkins and Franceschina, 2004; Hawkins et al, 2006). This proposes that learners will fail to acquire uninterpretable features, if these are not present in their L1.

Research paper thumbnail of L3 Acquisition of articles in German by native Japanese speakers

It is well-documented that native speakers of languages which lack articles and have no morpholog... more It is well-documented that native speakers of languages which lack articles and have no morphological marker for definiteness show persistent variability in the use of articles in second languages where they are present and where definiteness is marked. It has been argued that these learners use articles to mark both specificity and definiteness. This paper shows that learners display fewer problems of this kind when acquiring a third language (L3) which has articles that mark definiteness in a similar manner to that of the second language (L2). The languages under investigation in this study are Japanese (L1), English (L2) and German (L3). Results from a gap-filling task show an effect of both L3 and L2 proficiency. Furthermore, inappropriate selections appear not to be based on participants selecting articles on the basis of specificity, but instead upon the grammatical Case of the noun in question.

Research paper thumbnail of Defective adjectival inflection in non-native German: prosodic transfer or missing surface inflection?

Two recent hypotheses which support the theory of full access to Universal Grammar have been prop... more Two recent hypotheses which support the theory of full access to Universal Grammar have been proposed in order to account for variant data supplied by L2 learners. The Prosodic Transfer Hypothesis (Goad, White and Steele, 2003) suggests that non-target-like behaviour by L2 learners is partially due to the differences in prosody between the L1 and L2 and the ensuing prosodic constraints; whilst the Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis (Prévost & White, 2000) proposes that problems are due to the learners’ variability in mapping abstract syntactic features onto morphological forms. This paper discusses a study of Japanese native speakers acquiring L3 German adjectival inflection in light of these two hypotheses. Data are provided from a written gap-filling task and from two oral production tasks. The results indicate stronger support for the MSIH.

Research paper thumbnail of The effects of L2 proficiency on the acquisition of new morpho-syntactic features in an L3

This paper takes a new perspective on an old topic, namely that of transfer. For many years now t... more This paper takes a new perspective on an old topic, namely that of transfer. For many years now the influence which first languages have on the adult acquisition of second languages has been intensely researched and discussed. Most linguists accept that there are some aspects of language development which cannot be explained by transfer; for example, so called ‘poverty of the stimulus’ cases, which are treated in the same way by all learners of a second language (L2), regardless of their first language (L1). However, there is much evidence that transfer – both positive and negative – from the L1 can, and does, affect the syntactic, morphological and phonological properties of the interlanguage grammars of L2 learners. Interpreting the role of transfer is complicated in cases where third languages are involved. Clearly the scope for possible transfer in this scenario is extended to include not only influence from the L1 but also from the L2 (or any number of previously acquired languages).

This study looks not at whether specific features have been transferred from an L1 or L2 to a third language (L3), but instead at whether learners who have not encountered certain features in their L1 or L2 are somehow more sensitive to them in the L3. Results seem to indicate that those L3 learners who have achieved a higher proficiency in their L2 are more target-like in their performance on these features than those learners of an equivalent L3 proficiency but a lower L2 proficiency.

Research paper thumbnail of Accounting for English article interpretation by L2 speakers

Ionin, Ko and Wexler (2004a) have shown that L2 speakers of English whose L1’s lack articles (Rus... more Ionin, Ko and Wexler (2004a) have shown that L2 speakers of English whose L1’s lack articles (Russian and Korean) appear to fluctuate in their interpretation of the and a, allowing them to encode either definiteness or specificity. They argue that these are two options of an Article Choice Parameter offered by Universal Grammar, and that the Russian and Korean speakers fluctuate between them when they are acquiring English. In the present study it is shown that a similar pattern can be observed in L2 speakers of English whose L1 is Japanese (also a language that lacks articles) but not in speakers whose L1 is Greek, a language with articles that encode definiteness like English. It is also shown that while group results for the Japanese speakers suggest fluctuation, individual results do not. It is argued that an account can be given of both cases which does not require appeal either to an Article Choice Parameter or to the concept of ‘fluctuation’. The alternative proposal made here is consistent with Universal Grammar, and follows from an organisation of the grammar where phonological exponents are separated from the lexical items manipulated by syntactic computations, as in Distributed Morphology. It is suggested that a descriptively adequate account which avoids a construction-specific parameter like the Article Choice Parameter and departure from the normal assumptions of UG represented by fluctuation should be preferred.

