Andrea M Headley | Georgetown University (original) (raw)

Papers by Andrea M Headley

Research paper thumbnail of Organizational Resilience in First-Response Agencies: Visual Responses from First Responders during the COVID-19 Pandemic

International journal of disaster risk reduction, Jun 1, 2024

Research paper thumbnail of Understanding problematic substance use among first responders during the COVID-19 pandemic: A survey of law enforcement, fire, and EMS workers in the United States

International Journal of Drug Policy

Research paper thumbnail of Trauma‐Informed Organizational Climate and its Impact on Burnout in First Response Agencies during COVID‐19

Public Administration Review

First responders experience work‐related challenges in higher magnitudes than other occupations. ... more First responders experience work‐related challenges in higher magnitudes than other occupations. Organizational elements may mitigate or exacerbate burnout for first responders during public health emergencies (e.g., COVID‐19). This mixed methods study of first responders in the US aims to (1) assess the relationship between a Trauma‐Informed Organizational Climate (TIC) and burnout; (2) analyze the moderating effect of TIC on role strain and burnout; and (3) identify how a TIC can mitigate contributors to burnout. Survey data (n = 3517) of first responders demonstrate that a TIC (of safety, trust, choice, collaboration, and empowerment) negatively correlates with burnout. Further, a TIC moderates the positive relationship between role strain and burnout. Interviews of first responders (n = 91) reveal that fewer employee interactions, lack of rule‐following behaviors, impaired communication, staffing shortages, and limited time off contribute to burnout. Open communication, resource...

Research paper thumbnail of Racial Representation in Police Departments: Does It Impact Use of Force?

2017 APPAM Fall Research Conference, Nov 3, 2017

Research paper thumbnail of Bureaucracy, Democracy, and Race: The Limits of Symbolic Representation

Public Administration Review, Apr 5, 2021

Research paper thumbnail of Police station design and intrusive police encounters: untangling variations in emotions and behaviourally-relevant perceptions across racial groups

Policing & Society, Jun 27, 2023

Research paper thumbnail of Understanding the Organizational Factors that Impact Police-Community Relations

vii perspective. In five short years, we have created memories that I will cherish for a lifetime... more vii perspective. In five short years, we have created memories that I will cherish for a lifetime. Outside of academe, there are many people that I am particularly appreciative for. To my Apostle and church, you have prayed for me, encouraged me and nurtured me throughout my entire undergraduate and graduate experience. Thank you for instilling in me hope and faith in Jesus Christ, both of which were essential for me throughout this process. To the friends that have become family, the ones that have known me for over ten years, thank you for being a continual presence in my life. Thank you for standing with me as I pursued my doctoral degree. Lastly, to my mother and father, the love, guidance, patience, encouragement, and experiences that you have provided to and for me have truly made me a better person, scholar, and educator. Words fall short in expressing my sentiments of gratitude. To my sister, you continue to show me what a heart of kindness and generosity looks like. Thank you for always believing in me and inspiring me to do this work. To my grandmother, you have embodied what it means to persevere. Thank you for so generously passing that along to me. viii

Research paper thumbnail of Community-Based Organizations and Crime Prevention

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 9, 2015

Community-based organizations have proliferated throughout Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom,... more Community-based organizations have proliferated throughout Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Undergirded by the neoliberal privatization of turning social policy over to the market to foster “better” and cheaper social interventions, community-based organizations are funded to prevent adolescent “problem” behaviors including substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, school dropout, delinquency, and youth violence. This article reviews research on the practices and effectiveness of community-based organizations, mostly in the United States, regarding crime prevention. After discussing the background social context, the article reviews research on the range of services and programs that community-based organizations deliver followed by a review of the research on their effectiveness for preventing crime. The article then discusses a pattern by which organizations veer from program fidelity and reformulate and revise mandated evidence-based practices. It concludes with a discussion of some of the implications and possible consequences of shifting the provision of services to nonstate actors.

Research paper thumbnail of Accountability and police use of force: Interactive effects between minority representation and civilian review boards

Public Management Review, Apr 29, 2021

I assess a contingency model of representative bureaucracy, suggesting the effect of minority rep... more I assess a contingency model of representative bureaucracy, suggesting the effect of minority representation, if any, on police use of force is likely to be stronger with external oversight of poli...

Research paper thumbnail of Promoting Learning and Critical Reflexivity Through an Organizational Case Study Project

Journal of prevention & intervention in the community, Apr 1, 2013

Engaging students directly with community partners can foster deeper learning and critical reflex... more Engaging students directly with community partners can foster deeper learning and critical reflexivity. In our undergraduate seminar in "Understanding Human Service Organizations," we developed a community-based project that has students working in groups to study local human service organizations. Students interview organizational staff, observe operations, and review documents to identify perceived organizational strengths and challenges and offer humble solutions based on course material and outside research. A key component of the course is the critically reflexive journal. Using a structured reflection guide, students describe and analyze their experience in relation to class concepts and examine their personal beliefs and assumptions. This approach is one teaching strategy that has the potential for promoting the critical awareness and reflective practice skills we seek in our students.

