Viraj Shah | FLAME University (original) (raw)

Papers by Viraj Shah

Handbook on Urban History of Early India, 2024

The early medieval period in Indian history, multifariously called a feudal era marked with urban... more The early medieval period in Indian history, multifariously called a feudal era marked with urban decay and political fragmentation, or a period of geographical and cultural expansion with emerging regional identities, has not revealed many settlements as compared to the early historical period. While the period abounds in temples, caves, sculptures and inscriptions, the evidences of actual settlements are scant, especially in the Deccan region. While a few studies have brought to light a number of early medieval settlements and revealed some material remains, the picture is still hazy.

This paper attempts to locate the urban settlements in Maharashtra during the early medieval period of 4th to 13th-14th centuries CE as reflected in the epigraphic sources that mainly include grants to Brahmanas and temples. The study is based on published epigraphic sources spanning the reigns of Vakataktas to Yadava dynasties. These grants, recording the donation of villages, land and/or revenues to Brahmanas or temples, refer to numerous settlements, many of which have been identified with present-day villages, while some have been lost. Based on these epigraphic references, the paper attempts to understand the nature of these settlements, variations in the types of settlements and the changes that occurred in the character of the settlements during the period under study. It focuses on identifying urban centres and patterns of urbanisation during this period.

It is argued that the epigraphic sources point at an abundance of settlements in contrast to the presence of scant archaeological record during this period. The nature of settlements appears to be predominantly rural during 4th to 9th centuries with the occurrence of a few towns, while the number of urban centres with flourishing trade activities shows a marked increase after 9th-10th century CE. The nature of a few settlements changed over time, but most settlements indicate long occupation, at least from early historic to modern times. It is argued that an in-depth study of epigraphic sources to identify and map settlements in archaeological landscape may lead to a better understanding of early medieval period in Indian history.

History of Ancient India, 2020

The religious landscape of India is dotted with innumerable caves cut in the scarps and sides of ... more The religious landscape of India is dotted with innumerable caves cut in the scarps and sides of hills. The cave architecture has a long, prolific and ancient tradition in India. These rock-cut caves; which originally served as residential places and spiritual spaces away from the mundane world, predominantly for the wandering monks and nuns of monastic faiths; eventually developed as elaborate Brahmanical temples thronged by laity. The history of this architectural tradition is a fascinating story of changing patterns in architectural, sculptural and iconographic trends; patronage and socioeconomic religious contexts.

Conversations with the Animate 'Other' Historical Representations of Human and Non-Human Interactions in India- Edited by Aloka Parasher-Sen, Bloomsbury, 2023

Jaina religious tradition, as expressed in texts as well as visual material, has always acknowled... more Jaina religious tradition, as expressed in texts as well as visual material, has always acknowledged the non-human entities not just as ‘mute other’, but very much as part of life cycle of all living beings. This includes not just animals and birds, but also vegetation, microorganisms, air and water. The human society, including the future tīrthaṅkaras, monks-nuns as well as laity on the inhabited parts of Jaina cosmos, regularly interact and engage with these entities. This engagement is almost involuntary and inevitable, often involving intentional or unintentional harm caused to these entities by devout Jains that needs to be atoned. At times, this engagement is more conscious and crucial that plays an important role in the worldly as well as spiritual journey of a Jaina devotee.

Of this wide variety of non-human entities in Jaina Universe, snakes or more specifically, cobras/ nāgas hold significant position, especially because two of the 24 tīrthaṅkaras of the present time-cycle, 7th tīrthaṅkara, Supārs̀vanātha and 23rd tīrthaṅkara, Pārs̀vanātha are shown with snake-hoods above their heads. Nāgas also appear in stories associated with the 24th tīrthaṅkara, Mahāvīra, and are linked with goddesses, tantric diagrams and lower regions of Jaina cosmos. They are perceived and depicted as animals, anthropomorphized beings as well as divine/semi-divine figures. They often occupy liminal spaces and possess magical characters. They are benevolent as well as malevolent, tamed as well as wild, devoted as well as to be feared. This paper seeks to explore the varied perception and representation of nāgas in Jaina visual imagery of ancient and medieval India. It aims to understand how and why such perception and illustration in Jaina art were shaped by cultural practices, religious sensibilities and artistic norms of India at large.