Research paper thumbnail of UG and Poverty of the Stimulus: Topic Deletion Evidence from L2 learners of German

"The intention of this paper is to test whether L2 learners of German have access to UG by invest... more "The intention of this paper is to test whether L2 learners of German have access to UG by investigating their sensitivity to properties which are underdetermined by input and are not
present in their L1; a ‘poverty of the stimulus’ phenomenon. To do this the study looked at the L2 acquisition of German, with particular emphasis on an aspect of spoken German, known as
‘topic-drop’. The research examined data obtained from speakers of different types of L1s in order to ascertain whether they were aware of the possible omission of subjects and objects in main and embedded clauses in colloquial German. The groups of learners were divided according to their L1; non-null subject L1s, null subject L1s, null subject and null object L1s and a group of bilinguals. Results show that while a native control group responded as expected on the underdetermined phenomena, the non-native speakers showed different patterns of response depending on the age at which they were first exposed to German and the type of L1 they spoke. "

Research paper thumbnail of L3 acquisition of the German determiner phrase: The role of L1 Japanese and L2 English

Research paper thumbnail of Sources of fluctuation in article choice in English and German by Syrian Arabic and Japanese native speakers

Eurosla Yearbook, 2009

Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al. 2004a; Ionin et al. 2008) has suggested t... more Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al. 2004a; Ionin et al. 2008) has suggested that native speakers of article-less languages may fluctuate between selecting articles based on definiteness and selecting them based on specificity. This was termed the Fluctuation Hypothesis (Ionin et al. 2004a). The Fluctuation Hypothesis assumes learners to have full access to Universal Grammar (UG) properties, including those which are not instantiated in their L1 grammars. This contrasts with the Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (Hawkins and Chan 1997), now termed the Representational Deficit Hypothesis (Hawkins and Franceschina 2004; Hawkins et al. 2006). This proposes that learners will fail to acquire uninterpretable features, if these are not present in their L1. The current study tests the Fluctuation Hypothesis with two new groups of speakers acquiring languages with definite and indefinite articles which are marked for definiteness, whilst still allowing a semantic distinction between [+specific] and [–specific]. The languages acquired are German, by native speakers of Japanese, a language without articles; and English, by native speakers of Syrian Arabic, a language with an overt marker for definiteness, but not for indefiniteness. Although the initial results seem to indicate that fluctuation may be responsible for optionality amongst these learners, further analysis shows that this variation may be due to other factors.

Research paper thumbnail of Accounting for English article interpretation by L2 speakers

Research paper thumbnail of Acquisition of L3 German

Studies in Bilingualism, 2012

Research paper thumbnail of What Plurals and Compounds Reveal about Constraints in Word Formation

Language Acquisition, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Non-target-like article use in L2 English–implications for current UG-based theories of SLA

A draft paper for Eurosla, …, 2005

Research paper thumbnail of What is special about L3 processing?

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2013

While research on third language (L3) and multilingualism has recently shown remarkable growth, t... more While research on third language (L3) and multilingualism has recently shown remarkable growth, the fundamental question of what makes trilingualism special compared to bilingualism, and indeed monolingualism, continues to be evaded. In this contribution we consider whether there is such a thing as a true monolingual, and if there is a difference between dialects, styles, registers and languages. While linguistic and psycholinguistic studies suggest differences in the processing of a third, compared to the first or second language, neurolinguistic research has shown that generally the same areas of the brain are activated during language use in proficient multilinguals. It is concluded that while from traditional linguistic and psycholinguistic perspectives there are grounds to differentiate monolingual, bilingual and multilingual processing, a more dynamic perspective on language processing in which development over time is the core issue, leads to a questioning of the notion of la...

