Amos Frumkin | The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (original) (raw)

Ancient water systems by Amos Frumkin

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

חידושים בארכיאולוגיה של ירושלים וסביבותיה, 2021

יחזקאל ושות' 2021. חידושים במחקר האדריכלי, ההידרולוגי והכרונולוגי של אמת הביאר לירושלים

נקרות צורים, 2021

יחזקאל ופרומקין 2021. מכלול ייחודי של חמישים פניני מערה מנקבת עין ג'וויזה. תקציר פנינת מערות היא ... more יחזקאל ופרומקין 2021. מכלול ייחודי של חמישים פניני מערה מנקבת עין ג'וויזה.
תקציר
פנינת מערות היא סוג של ספלאותם בעל צורה כדורית הגדל
בצורה רדיאלית. לרוב, פניני מערות מתגבשות מסביב לגלעין
קטן המצוי בברכה רדודה רוויה בתמס של קלציט או ארגוניט.
ספלאותם זה נפוץ במערות רבות בעולם אך נדיר למדי במערות
ארצנו. במאמר זה מתואר מכלול ייחודי של 50 פניני מערות
שנמצאו בנקבת עין ג'וויזה.
ייתכן, ולראשונה בעולם, נמצאו פנינים שהתגבשו על גלעינים
מעשי יד אדם מן העת העתיקה, כמו על שברי חרסים וטיח
קדום. במאמר מתואר ניסיון לתארך את זמן היווצרותן של
פנינים אלו - ובהתאמה את זמן שימושה של הנקבה בשיטות
תארוך רדיומטריות-אורניום טוריום ואיזוטופים יציבים של
פחמן וחמצן. שיטות אלו הניבו הצלחה חלקית בלבד, בין היתר
בשל נקבוביות רבה בפנינים.
טיפולוגית, נכון לתאר את רוב פניני המערות מעין ג'וויזה
כ'פיזוליטים' - בשל צורתן, קוטרן, מידת נקבוביותן, ובעיקר
בשל הסביבה שאנו משערים שהושקעו- בסמוך לסכרי קלציט
שרבים מהם תועדו בנקבה. מכך שלפנינים אלו פני שטח
גבשושיים, ניתן להסיק שהן נוצרו תחת זרימה איטית של מים
בנקבה. בנוסף, פניני המערות שנמצאו מתאפיינות בקצב גידול
גבוה, דבר המוסבר באחוז גבוה של קלציט במי התמס בנקבה,
ומצב של על-רוויה משמעותית, בשל פליטה מהירה של פחמן
דו חמצני.

Geoarcheology, 2021

Yechezkel, A., Negev, Y., Frumkin, A. and Leibner, U., 2021. The Shaft Tunnel of the Biar aqueduc... more Yechezkel, A., Negev, Y., Frumkin, A. and Leibner, U., 2021. The Shaft Tunnel of the Biar aqueduct of Jerusalem: Architecture, hydrology, and dating. Geoarcheology. DOI: 10.1002/gea.21875.
Abstract
The Biar aqueduct is the most sophisticated of the aqueducts supplying water to Jerusalem during classical periods. It includes the Biar spring, an underground Shaft Tunnel ∼3 km long harvesting groundwater (cuniculus), a dam, a surface channel, and a tunnel traversing a ridge. We conducted a survey of the Biar underground Shaft

Underground Aqueducts Handbook, 2016

Yechezkel, A., and Frumkin, A., 2016. Spring Tunnels (Niqba’), The Jerusalem Hills Perspective, I... more Yechezkel, A., and Frumkin, A., 2016. Spring Tunnels (Niqba’), The Jerusalem Hills Perspective, Israel. In: Angelakis, A.N., Chiotis, E., Eslamian, S. and Weingartner, H. eds. Underground Aqueducts Handbook. CRC Press. https://books.google.gr/books?id=NeCVDQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=el&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false

International Journal of Speleology 28B, 1999

Frumkin, A., 1999, Interaction between karst, water, and agriculture over the climatic gradient o... more Frumkin, A., 1999, Interaction between karst, water, and agriculture over the climatic gradient of Israel: International Journal of Speleology, v. 28B, 1, p. 99-110.
Abstract
The dry climate of Israel and the karstic nature of its rocks have always imposed human innovation for utilisation of water resources and agriculture. Large perennial karst springs are available only in the lowlands, but sophisticated water supply systems were built both in the lowland and highland regions. Marl layers interbedded within carbonates give rise to local perched springs and allow terrace construction. Deforestation has taken place for some 4000 years, causing intense soil erosion, but terraces have reduced this impact.