India Study Centre Trust, 2020

The Jaina caves of Maharashtra are limited in number and simpler in design compared to the vast w... more The Jaina caves of Maharashtra are limited in number and simpler in design compared to the vast wealth of Buddhist and Brahmanical caves of the region. The Jaina caves, scattered over nineteen sites, were excavated during 1st century BCE to 14th-15th century CE (Shah 2008). These caves, following the regional architectural trends, are mostly plain excavations; but depict a multitude of icons. In the absence of adequate epigraphic data, it has been very difficult to propose any conclusive accounts on the patronage of these caves.

The paper aims to explore the patterns of patronage to the Jaina caves of Maharashtra through a variety of sources such as epigraphs; architectural and iconographic trends; and donor sculptures. It probes into the issues of piety and pilgrimage in medieval Maharashtra as reflected in the nature of these caves and the donative inscriptions.

Post-doctoral Report , 2009

Temple emerged as a significant and influential institution in medieval India, patronised by almo... more Temple emerged as a significant and influential institution in medieval India, patronised by almost all classes of the society. The temples were endowed with villages, plots of land, gardens, oil-mills, cash donations, various commodities such as vessels, bells, ornaments, animals, grains, spices and innumerable other items. Very often, the temples had complete judicial, administrative and economic control over a large number of villages that were donated to them, many times in far-flung areas. In this way, temple evolved into a land-owning rich organization that carried out the multiple functions of a religious place, educational institution and also occupation-generating economic institution.
The evolution of temple into such an important institution pose many interesting queries such as socio-economic-religious background of the rise of temples, nature of patronage and general function of the temple in contemporary society. This work aims to address some of these problems in the case of temples from Maharashtra, primarily with the help of epigraphic material, which comprises of around 255 inscriptions recording construction of temples and/or grants to these temples. Understanding the socio-economic-religious background of the rise of temples, evolution of temple institution, nature of patronage as well as nature and terms of endowments, functioning of temples and religious trends of the contemporary society, are some of the primary aims of this study.

Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute, 2001

This paper brings to light an unusual Nathapanthi cave at Anjaneri in Maharashtra, India. This ca... more This paper brings to light an unusual Nathapanthi cave at Anjaneri in Maharashtra, India. This cave, recorded as a Jaina cave, is found to be dedicated to Matsyendranatha, believed to be the founder of Natha sect. The paper examines the prominence of Natha sect in Maharashtra during medieval period and explores the literary traditions and architectural remains associated with the Natha sect.

Man & Environment, 2005

The paper records types of water management systems prevalent in the villages of Guhagar taluka, ... more The paper records types of water management systems prevalent in the villages of Guhagar taluka, Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra, India. The survey included a thorough exploration of 22 villages, which revealed the existence of mainly medieval structural remains such as wells, step-wells, tanks and water channels. The study aims to bring to light the architectural features of these structures focusing on chronology and comparative analysis. It also explores the factors behind the occurrence of these structures in such a large number and attempts to understand historical context of these structures.

Riches of Indian Archaeological and Cultural Studies, 2006

The paper records a vast range of unnoticed paintings in the Jaina caves of Ellora, India. It cri... more The paper records a vast range of unnoticed paintings in the Jaina caves of Ellora, India. It critically examines the themes of these paintings and studies them within their architectural and sculptural contexts.

Keval-Bodhi- Buddhist & Jaina History of the Deccan, 2006

The paper traces the history and development of Jainism in Maharashtra, India through literary tr... more The paper traces the history and development of Jainism in Maharashtra, India through literary traditions and archaeological remains.