Research paper thumbnail of Representing Personal and Professional Identities in Policing: Sources of Strength and Conflict

Public Administration Review, Feb 15, 2022

Representing diverse identities in government is important for equal employment, symbolic benefit... more Representing diverse identities in government is important for equal employment, symbolic benefits, and opportunities to improve public service outcomes. This article uses qualitative interviews with 32 frontline police officers to examine the ways in which personal and professional identities intersect to promote or impede those benefits. The findings highlight how holding similar sociodemographic identities with the public can be a source of strength as it pertains to promoting shared understanding and reducing the social distance that comes with identity incongruence. However, internal identity conflicts arise as White officers overcome culture shock and endure learning curves, whereas officers of color navigate the dual pressures of empathetic treatment (that comes with shared personal identity) versus arms‐length treatment (that comes with professional identification). Even then, as seen in this study, the way officers treat and interact with the community is imperative and can overcome symbolic identity barriers.

Research paper thumbnail of Can Technology Work for Policing? Citizen Perceptions of Police-Body Worn Cameras

The American Review of Public Administration, Jul 29, 2020

Recent incidents between police and people of color have further strained police-community relati... more Recent incidents between police and people of color have further strained police-community relationships. Scholars, practitioners, activists, policy makers, and several police departments have advocated for the implementation of body-worn cameras (BWC), a technological adoption promoted to address growing mistrust in the United States. This article examines perception of this technological adoption through 40 in-depth interviews in Washington, D.C. Furthermore, this article uses the context of police BWC to explore how the integration of technological advancements impacts the relationships between communities and local governments-namely police departments. The evidence suggests that residents believe BWC should improve officer behavior and increase police legitimacy, but cameras will not increase trust between police and the community. Based on the findings, this research identifies the limitations of BWC technology and assesses potential collaborative strategies available for police organizations related to the adoption and use of BWC.

Research paper thumbnail of Police Use of Force Interactions: Is Race Relevant or Gender Germane?

The American Review of Public Administration, May 25, 2020

Representative bureaucracy research has examined the influence of race and ethnicity on policing ... more Representative bureaucracy research has examined the influence of race and ethnicity on policing outcomes, yet little is known about police use of force specifically at the individual-level. To address this topic more meticulously, we utilize individual-level data (from Indianapolis and Dallas police departments) to explore differences in the amount of force used by officers in ethnic, racial, and gender matches in police-civilian dyads. Findings suggest that there are heightened levels of force used when there is racial and gender incongruenc between the officer and the civilian, particularly White officers interacting with Black civilians. We discuss how this finding may impact police departments moving forward.

Research paper thumbnail of Is Representation Enough? Racial Disparities in Levels of Force and Arrests by Police

Public Administration Review, Aug 2, 2020

The research in representative bureaucracy that examines the extent to which racial congruence im... more The research in representative bureaucracy that examines the extent to which racial congruence impacts bureaucrats' decisions is mixed. This study adds to this literature by examining the impact of representative bureaucracy on the level of force that police officers use and whether they make an arrest in use of force encounters, while taking into consideration key situational conditions. Using individual-level data from New Orleans to estimate this impact, the authors find that racial congruence and incongruence impact policing outcomes even in the presence of situational shortcuts that cue decision-making. The findings show that the benefits of representation are conditional on the outcome. Black officers are less likely to use higher levels of force on Black civilians. Yet both Black and White officers are less likely to arrest White civilians in use of force encounters. This suggests that interactions in which bureaucrats have less discretion (e.g., arrests) may offer limited opportunities for active representation. Evidence for Practice • Black officers, compared with White officers, are less likely to use severe force against Black civilians. • White and Black officers are less likely to arrest White civilians in use of force encounters. • All officers may benefit from understanding how and when racial shortcuts cue their decision-making processes.