Cura Aquarum In Israel II, Schriften der DWhG, Band 21, 2014

Frumkin, A, 2014. Bedrock Water Tunnels in the Southern Levant: Deviations, Surveying Techniques ... more Frumkin, A, 2014. Bedrock Water Tunnels in the Southern Levant: Deviations, Surveying Techniques and Shaft Construction. In: Ohlig, C. & Tsuk, T., eds, Cura Aquarum In Israel II, Schriften der DWhG, Band 21, Siegburg, ISBN 978-3-86948-333-7, p. 43-52.

קתדרה 175, 2020

שבטיאל, פרומקין, הר-מטיוס

Israel Exploration Journal, 2023

Elmakayes, Y., Ben-Shlomo, D., Frumkin, A., 2023. A New Look at the Water Systems at Khirbet el-Ḥ... more Elmakayes, Y., Ben-Shlomo, D., Frumkin, A., 2023. A New Look at the Water Systems at Khirbet el-Ḥamam (Narbata). Israel Exploration Journal 73: 56-72.
S=Abstract
Khirbet el-Ḥamam is a site in northwestern Samaria whose remains, dating from the tenth century BCE to the second century CE, indicate that it was a substantial settlement in the region. Adam Zertal, the original excavator, identified it as biblical Arubboth. This article presents an updated description of the site's Hellenistic-Roman period reservoirs, only partially described in previous research, and an analysis of the water system's strategic importance during the Roman siege of the town. In addition, an earlier, previously unknown water system is presented, which is suggested to belong to the Iron Age II town. Examining the reservoirs as strategic urban assets provides an updated perspective on the site's history.

J. of Roman Archaeology, 2002

אמות המים הקדומות בארץ ישראל, 1989

The Roman city Flavia Neapolis (Hebrew—Shechem; Arabic—Nablus) and its predecessor Hel-lenistic M... more The Roman city Flavia Neapolis (Hebrew—Shechem; Arabic—Nablus) and its predecessor Hel-lenistic Ma'abarta, is a continuously active city, located close to Israel's water divide. The city prospered due to water abundance from local springs, associated with its setting along the natural outlet of the karstic aquifer of Mt. Gerizim, the holy site of the Samaritans. Complicated tunnel systems were constructed for water distribution and consumption during the Hellenistic-Roman

Frumkin, A., 2012. Subterranean water systems of the larger springs of Shechem (Neapolis, Nablus). In: Tavger, A., Amar, Z., Bilig, M., Eds., In the Highland's Depth: Ephraim Range and Binyamin Research Studies 2, p. 141-149 (Hebrew).

פרומקין, ע. 2012, מערכות מים תת-קרקעיות במעיינות הגדולים של שכם. במעבה ההר 2: 141-149

Frumkin, A., Shimron, A., and Rosenbaum, J., 2003, Radiometric dating of the Siloam Tunnel, Jerusalem: Nature, v. 425, p. 169-171

קמרונות חביתיים בנויים על גבי מנהרות ונקבות צרות שרוחבן 50 – 70 ס"מ, באזור ההר נבנו לרוב באבני גז... more קמרונות חביתיים בנויים על גבי מנהרות ונקבות צרות שרוחבן 50 – 70 ס"מ, באזור ההר נבנו
לרוב באבני גזית עשויות גיר או דולומיט, מסותתות היטב בגימור משובח. במיוחד בולטים
קמרונות כאלה במתקני מים מרכזיים של הערים שכם וירושלים וכן בנקבות של מעיינות
בסביבת ערים אלו. קמרונות כאלה אינם מחויבי המציאות מבחינה קונסטרוקטיבית מאחר
שניתן לקרות את החללים הצרים בפחות מאמץ בעזרת לוחות אבן. קמרונות חביתיים צרים
קיימים בעיקר במתקנים שתוארכו לתקופה ההלניסטית והרומית. הקמרונות הצרים שנבנו
בתקופה הרומית מייצגים אולי אפנת בנייה יוקרתית ואיכותית, כפי שניתן ללמוד מספרו
של ויטרוביוס.