Research paper thumbnail of IRAL would like to recognize and thank the following external reviewers who contributed to this volume

Jump to ContentJump to Main Navigation: Log in; Register; Help; German; English; Take a Tour; Sig... more Jump to ContentJump to Main Navigation: Log in; Register; Help; German; English; Take a Tour; Sign up for a free trial; Subscribe. Advanced SearchHelp. My Content (1) Recently viewed (1). External reviewers : I... My Searches (0). (0) Shopping Cart. Check Out. SUBJECTS: Art and Music; Books and Publishing, Libraries, Information and Documentation; Classical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies; General Reference Works; History; Law; Linguistics, Communications; Literary Studies; Mathematics; Medicine; Natural Sciences; Philosophy; ...

Research paper thumbnail of Third language acquisition: where are we now?

"Up until around ten years ago, third language acquisition (L3A) research was generally subsumed ... more "Up until around ten years ago, third language acquisition (L3A) research was generally subsumed under the umbrella term of second language acquisition (L2A). In this short space of time, however, L3A has established itself as an independent strand of linguistic research, providing an invaluable source of information into language and language acquisition. This paper emphasises the crucial differences between L2A and L3A. It provides a snapshot of the current state of cognitive research into L3A, discussing studies in the domains of morphology, syntax, phonology and lexicon. Recently proposed (specific L3) generative models are discussed, (such as Cumulative Enhancement Model (Flynn, Foley & Vinnitskaya, 2004), L2 Status Factor (Bardel & Falk, 2007) and Typological Primacy Model (Rothman, 2011) together with an alternative proposal (Contextual Complexity Hypothesis, Hawkins & Casillas, 2007). Finally this paper highlights the gaps in our knowledge and the direction for future research in this fast-growing area of research."

Research paper thumbnail of Acquisition of L3 German: Do some learners have it easier?

In order to test current generative third language (L3) acquisition theories, this study attempts... more In order to test current generative third language (L3) acquisition theories, this study attempts to tease apart the effect of first (L1) and second language (L2) knowledge on properties in the L3 of German. The properties tested are gender assignment, gender concord and the definite/indefinite contrast. The groups are L1 Spanish and L1 Japanese, both groups with L2 English. The L2 proficiency level was also considered and a general trend was observed such that learners with a higher L2 proficiency outperformed those with a lower one. In relation to the question of access to Universal Grammar (UG) by non-native learners, a task effect was found in that the results from the definiteness task offer some limited support for ‘Full Access’ accounts; however overall there is stronger, albeit indirect, support for representational deficit accounts.

Research paper thumbnail of L3 Acquisition of German adjectival inflection - a generative account

Second Language Research 27 (1)

Studies testing the knowledge of syntactic properties have resulted in two potentially contrastin... more Studies testing the knowledge of syntactic properties have resulted in two potentially contrasting proposals in relation to third language acquisition (TLA); the Cumulative Enhancement Model (Flynn et al., 2004), which proposes that previously learned languages will positively affect the acquisition of a third language (L3); and the ‘second language (L2) status factor’ hypothesis (Bardel and Falk, 2007), which proposes that the primacy of the L2 can block the potential positive effects that may be transferable from the first language (L1). This article attempts to extend these hypotheses to the domain of morphosyntax, in relation to the TLA of the properties of grammatical number and gender concord marking on German attributive adjectives; these properties not present in the L1 of Japanese, or the L2 of English. Two further factors are of interest in the current study; first, the performance of the learners according to their L3 and their L2 proficiency levels, a variable not discussed in the above-mentioned studies; and, second, the role that the type of task has on the performance of these learners. Three groups of Japanese native speakers (matched for proficiency within each German group), but with differing English proficiencies, completed a carefully balanced gap-filling task, together with two oral elicitation tasks in the form of games; both of these elicited tokens of adjectival inflection. Initial results offer partial support for weaker versions of the two hypotheses mentioned above. However, neither of the L3 models tested can fully account for the results obtained, which are more consistent with a feature-based account of the organization of grammar in the domain of morphosyntax, such as that of Distributed Morphology (DM) (Halle and Marantz, 1993). DM is a model for language acquisition which — coupled with a view that the Subset Principle proposed by this account is not observed by non-primary language learners — has recently been proposed to explain the optionality observed in L2 learners’ production (Hawkins et al., 2006). The data presented here suggest that it could be extended to L3 learners’ production.