Research paper thumbnail of The Fight or Flight Response: A Look at Stand Your Ground

The Stand Your Ground law's roots run deep throughout American history, but most recently it has ... more The Stand Your Ground law's roots run deep throughout American history, but most recently it has been brought to light as a result of the infamous Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman case. Prior to this case, there had not been an extensive amount of scholarly research done on this legislation specifically and its impact on society, particularly pertaining to race. While research on self-defense is available, the empirical research pertaining to the Stand Your Ground (SYG) law, prior to the Trayvon Martin case, is minimal. This article sheds light on two main research questions: 1) What factors are important in determining the conviction or acquittal in SYG court cases? And 2) Is there a policy-implementation gap in the SYG law? We first present a historical overview of the law in order to identify the origins of the policy. Then, the article discusses the relevant empirical research. A secondary empirical analysis of Florida SYG cases is then conducted in order to compare policy intentions against reality. Therefore, this article identifies the underlying rationale for drafting and passing the SYG legislation and compares it with the actual outcome of the law through an analysis of about 200 court cases in the State of Florida. Special attention is given to the role that race and other factors play in influencing outcomes (i.e. court case verdicts) for the defendant. History of Stand Your Ground The SYG law is an expansion of self-defense law that provides a justification for utilizing deadly force in order to protect one's self, family, or property. Florida statutes, sections 776.012 and 776.013, states that "a person is justified in using or threatening to use deadly force if s/he reasonably believes that using or threatening to use force is necessary to prevent imminent death or great bodily harm…[or a] forcible felony. A person…does not have a duty to retreat and has the right to stand his or her ground if …not engaged in a criminal activity and is in a place where s/he has a right to be…A person is presumed to have a reasonable fear…if: the person against whom the defensive force was used or threatened was in the process of unlawfully and forcefully entering…a dwelling, residence, or occupied vehicle…[This] person who unlawfully and by force enters or attempts to…is presumed to be doing so with the intent to commit an unlawful act or involving force or violence." While this law does not establish a novel type of affirmative defense, it does expand the breadth of the self-defense justification by instituting that there is no duty to retreat anywhere (as long as someone has a right to be there). Self-defense laws date back hundreds of years and can be traced back to principles of English law. In 17 th century England, common law outlined both self-defense and defense of habitation laws, which eventually formed the Castle Doctrine Law (Levin 2010) that transferred to the United States. English common law specified that when being attacked or threatened by another, there was an obligation to retreat. Once retreat was no longer feasible, it was understood that the next appropriate response would be to reciprocate the force being received. Thus, the original selfdefense justification was bound by a necessity requirement, meaning that retreat is no longer an option and it is necessary to meet force with force, and a proportionality requirement, stating that the level of force used is appropriate to the circumstances. Additionally, a homicide was only admissible on self-defense grounds if the defendant could prove that s/he was preventing death or serious bodily harm (Jaffe 2005). England's self-defense law portrayed the value of human life, in that every attempt is made to spare the life of the people involved (Catalfamo 2007). However, the defense of habitation doctrine allowed for one exception to the English common law of self-defense in that once an intruder had entered a person's home, the inhabitant was able to use deadly force in order to prevent a violent felony. These common law rules made the United States' Castle Doctrine law, which also acknowledged the sanctity of the home, comparing it to a castle, where intruders were now beyond the protection of the original self-defense law (Suk 2008). Additionally, the Castle Doctrine law, also known as the defense of habitation, allowed exceptions to both the notion of necessity and proportionality. The former by saying that there was no need to retreat in one's own home and the latter by saying that deadly force was acceptable in the home despite the amount of force exerted and despite the reasonable fear of imminent death or serious bodily injury that was present (Jaffe 2005). In the 19 th century, most of America began to deviate from English common law practices, as seen by the abandonment of the duty to retreat from life-threatening situations in public spaces (Weaver 2008). For instance, in 1876, in the case of Erwin v. State of Ohio, the 'True Man Doctrine' depicted this view. This doctrine expanded the non-retreat privilege that was once confined to a man's private life (i.e. his home) to the public sphere. In this case, the Supreme Court of Ohio defined a true man as one who had no faults, who in essence did no wrong, thus he was not required to retreat from his assailant because he was in right standing. This doctrine accompanied a man [sic] wherever he went inside or outside his domicile. Thus, what began as a doctrine surrounding violations of territorial boundaries transformed into a doctrine dealing with individual rights and liberties. As individual states varied in the extent to which the self-defense justification could be used, American common law also conflicted in which guidelines to apply. In Beard v. U.S. (1895) the Supreme Court stated that the

Research paper thumbnail of The psychology of justice buildings: A survey experiment on police architecture, public sentiment, and race

Journal of Criminal Justice, Mar 1, 2021

Empirical investigations examining how the architectural design of justice buildings impacts the ... more Empirical investigations examining how the architectural design of justice buildings impacts the public is scant and heavily skewed toward the design of penal institutions. Applying theories of hostile and welcoming building design, this study uses a survey experiment to investigate the impact that welcoming and hostile police station designs have on public affect and behaviorally relevant perceptions. Findings reveal main and interactive effects of architectural design on positive affect. Specifically, building design becomes a significant predictor of perceptions depending on an individual's self-identified racial or ethnic group, where Black and Latino respondents report greater positive emotional responses when presented with hostile as compared to welcoming building designs. However, there was no impact of building design on negative affect or behaviorally relevant perceptions to report crime. The results of this study have potential implications for impacting public perceptions about policing and improving service delivery experiences. 1. Literature on police architecture That buildings influence human psychology and behavior has been demonstrated across disciplines, such as architecture and urban design