אופקים בגיאוגרפיה

Over 190 Spring tunnels have been developed during the course of history in the Land of Israel. T... more Over 190 Spring tunnels have been developed during the course of history in the Land of Israel. The vast majority of these tunnels are located within Israel central mountain range and especially in the Jerusalem Hills. Spring Tunnels are closely associated with the development of irrigated agriculture systems, landscape design and the establishment of rural settlements. This phenomenon probably dates back to the Iron Age II)2700 years BP(. This study presents for the first time a comprehensive picture of this phenomenon using advanced research tools such as GIS. This article is based on statistical comparison of 21 different parameters of two kind of springs in the Jerusalem Hills: 69 with tunnels and 61 without tunnels. The selected parameters are divided into three categories: Geological-geomorphological characteristics)formation, soil group, dip(, physical-hydrological characteristics)slope, precipitation, discharge etc.(and spatial characteristics)elevation differences with nearest ridge / stream channel, distance from Jerusalem, etc.(. The results of this study emphasize the spatial aspects of this phenomenon. There is a clear connection between the Old City of Jerusalem and the spring tunnels in its vicinity. Among the geological formations in which springs are found, many tunnels discharge from the Moza formation. The study also highlights the many physical advantages that exist in the eastern sections of the Soreq, Refaim and Kesalon

Environmental Archaeology, 2023

Maintaining a proper water supply is a subject of constant concern in arid and semi-arid regions ... more Maintaining a proper water supply is a subject of constant concern in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, including the Mediterranean Basin and, more specifically, Western Samaria. Solutions such as cisterns, reservoirs, water tunnels, and springs were developed and perfected throughout history to enable a regular supply of water to the local population. The case of Deir Sam'an is particularly interesting, as it seems the site's water storage capability is much larger than needed during its activity in the Roman-Byzantine period. At the site, located in Western Samaria, several Roman-Byzantine water systems were found including reservoirs and large cisterns. Its main water system, which is still operating, enables a reliable estimate of the available water amount to the site residents in antiquity. In the winter of 2020-2021, the daily precipitation volume and the annual rise in pool levels were measured and compared with the water amount at the end of the summer. The results validated that the water storage capability far exceeds the estimated demand of Deir Sam'an's population. This paper suggests that a large amount of water was utilized by the Byzantine Empire as a strategic management tool of settlement in the area to attract its preferred population to the Western Samaria region.

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

חידושים בארכיאולוגיה של ירושלים וסביבותיה, 2021

יחזקאל ושות' 2021. חידושים במחקר האדריכלי, ההידרולוגי והכרונולוגי של אמת הביאר לירושלים