Research paper thumbnail of L3 enhanced feature sensitivity as a result of higher proficiency in the L2

In the relatively new field of third language (L3) acquisition, determining the role that transfe... more In the relatively new field of third language (L3) acquisition, determining the role that transfer from the first language (L1) and/or the second language (L2) plays is an important issue. Recent studies have provided evidence that L3 learners who have L2 experience of functional categories not present in the L1 acquire them faster in the L3 than those learners who first encounter the said categories in an L2 (Leung, 2005). The present study uses three written gap-filling tasks to look at the L3 acquisition of uninterpretable features on the determiner phrase (DP) in German, specifically the features of Case and grammatical gender on the determiner and on the attributive adjective, by adult native speakers of Japanese who have English as an L2. The focus is not on whether features have been transferred from the L1 or the L2 to the L3, but instead on whether learners of advanced L2 proficiency are more sensitive to these properties in the L3. Results seem to support this, indicating that those L3 learners who have achieved a higher proficiency in their L2 are more target-like in their performance on these features than learners of an equivalent L3 proficiency but a lower L2 proficiency. It is proposed that these learners seem to exhibit an improved lexical knowledge together with superior metalinguistic and cognitive abilities, and these in turn aid the L3 learners in triggering the setting of UG parameters.

Research paper thumbnail of Article choice and article omission in the L3 German of native speakers of Japanese with L2 English

Ionin, Ko & Wexler (2004), investigating knowledge of article choice in English by second languag... more Ionin, Ko & Wexler (2004), investigating knowledge of article choice in English by second language (L2) learners, have found that native speakers of article-less languages go through a period of ‘fluctuation’, where articles can express either definiteness or specificity. White (2003) and Trenkic (2007), investigating the use of English articles in L2 speech, have found considerable omission in obligatory contexts for the and a/an. The present study investigates article choice and article omission in the third language (L3) acquisition of German of native speakers of Japanese (a language without articles), who have acquired L2 English to different levels of proficiency. Results show: (a) little evidence of fluctuation in participants’ article choice on the basis of definiteness/specificity; (b) persistent omission of German articles in speech by the participants, regardless of their proficiency in L2 English; (c) a role for Case (specifically dative Case) in determining misuse of article forms and omission.

Research paper thumbnail of Sources of fluctuation in article choice in English and German by Syrian Arabic and Japanese native speakers

Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al., 2004a; Ionin et al., 2008) has suggested... more Recent work by Tania Ionin and colleagues (Ionin et al., 2004a; Ionin et al., 2008) has suggested that native speakers of article-less languages may fluctuate between selecting articles based on definiteness and selecting them based on specificity. This was termed the Fluctuation Hypothesis (Ionin et al., 2004a). The Fluctuation Hypothesis assumes learners to have full access to Universal Grammar (UG) properties, including those which are not instantiated in their L1 grammars. This contrasts with the Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (Hawkins and Chan, 1997), now termed the Representational Deficit Hypothesis (Hawkins and Franceschina, 2004; Hawkins et al, 2006). This proposes that learners will fail to acquire uninterpretable features, if these are not present in their L1.

Research paper thumbnail of L3 Acquisition of articles in German by native Japanese speakers

It is well-documented that native speakers of languages which lack articles and have no morpholog... more It is well-documented that native speakers of languages which lack articles and have no morphological marker for definiteness show persistent variability in the use of articles in second languages where they are present and where definiteness is marked. It has been argued that these learners use articles to mark both specificity and definiteness. This paper shows that learners display fewer problems of this kind when acquiring a third language (L3) which has articles that mark definiteness in a similar manner to that of the second language (L2). The languages under investigation in this study are Japanese (L1), English (L2) and German (L3). Results from a gap-filling task show an effect of both L3 and L2 proficiency. Furthermore, inappropriate selections appear not to be based on participants selecting articles on the basis of specificity, but instead upon the grammatical Case of the noun in question.

Research paper thumbnail of Defective adjectival inflection in non-native German: prosodic transfer or missing surface inflection?