Research paper thumbnail of Social Equity in Public Administration: A Call to Action

Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, Oct 20, 2019

This article presents a “Call to Action” Social Equity Manifesto developed at the Minnowbrook at ... more This article presents a “Call to Action” Social Equity Manifesto developed at the Minnowbrook at 50 conference. The Social Equity Manifesto identifies several critical areas of emphasis that can help move toward the achievement of social equity in the research, teaching, and practice of public administration. Regarding research, we discuss the presence of social equity manuscripts in PAR, JPART, and ATP. Interestingly, the coverage of class inequality is low across all three journals. However, a clear research strength is the plurality of methodological and theoretical approaches. In terms of teaching, all of the NASPAA social equity award winning public affairs programs in the United States offer multiple courses that provide intentional coverage of social equity. With respect to practice in the United States, inequities exist across multiple policy areas. Programs and policies ranging from nondiscrimination to diversity management are discussed. In essence, exposing students to social equity perspectives within the context of public administration curricula can make PA graduates more responsive to the needs of all people.

Research paper thumbnail of Equal Employment Opportunity: Women Bureaucrats in Male‐Dominated Professions

Public Administration Review, Mar 26, 2020

The public sector prides itself on being a place where women and other marginalized groups can fi... more The public sector prides itself on being a place where women and other marginalized groups can find shelter from workplace discrimination. Still, gender inequities are evident in the public sector workforce. In this article, interview data from city managers and police officers highlight the gendered internal organizational processes, arrangements, and interactions that impact women's experiences in male-dominated roles. Despite seemingly equal opportunities to access and engagement in these bureaucratic roles, the findings suggest that women constantly face gendered barriers and boundaries that directly impact their experiences on the job and their work-related outcomes. Legislative and administrative remedies are not sufficient to eliminate gendered experiences of women in maledominated roles. Rather, a cultural change from within the workplace is vital to realize the efforts of civil rights laws established more than 50 years ago. Evidence for Practice • Women in male-dominated roles in the public sector face covert barriers that have implications for their daily work experiences and subsequent job-related outcomes. • Gender inequities can be rooted and reproduced in organizational structures, processes, and the design of work. Thus, organizational commitment to conduct an internal inventory of places where inequities are reproduced is essential. • Gender analysis skills are an integral part of preparing the current and future public administration workforce to identify differential experiences and outcomes for women in public service.

Research paper thumbnail of The impact of COVID-19 on first responders in the United States of America

International journal of emergency services, Jan 16, 2023

PurposeThis project specifically aims to examine (1) the individual impact of coronavirus disease... more PurposeThis project specifically aims to examine (1) the individual impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on first responders, (2) the organizational impact of COVID-19 on first response agencies and (3) policy and organizational response and support efforts to mitigate potentially harmful effects of the pandemic.Design/methodology/approachThe authors' conducted a mixed-methods analysis, including a review of secondary sources (e.g. government documents, organizational policies and news pieces), state-level policies, encompassing surveys, in-depth semi-structured interviews and PhotoVoice focus groups.FindingsCOVID-19 compounded many of the inherent risks facing first responders and added new stressors. First responders assumed added responsibilities during the pandemic which increased workloads, job-related stress, burnout, distance from the community and first responders' feelings of frustration. Even with personal protective equipment (PPE), first responders faced greater exposure to individuals with COVID-19 and were primarily concerned with transmitting the virus to family members, or other members of the first responders' support networks. State-level COVID-19 policies that were geared toward first responders aimed to improve the first responders' personal lives outside of work and mitigate burnout within the profession. First response agencies adapted to the pandemic by implementing a wide range of measures.Practical implicationsFirst responders also identified several weaknesses in the first responders' agencies' approach to the pandemic. To prepare for the next public health emergency, first response agencies should proactively train employees, build up the first responders' supplies of equipment and PPE, implement policies to strengthen their workforce (e.g. increase hiring for understaffed positions, reduce turnover and mitigate role abandonment), allow for greater employee autonomy, improve communication between leaders and employees and prioritize employees' mental health, as well as other factors relating to departments' informal culture.Originality/valueThis is one of the largest studies conducted on three types of first responders (police officers, fire firefighters, emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics) across the United States of America during a public health crisis.