נקרות צורים, 2021

יחזקאל ופרומקין 2021. מכלול ייחודי של חמישים פניני מערה מנקבת עין ג'וויזה. תקציר פנינת מערות היא ... more יחזקאל ופרומקין 2021. מכלול ייחודי של חמישים פניני מערה מנקבת עין ג'וויזה.
תקציר
פנינת מערות היא סוג של ספלאותם בעל צורה כדורית הגדל
בצורה רדיאלית. לרוב, פניני מערות מתגבשות מסביב לגלעין
קטן המצוי בברכה רדודה רוויה בתמס של קלציט או ארגוניט.
ספלאותם זה נפוץ במערות רבות בעולם אך נדיר למדי במערות
ארצנו. במאמר זה מתואר מכלול ייחודי של 50 פניני מערות
שנמצאו בנקבת עין ג'וויזה.
ייתכן, ולראשונה בעולם, נמצאו פנינים שהתגבשו על גלעינים
מעשי יד אדם מן העת העתיקה, כמו על שברי חרסים וטיח
קדום. במאמר מתואר ניסיון לתארך את זמן היווצרותן של
פנינים אלו - ובהתאמה את זמן שימושה של הנקבה בשיטות
תארוך רדיומטריות-אורניום טוריום ואיזוטופים יציבים של
פחמן וחמצן. שיטות אלו הניבו הצלחה חלקית בלבד, בין היתר
בשל נקבוביות רבה בפנינים.
טיפולוגית, נכון לתאר את רוב פניני המערות מעין ג'וויזה
כ'פיזוליטים' - בשל צורתן, קוטרן, מידת נקבוביותן, ובעיקר
בשל הסביבה שאנו משערים שהושקעו- בסמוך לסכרי קלציט
שרבים מהם תועדו בנקבה. מכך שלפנינים אלו פני שטח
גבשושיים, ניתן להסיק שהן נוצרו תחת זרימה איטית של מים
בנקבה. בנוסף, פניני המערות שנמצאו מתאפיינות בקצב גידול
גבוה, דבר המוסבר באחוז גבוה של קלציט במי התמס בנקבה,
ומצב של על-רוויה משמעותית, בשל פליטה מהירה של פחמן
דו חמצני.

Geoarcheology, 2021

Yechezkel, A., Negev, Y., Frumkin, A. and Leibner, U., 2021. The Shaft Tunnel of the Biar aqueduc... more Yechezkel, A., Negev, Y., Frumkin, A. and Leibner, U., 2021. The Shaft Tunnel of the Biar aqueduct of Jerusalem: Architecture, hydrology, and dating. Geoarcheology. DOI: 10.1002/gea.21875.
Abstract
The Biar aqueduct is the most sophisticated of the aqueducts supplying water to Jerusalem during classical periods. It includes the Biar spring, an underground Shaft Tunnel ∼3 km long harvesting groundwater (cuniculus), a dam, a surface channel, and a tunnel traversing a ridge. We conducted a survey of the Biar underground Shaft

Underground Aqueducts Handbook, 2016

Yechezkel, A., and Frumkin, A., 2016. Spring Tunnels (Niqba’), The Jerusalem Hills Perspective, I... more Yechezkel, A., and Frumkin, A., 2016. Spring Tunnels (Niqba’), The Jerusalem Hills Perspective, Israel. In: Angelakis, A.N., Chiotis, E., Eslamian, S. and Weingartner, H. eds. Underground Aqueducts Handbook. CRC Press. https://books.google.gr/books?id=NeCVDQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=el&source=gbs_atb#v=onepage&q&f=false

International Journal of Speleology 28B, 1999

Frumkin, A., 1999, Interaction between karst, water, and agriculture over the climatic gradient o... more Frumkin, A., 1999, Interaction between karst, water, and agriculture over the climatic gradient of Israel: International Journal of Speleology, v. 28B, 1, p. 99-110.
Abstract
The dry climate of Israel and the karstic nature of its rocks have always imposed human innovation for utilisation of water resources and agriculture. Large perennial karst springs are available only in the lowlands, but sophisticated water supply systems were built both in the lowland and highland regions. Marl layers interbedded within carbonates give rise to local perched springs and allow terrace construction. Deforestation has taken place for some 4000 years, causing intense soil erosion, but terraces have reduced this impact.

Cura Aquarum In Israel II, Schriften der DWhG, Band 21, 2014

Frumkin, A, 2014. Bedrock Water Tunnels in the Southern Levant: Deviations, Surveying Techniques ... more Frumkin, A, 2014. Bedrock Water Tunnels in the Southern Levant: Deviations, Surveying Techniques and Shaft Construction. In: Ohlig, C. & Tsuk, T., eds, Cura Aquarum In Israel II, Schriften der DWhG, Band 21, Siegburg, ISBN 978-3-86948-333-7, p. 43-52.