Deccan Studies, 2007

Pilgrimage or tirthayatra is a significant aspect of Jainism. The Jaina sacred places are called ... more Pilgrimage or tirthayatra is a significant aspect of Jainism. The Jaina sacred places are called khetras and are usually classified into three types. During medieval period, a number of such pilgrimage centres developed in Maharashtra, India. These have been recorded in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Marathi texts written during 12th century AD to 18th century AD. While some of these places were contemporary urban towns, some were cave-sites, dating back to much earlier period. The paper attempts to record the significance and antiquity of these pilgrimage places through literary and archaeological evidences.

Maharashtra Unlimited, 2014

Jaina Studies, SOAS, University of London, 2010

South Asian Studies, 2009

The twin hills of Mangi-Tungi in the Nasik district of Maharashtra, India, have been a popular an... more The twin hills of Mangi-Tungi in the Nasik district of Maharashtra, India, have been a popular and prominent Digambara Jaina tirtha, at least since 12th-13th century CE, famous as a Siddhakshetra, where legendary beings and ninety-nine crore Jaina Munis are believed to have achieved nirvana as referred to in numerous Jaina texts. With eight caves and about 363 icons within the caves as well as carved directly on the rock-face surrounding the peaks, the excavation activity continued from around late 9th century CE to 15th century CE and was primarily concentrated on the twin peaks. Interestingly, unlike other Jaina cave-sites of the region and also two caves at the lower level, the emphasis on these peaks was on Jina icons and meditating figures of monks with almost absence of any other deities or architectural embellishment of ‘caves’, which are nothing but plain rooms. It is argued here that it was the distinctive physical appearance of these twin hills with steep, bare and peculiarly shaped peaks, narrow connecting ridge and seemingly inaccessible nature due to their height that was instrumental in its emergence as a Jaina tirtha. The strenuous ascent involved in reaching the peaks and the pradakshina along a narrow and precarious path that was required to worship the icons carved on the rock-face, added to the mysterious nature of the site, which has ever since been associated with miracles and supernatural. It is argued here that the site acquired sanctity because probably it was originally used by the Jaina monks for meditation and penance and some of them could have achieved liberation here, following sallekhana rite. With conscious efforts of the Digambara Jaina community and liberal patronage pouring in, the site continues to attract pilgrims and is being popularised as a place with miraculous powers.

Drafts by Viraj Shah

The sculptural art of India has a rich and long tradition, expressed in various mediums such as s... more The sculptural art of India has a rich and long tradition, expressed in various mediums such as stone, terracotta and metal; and exhibited primarily on religious monuments. This tradition, rendered in different forms such as narrative panels, iconographic programme on temple walls and three-dimensional images, depict a variety of themes and styles over a period. This art form reaches its culmination during the Gupta period as evident in well-rounded sculptures with refined features expressing the subtle emotion of serenity and spirituality. The delicate and exquisite features, softly modeled limbs and graceful postures reveal a close parallel between literature and art. In post-Gupta period, this rather homogenous art idiom develops into many regional variations that lead to the evolution of distinctive styles in different parts of the country. The art of post-Gupta period all across the country, though lacking the uniformity of Gupta period, displays a few common features. Very often, these features carry clear imprint of Gupta style or motifs (Harle 1977: 574). There is greater emphasis on ornamentation and decoration. With the emergence of temple architecture, the sculptures become integral part of architectural composition. The temple walls are covered with varied iconic forms mostly placed in niches; sculptures of semi-divine beings and other subsidiary figures; mithuna-maithuna couples; and panels of animals, warriors and other such narratives. Stylistically, there is not much difference between various types of sculptures. The motifs related to nature and vegetative aspects appear mostly within human frame. Some of the most commonly occurring motifs are shalabhanjika, combined human-and-animal form, and floral and abstract devices. Thus, the temple sculptures continue the tradition of Gupta period, but lack large-scale compositions of earlier times (Kramrisch 1981: 96-97; Michell 2000: 56). In western India, in the modern states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, the post-Gupta period witnessed the flourishing of a prolific and rich tradition of sculptural art found in loose images, but mostly on temple walls. In Maharashtra, this art form found expression in panels carved on the walls of rock-cut caves and after 10 th century CE, on the profusely caved walls of structural temples.