Research paper thumbnail of Rethinking Policing As Public Management: Measuring And Explaining Police-Citizen Conflict

2017 APPAM Fall Research Conference, Nov 3, 2017

Research paper thumbnail of Organizational Resilience in First-Response Agencies: Visual Responses from First Responders during the COVID-19 Pandemic

International journal of disaster risk reduction, Jun 1, 2024

Research paper thumbnail of Understanding problematic substance use among first responders during the COVID-19 pandemic: A survey of law enforcement, fire, and EMS workers in the United States

International Journal of Drug Policy

Research paper thumbnail of Trauma‐Informed Organizational Climate and its Impact on Burnout in First Response Agencies during COVID‐19

Public Administration Review

First responders experience work‐related challenges in higher magnitudes than other occupations. ... more First responders experience work‐related challenges in higher magnitudes than other occupations. Organizational elements may mitigate or exacerbate burnout for first responders during public health emergencies (e.g., COVID‐19). This mixed methods study of first responders in the US aims to (1) assess the relationship between a Trauma‐Informed Organizational Climate (TIC) and burnout; (2) analyze the moderating effect of TIC on role strain and burnout; and (3) identify how a TIC can mitigate contributors to burnout. Survey data (n = 3517) of first responders demonstrate that a TIC (of safety, trust, choice, collaboration, and empowerment) negatively correlates with burnout. Further, a TIC moderates the positive relationship between role strain and burnout. Interviews of first responders (n = 91) reveal that fewer employee interactions, lack of rule‐following behaviors, impaired communication, staffing shortages, and limited time off contribute to burnout. Open communication, resource...

Research paper thumbnail of Racial Representation in Police Departments: Does It Impact Use of Force?

2017 APPAM Fall Research Conference, Nov 3, 2017

Research paper thumbnail of Bureaucracy, Democracy, and Race: The Limits of Symbolic Representation

Public Administration Review, Apr 5, 2021

Research paper thumbnail of Police station design and intrusive police encounters: untangling variations in emotions and behaviourally-relevant perceptions across racial groups

Policing & Society, Jun 27, 2023

Research paper thumbnail of Understanding the Organizational Factors that Impact Police-Community Relations

vii perspective. In five short years, we have created memories that I will cherish for a lifetime... more vii perspective. In five short years, we have created memories that I will cherish for a lifetime. Outside of academe, there are many people that I am particularly appreciative for. To my Apostle and church, you have prayed for me, encouraged me and nurtured me throughout my entire undergraduate and graduate experience. Thank you for instilling in me hope and faith in Jesus Christ, both of which were essential for me throughout this process. To the friends that have become family, the ones that have known me for over ten years, thank you for being a continual presence in my life. Thank you for standing with me as I pursued my doctoral degree. Lastly, to my mother and father, the love, guidance, patience, encouragement, and experiences that you have provided to and for me have truly made me a better person, scholar, and educator. Words fall short in expressing my sentiments of gratitude. To my sister, you continue to show me what a heart of kindness and generosity looks like. Thank you for always believing in me and inspiring me to do this work. To my grandmother, you have embodied what it means to persevere. Thank you for so generously passing that along to me. viii

Research paper thumbnail of Community-Based Organizations and Crime Prevention

Oxford University Press eBooks, Jun 9, 2015

Community-based organizations have proliferated throughout Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom,... more Community-based organizations have proliferated throughout Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Undergirded by the neoliberal privatization of turning social policy over to the market to foster “better” and cheaper social interventions, community-based organizations are funded to prevent adolescent “problem” behaviors including substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, school dropout, delinquency, and youth violence. This article reviews research on the practices and effectiveness of community-based organizations, mostly in the United States, regarding crime prevention. After discussing the background social context, the article reviews research on the range of services and programs that community-based organizations deliver followed by a review of the research on their effectiveness for preventing crime. The article then discusses a pattern by which organizations veer from program fidelity and reformulate and revise mandated evidence-based practices. It concludes with a discussion of some of the implications and possible consequences of shifting the provision of services to nonstate actors.

Research paper thumbnail of Accountability and police use of force: Interactive effects between minority representation and civilian review boards

Public Management Review, Apr 29, 2021

I assess a contingency model of representative bureaucracy, suggesting the effect of minority rep... more I assess a contingency model of representative bureaucracy, suggesting the effect of minority representation, if any, on police use of force is likely to be stronger with external oversight of poli...

Research paper thumbnail of Promoting Learning and Critical Reflexivity Through an Organizational Case Study Project

Journal of prevention & intervention in the community, Apr 1, 2013

Engaging students directly with community partners can foster deeper learning and critical reflex... more Engaging students directly with community partners can foster deeper learning and critical reflexivity. In our undergraduate seminar in "Understanding Human Service Organizations," we developed a community-based project that has students working in groups to study local human service organizations. Students interview organizational staff, observe operations, and review documents to identify perceived organizational strengths and challenges and offer humble solutions based on course material and outside research. A key component of the course is the critically reflexive journal. Using a structured reflection guide, students describe and analyze their experience in relation to class concepts and examine their personal beliefs and assumptions. This approach is one teaching strategy that has the potential for promoting the critical awareness and reflective practice skills we seek in our students.