קתדרה 175, 2020

שבטיאל, פרומקין, הר-מטיוס

Israel Exploration Journal, 2023

Elmakayes, Y., Ben-Shlomo, D., Frumkin, A., 2023. A New Look at the Water Systems at Khirbet el-Ḥ... more Elmakayes, Y., Ben-Shlomo, D., Frumkin, A., 2023. A New Look at the Water Systems at Khirbet el-Ḥamam (Narbata). Israel Exploration Journal 73: 56-72.
S=Abstract
Khirbet el-Ḥamam is a site in northwestern Samaria whose remains, dating from the tenth century BCE to the second century CE, indicate that it was a substantial settlement in the region. Adam Zertal, the original excavator, identified it as biblical Arubboth. This article presents an updated description of the site's Hellenistic-Roman period reservoirs, only partially described in previous research, and an analysis of the water system's strategic importance during the Roman siege of the town. In addition, an earlier, previously unknown water system is presented, which is suggested to belong to the Iron Age II town. Examining the reservoirs as strategic urban assets provides an updated perspective on the site's history.

J. of Roman Archaeology, 2002

אמות המים הקדומות בארץ ישראל, 1989

The Roman city Flavia Neapolis (Hebrew—Shechem; Arabic—Nablus) and its predecessor Hel-lenistic M... more The Roman city Flavia Neapolis (Hebrew—Shechem; Arabic—Nablus) and its predecessor Hel-lenistic Ma'abarta, is a continuously active city, located close to Israel's water divide. The city prospered due to water abundance from local springs, associated with its setting along the natural outlet of the karstic aquifer of Mt. Gerizim, the holy site of the Samaritans. Complicated tunnel systems were constructed for water distribution and consumption during the Hellenistic-Roman

Frumkin, A., 2012. Subterranean water systems of the larger springs of Shechem (Neapolis, Nablus). In: Tavger, A., Amar, Z., Bilig, M., Eds., In the Highland's Depth: Ephraim Range and Binyamin Research Studies 2, p. 141-149 (Hebrew).

פרומקין, ע. 2012, מערכות מים תת-קרקעיות במעיינות הגדולים של שכם. במעבה ההר 2: 141-149

Frumkin, A., Shimron, A., and Rosenbaum, J., 2003, Radiometric dating of the Siloam Tunnel, Jerusalem: Nature, v. 425, p. 169-171

קמרונות חביתיים בנויים על גבי מנהרות ונקבות צרות שרוחבן 50 – 70 ס"מ, באזור ההר נבנו לרוב באבני גז... more קמרונות חביתיים בנויים על גבי מנהרות ונקבות צרות שרוחבן 50 – 70 ס"מ, באזור ההר נבנו
לרוב באבני גזית עשויות גיר או דולומיט, מסותתות היטב בגימור משובח. במיוחד בולטים
קמרונות כאלה במתקני מים מרכזיים של הערים שכם וירושלים וכן בנקבות של מעיינות
בסביבת ערים אלו. קמרונות כאלה אינם מחויבי המציאות מבחינה קונסטרוקטיבית מאחר
שניתן לקרות את החללים הצרים בפחות מאמץ בעזרת לוחות אבן. קמרונות חביתיים צרים
קיימים בעיקר במתקנים שתוארכו לתקופה ההלניסטית והרומית. הקמרונות הצרים שנבנו
בתקופה הרומית מייצגים אולי אפנת בנייה יוקרתית ואיכותית, כפי שניתן ללמוד מספרו
של ויטרוביוס.

אופקים בגיאוגרפיה

Over 190 Spring tunnels have been developed during the course of history in the Land of Israel. T... more Over 190 Spring tunnels have been developed during the course of history in the Land of Israel. The vast majority of these tunnels are located within Israel central mountain range and especially in the Jerusalem Hills. Spring Tunnels are closely associated with the development of irrigated agriculture systems, landscape design and the establishment of rural settlements. This phenomenon probably dates back to the Iron Age II)2700 years BP(. This study presents for the first time a comprehensive picture of this phenomenon using advanced research tools such as GIS. This article is based on statistical comparison of 21 different parameters of two kind of springs in the Jerusalem Hills: 69 with tunnels and 61 without tunnels. The selected parameters are divided into three categories: Geological-geomorphological characteristics)formation, soil group, dip(, physical-hydrological characteristics)slope, precipitation, discharge etc.(and spatial characteristics)elevation differences with nearest ridge / stream channel, distance from Jerusalem, etc.(. The results of this study emphasize the spatial aspects of this phenomenon. There is a clear connection between the Old City of Jerusalem and the spring tunnels in its vicinity. Among the geological formations in which springs are found, many tunnels discharge from the Moza formation. The study also highlights the many physical advantages that exist in the eastern sections of the Soreq, Refaim and Kesalon