Two recent hypotheses which support the theory of full access to Universal Grammar have been prop... more Two recent hypotheses which support the theory of full access to Universal Grammar have been proposed in order to account for variant data supplied by L2 learners. The Prosodic Transfer Hypothesis (Goad, White and Steele, 2003) suggests that non-target-like behaviour by L2 learners is partially due to the differences in prosody between the L1 and L2 and the ensuing prosodic constraints; whilst the Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis (Prévost & White, 2000) proposes that problems are due to the learners’ variability in mapping abstract syntactic features onto morphological forms. This paper discusses a study of Japanese native speakers acquiring L3 German adjectival inflection in light of these two hypotheses. Data are provided from a written gap-filling task and from two oral production tasks. The results indicate stronger support for the MSIH.

Research paper thumbnail of The effects of L2 proficiency on the acquisition of new morpho-syntactic features in an L3

This paper takes a new perspective on an old topic, namely that of transfer. For many years now t... more This paper takes a new perspective on an old topic, namely that of transfer. For many years now the influence which first languages have on the adult acquisition of second languages has been intensely researched and discussed. Most linguists accept that there are some aspects of language development which cannot be explained by transfer; for example, so called ‘poverty of the stimulus’ cases, which are treated in the same way by all learners of a second language (L2), regardless of their first language (L1). However, there is much evidence that transfer – both positive and negative – from the L1 can, and does, affect the syntactic, morphological and phonological properties of the interlanguage grammars of L2 learners. Interpreting the role of transfer is complicated in cases where third languages are involved. Clearly the scope for possible transfer in this scenario is extended to include not only influence from the L1 but also from the L2 (or any number of previously acquired languages).

This study looks not at whether specific features have been transferred from an L1 or L2 to a third language (L3), but instead at whether learners who have not encountered certain features in their L1 or L2 are somehow more sensitive to them in the L3. Results seem to indicate that those L3 learners who have achieved a higher proficiency in their L2 are more target-like in their performance on these features than those learners of an equivalent L3 proficiency but a lower L2 proficiency.

Research paper thumbnail of Accounting for English article interpretation by L2 speakers

Ionin, Ko and Wexler (2004a) have shown that L2 speakers of English whose L1’s lack articles (Rus... more Ionin, Ko and Wexler (2004a) have shown that L2 speakers of English whose L1’s lack articles (Russian and Korean) appear to fluctuate in their interpretation of the and a, allowing them to encode either definiteness or specificity. They argue that these are two options of an Article Choice Parameter offered by Universal Grammar, and that the Russian and Korean speakers fluctuate between them when they are acquiring English. In the present study it is shown that a similar pattern can be observed in L2 speakers of English whose L1 is Japanese (also a language that lacks articles) but not in speakers whose L1 is Greek, a language with articles that encode definiteness like English. It is also shown that while group results for the Japanese speakers suggest fluctuation, individual results do not. It is argued that an account can be given of both cases which does not require appeal either to an Article Choice Parameter or to the concept of ‘fluctuation’. The alternative proposal made here is consistent with Universal Grammar, and follows from an organisation of the grammar where phonological exponents are separated from the lexical items manipulated by syntactic computations, as in Distributed Morphology. It is suggested that a descriptively adequate account which avoids a construction-specific parameter like the Article Choice Parameter and departure from the normal assumptions of UG represented by fluctuation should be preferred.

Research paper thumbnail of UG and Poverty of the Stimulus: Topic Deletion Evidence from L2 learners of German

"The intention of this paper is to test whether L2 learners of German have access to UG by invest... more "The intention of this paper is to test whether L2 learners of German have access to UG by investigating their sensitivity to properties which are underdetermined by input and are not
present in their L1; a ‘poverty of the stimulus’ phenomenon. To do this the study looked at the L2 acquisition of German, with particular emphasis on an aspect of spoken German, known as
‘topic-drop’. The research examined data obtained from speakers of different types of L1s in order to ascertain whether they were aware of the possible omission of subjects and objects in main and embedded clauses in colloquial German. The groups of learners were divided according to their L1; non-null subject L1s, null subject L1s, null subject and null object L1s and a group of bilinguals. Results show that while a native control group responded as expected on the underdetermined phenomena, the non-native speakers showed different patterns of response depending on the age at which they were first exposed to German and the type of L1 they spoke. "