Research paper thumbnail of Representing Personal and Professional Identities in Policing: Sources of Strength and Conflict

Public Administration Review, Feb 15, 2022

Representing diverse identities in government is important for equal employment, symbolic benefit... more Representing diverse identities in government is important for equal employment, symbolic benefits, and opportunities to improve public service outcomes. This article uses qualitative interviews with 32 frontline police officers to examine the ways in which personal and professional identities intersect to promote or impede those benefits. The findings highlight how holding similar sociodemographic identities with the public can be a source of strength as it pertains to promoting shared understanding and reducing the social distance that comes with identity incongruence. However, internal identity conflicts arise as White officers overcome culture shock and endure learning curves, whereas officers of color navigate the dual pressures of empathetic treatment (that comes with shared personal identity) versus arms‐length treatment (that comes with professional identification). Even then, as seen in this study, the way officers treat and interact with the community is imperative and can overcome symbolic identity barriers.

Research paper thumbnail of Can Technology Work for Policing? Citizen Perceptions of Police-Body Worn Cameras

The American Review of Public Administration, Jul 29, 2020

Recent incidents between police and people of color have further strained police-community relati... more Recent incidents between police and people of color have further strained police-community relationships. Scholars, practitioners, activists, policy makers, and several police departments have advocated for the implementation of body-worn cameras (BWC), a technological adoption promoted to address growing mistrust in the United States. This article examines perception of this technological adoption through 40 in-depth interviews in Washington, D.C. Furthermore, this article uses the context of police BWC to explore how the integration of technological advancements impacts the relationships between communities and local governments-namely police departments. The evidence suggests that residents believe BWC should improve officer behavior and increase police legitimacy, but cameras will not increase trust between police and the community. Based on the findings, this research identifies the limitations of BWC technology and assesses potential collaborative strategies available for police organizations related to the adoption and use of BWC.

Research paper thumbnail of Police Use of Force Interactions: Is Race Relevant or Gender Germane?

The American Review of Public Administration, May 25, 2020

Representative bureaucracy research has examined the influence of race and ethnicity on policing ... more Representative bureaucracy research has examined the influence of race and ethnicity on policing outcomes, yet little is known about police use of force specifically at the individual-level. To address this topic more meticulously, we utilize individual-level data (from Indianapolis and Dallas police departments) to explore differences in the amount of force used by officers in ethnic, racial, and gender matches in police-civilian dyads. Findings suggest that there are heightened levels of force used when there is racial and gender incongruenc between the officer and the civilian, particularly White officers interacting with Black civilians. We discuss how this finding may impact police departments moving forward.

Research paper thumbnail of Is Representation Enough? Racial Disparities in Levels of Force and Arrests by Police

Public Administration Review, Aug 2, 2020

The research in representative bureaucracy that examines the extent to which racial congruence im... more The research in representative bureaucracy that examines the extent to which racial congruence impacts bureaucrats' decisions is mixed. This study adds to this literature by examining the impact of representative bureaucracy on the level of force that police officers use and whether they make an arrest in use of force encounters, while taking into consideration key situational conditions. Using individual-level data from New Orleans to estimate this impact, the authors find that racial congruence and incongruence impact policing outcomes even in the presence of situational shortcuts that cue decision-making. The findings show that the benefits of representation are conditional on the outcome. Black officers are less likely to use higher levels of force on Black civilians. Yet both Black and White officers are less likely to arrest White civilians in use of force encounters. This suggests that interactions in which bureaucrats have less discretion (e.g., arrests) may offer limited opportunities for active representation. Evidence for Practice • Black officers, compared with White officers, are less likely to use severe force against Black civilians. • White and Black officers are less likely to arrest White civilians in use of force encounters. • All officers may benefit from understanding how and when racial shortcuts cue their decision-making processes.

Research paper thumbnail of The Fight or Flight Response: A Look at Stand Your Ground

The Stand Your Ground law's roots run deep throughout American history, but most recently it has ... more The Stand Your Ground law's roots run deep throughout American history, but most recently it has been brought to light as a result of the infamous Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman case. Prior to this case, there had not been an extensive amount of scholarly research done on this legislation specifically and its impact on society, particularly pertaining to race. While research on self-defense is available, the empirical research pertaining to the Stand Your Ground (SYG) law, prior to the Trayvon Martin case, is minimal. This article sheds light on two main research questions: 1) What factors are important in determining the conviction or acquittal in SYG court cases? And 2) Is there a policy-implementation gap in the SYG law? We first present a historical overview of the law in order to identify the origins of the policy. Then, the article discusses the relevant empirical research. A secondary empirical analysis of Florida SYG cases is then conducted in order to compare policy intentions against reality. Therefore, this article identifies the underlying rationale for drafting and passing the SYG legislation and compares it with the actual outcome of the law through an analysis of about 200 court cases in the State of Florida. Special attention is given to the role that race and other factors play in influencing outcomes (i.e. court case verdicts) for the defendant. History of Stand Your Ground The SYG law is an expansion of self-defense law that provides a justification for utilizing deadly force in order to protect one's self, family, or property. Florida statutes, sections 776.012 and 776.013, states that "a person is justified in using or threatening to use deadly force if s/he reasonably believes that using or threatening to use force is necessary to prevent imminent death or great bodily harm…[or a] forcible felony. A person…does not have a duty to retreat and has the right to stand his or her ground if …not engaged in a criminal activity and is in a place where s/he has a right to be…A person is presumed to have a reasonable fear…if: the person against whom the defensive force was used or threatened was in the process of unlawfully and forcefully entering…a dwelling, residence, or occupied vehicle…[This] person who unlawfully and by force enters or attempts to…is presumed to be doing so with the intent to commit an unlawful act or involving force or violence." While this law does not establish a novel type of affirmative defense, it does expand the breadth of the self-defense justification by instituting that there is no duty to retreat anywhere (as long as someone has a right to be there). Self-defense laws date back hundreds of years and can be traced back to principles of English law. In 17 th century England, common law outlined both self-defense and defense of habitation laws, which eventually formed the Castle Doctrine Law (Levin 2010) that transferred to the United States. English common law specified that when being attacked or threatened by another, there was an obligation to retreat. Once retreat was no longer feasible, it was understood that the next appropriate response would be to reciprocate the force being received. Thus, the original selfdefense justification was bound by a necessity requirement, meaning that retreat is no longer an option and it is necessary to meet force with force, and a proportionality requirement, stating that the level of force used is appropriate to the circumstances. Additionally, a homicide was only admissible on self-defense grounds if the defendant could prove that s/he was preventing death or serious bodily harm (Jaffe 2005). England's self-defense law portrayed the value of human life, in that every attempt is made to spare the life of the people involved (Catalfamo 2007). However, the defense of habitation doctrine allowed for one exception to the English common law of self-defense in that once an intruder had entered a person's home, the inhabitant was able to use deadly force in order to prevent a violent felony. These common law rules made the United States' Castle Doctrine law, which also acknowledged the sanctity of the home, comparing it to a castle, where intruders were now beyond the protection of the original self-defense law (Suk 2008). Additionally, the Castle Doctrine law, also known as the defense of habitation, allowed exceptions to both the notion of necessity and proportionality. The former by saying that there was no need to retreat in one's own home and the latter by saying that deadly force was acceptable in the home despite the amount of force exerted and despite the reasonable fear of imminent death or serious bodily injury that was present (Jaffe 2005). In the 19 th century, most of America began to deviate from English common law practices, as seen by the abandonment of the duty to retreat from life-threatening situations in public spaces (Weaver 2008). For instance, in 1876, in the case of Erwin v. State of Ohio, the 'True Man Doctrine' depicted this view. This doctrine expanded the non-retreat privilege that was once confined to a man's private life (i.e. his home) to the public sphere. In this case, the Supreme Court of Ohio defined a true man as one who had no faults, who in essence did no wrong, thus he was not required to retreat from his assailant because he was in right standing. This doctrine accompanied a man [sic] wherever he went inside or outside his domicile. Thus, what began as a doctrine surrounding violations of territorial boundaries transformed into a doctrine dealing with individual rights and liberties. As individual states varied in the extent to which the self-defense justification could be used, American common law also conflicted in which guidelines to apply. In Beard v. U.S. (1895) the Supreme Court stated that the

Research paper thumbnail of The psychology of justice buildings: A survey experiment on police architecture, public sentiment, and race

Journal of Criminal Justice, Mar 1, 2021

Empirical investigations examining how the architectural design of justice buildings impacts the ... more Empirical investigations examining how the architectural design of justice buildings impacts the public is scant and heavily skewed toward the design of penal institutions. Applying theories of hostile and welcoming building design, this study uses a survey experiment to investigate the impact that welcoming and hostile police station designs have on public affect and behaviorally relevant perceptions. Findings reveal main and interactive effects of architectural design on positive affect. Specifically, building design becomes a significant predictor of perceptions depending on an individual's self-identified racial or ethnic group, where Black and Latino respondents report greater positive emotional responses when presented with hostile as compared to welcoming building designs. However, there was no impact of building design on negative affect or behaviorally relevant perceptions to report crime. The results of this study have potential implications for impacting public perceptions about policing and improving service delivery experiences. 1. Literature on police architecture That buildings influence human psychology and behavior has been demonstrated across disciplines, such as architecture and urban design

Research paper thumbnail of Social Equity in Public Administration: A Call to Action

Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, Oct 20, 2019

This article presents a “Call to Action” Social Equity Manifesto developed at the Minnowbrook at ... more This article presents a “Call to Action” Social Equity Manifesto developed at the Minnowbrook at 50 conference. The Social Equity Manifesto identifies several critical areas of emphasis that can help move toward the achievement of social equity in the research, teaching, and practice of public administration. Regarding research, we discuss the presence of social equity manuscripts in PAR, JPART, and ATP. Interestingly, the coverage of class inequality is low across all three journals. However, a clear research strength is the plurality of methodological and theoretical approaches. In terms of teaching, all of the NASPAA social equity award winning public affairs programs in the United States offer multiple courses that provide intentional coverage of social equity. With respect to practice in the United States, inequities exist across multiple policy areas. Programs and policies ranging from nondiscrimination to diversity management are discussed. In essence, exposing students to social equity perspectives within the context of public administration curricula can make PA graduates more responsive to the needs of all people.

Research paper thumbnail of Equal Employment Opportunity: Women Bureaucrats in Male‐Dominated Professions

Public Administration Review, Mar 26, 2020

The public sector prides itself on being a place where women and other marginalized groups can fi... more The public sector prides itself on being a place where women and other marginalized groups can find shelter from workplace discrimination. Still, gender inequities are evident in the public sector workforce. In this article, interview data from city managers and police officers highlight the gendered internal organizational processes, arrangements, and interactions that impact women's experiences in male-dominated roles. Despite seemingly equal opportunities to access and engagement in these bureaucratic roles, the findings suggest that women constantly face gendered barriers and boundaries that directly impact their experiences on the job and their work-related outcomes. Legislative and administrative remedies are not sufficient to eliminate gendered experiences of women in maledominated roles. Rather, a cultural change from within the workplace is vital to realize the efforts of civil rights laws established more than 50 years ago. Evidence for Practice • Women in male-dominated roles in the public sector face covert barriers that have implications for their daily work experiences and subsequent job-related outcomes. • Gender inequities can be rooted and reproduced in organizational structures, processes, and the design of work. Thus, organizational commitment to conduct an internal inventory of places where inequities are reproduced is essential. • Gender analysis skills are an integral part of preparing the current and future public administration workforce to identify differential experiences and outcomes for women in public service.

Research paper thumbnail of The impact of COVID-19 on first responders in the United States of America

International journal of emergency services, Jan 16, 2023

PurposeThis project specifically aims to examine (1) the individual impact of coronavirus disease... more PurposeThis project specifically aims to examine (1) the individual impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on first responders, (2) the organizational impact of COVID-19 on first response agencies and (3) policy and organizational response and support efforts to mitigate potentially harmful effects of the pandemic.Design/methodology/approachThe authors' conducted a mixed-methods analysis, including a review of secondary sources (e.g. government documents, organizational policies and news pieces), state-level policies, encompassing surveys, in-depth semi-structured interviews and PhotoVoice focus groups.FindingsCOVID-19 compounded many of the inherent risks facing first responders and added new stressors. First responders assumed added responsibilities during the pandemic which increased workloads, job-related stress, burnout, distance from the community and first responders' feelings of frustration. Even with personal protective equipment (PPE), first responders faced greater exposure to individuals with COVID-19 and were primarily concerned with transmitting the virus to family members, or other members of the first responders' support networks. State-level COVID-19 policies that were geared toward first responders aimed to improve the first responders' personal lives outside of work and mitigate burnout within the profession. First response agencies adapted to the pandemic by implementing a wide range of measures.Practical implicationsFirst responders also identified several weaknesses in the first responders' agencies' approach to the pandemic. To prepare for the next public health emergency, first response agencies should proactively train employees, build up the first responders' supplies of equipment and PPE, implement policies to strengthen their workforce (e.g. increase hiring for understaffed positions, reduce turnover and mitigate role abandonment), allow for greater employee autonomy, improve communication between leaders and employees and prioritize employees' mental health, as well as other factors relating to departments' informal culture.Originality/valueThis is one of the largest studies conducted on three types of first responders (police officers, fire firefighters, emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics) across the United States of America during a public health crisis.

Research paper thumbnail of Rethinking Policing As Public Management: Measuring And Explaining Police-Citizen Conflict

2017 APPAM Fall Research Conference, Nov 3, 2017

Research paper thumbnail of Bureaucratic Race-Making and Place-Making through the Lens of Policing

Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 2017

Book review of Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship by Charles R. Epp, Steve... more Book review of Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship by Charles R. Epp, Steven Maynard-Moody, and Donald Haider-Markel

Research paper thumbnail of Murray Lee and Alyce McGovern, Policing and Media: Public Relations, Simulations, and Communications

Punishment & Society, 2015

Book review of "Policing and Media: Public Relations, Simulations, and Communications"