Environmental Archaeology, 2023

Maintaining a proper water supply is a subject of constant concern in arid and semi-arid regions ... more Maintaining a proper water supply is a subject of constant concern in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, including the Mediterranean Basin and, more specifically, Western Samaria. Solutions such as cisterns, reservoirs, water tunnels, and springs were developed and perfected throughout history to enable a regular supply of water to the local population. The case of Deir Sam'an is particularly interesting, as it seems the site's water storage capability is much larger than needed during its activity in the Roman-Byzantine period. At the site, located in Western Samaria, several Roman-Byzantine water systems were found including reservoirs and large cisterns. Its main water system, which is still operating, enables a reliable estimate of the available water amount to the site residents in antiquity. In the winter of 2020-2021, the daily precipitation volume and the annual rise in pool levels were measured and compared with the water amount at the end of the summer. The results validated that the water storage capability far exceeds the estimated demand of Deir Sam'an's population. This paper suggests that a large amount of water was utilized by the Byzantine Empire as a strategic management tool of settlement in the area to attract its preferred population to the Western Samaria region.

Geomorphology, 2024

Frumkin, A., Bronshtein, N., Heimann, A., Langford, B. and Levy, E. 2024. Equifinality and unusua... more Frumkin, A., Bronshtein, N., Heimann, A., Langford, B. and Levy, E. 2024. Equifinality and unusual genesis of closed depressions in a mixed carbonate/igneous terrane. Geomorphology. 459
Abstract
Closed depressions such as sinkholes and pits can form through various subsurface processes, leading to similar surface expressions. This study analyzes closed depressions in eastern Galilee, Israel, to evaluate their potential origins. Ten depressions were surveyed, including shallow bowl-like forms and steep-walled pits. The terrain comprises faulted Cretaceous carbonates intruded by Early Pleistocene basalts dated to around 2.25 Ma. The circular morphology of the depressions and lack of ejecta indicate collapse into subsurface voids. Field evidence and geophysical data reveal a complex interplay of tectonic and volcanic factors. Some depressions appear to be structurally controlled by dilational normal faults, while others appear to be associated with volcanic features like dikes. Karst processes in the soluble carbonates likely contributed, most probably by hypogene dissolution related to magmatic fluids which may have enhanced void development. A dike identified within depressions suggests void formation through inflation and deflation of intrusions. Progressive collapse and erosion modified steep pits into shallow bowl-like depressions over time. Our results highlight the equifinality of closed depressions, wherein similar morphologies can arise through multiple subsurface processes. Unraveling this complexity has significance for interpreting pit craters on planetary surfaces using remote sensing.

Geological Society of Israel proceedings, 2002

Ullman, M., Hovers, E., Goren-Inbar, N., Frumkin, A., 2013. Levantine cave dwellers: geographic ... more Ullman, M., Hovers, E., Goren-Inbar, N., Frumkin, A., 2013. Levantine cave dwellers: geographic and environmental aspects of early humans use of caves, case study from Wadi Amud, northern Israel. In: Filippi, M., and Bosak, P., eds.: Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Speleology, Brno: Vol. I: 169-174
Abstract
The human use of caves has its origins as far back as million years ago, when early humans began to use them as seasonal camp sites. At about 500,000 Ka the use of caves by these small groups of hunter-gatherers became a widespread phenomenon in Africa and Eurasia. In Israel alone (at an area of 8,800 km 2) there are about 40 prehistoric caves, dated between 500,000 and 50,000 Ka. Because the number of caves on the landscape is much higher than the number of caves used by our ancestors, we assume that the preference of particular caves within a group's geographic territory involved a system of decision-making based on selection criteria. We attempted to identify these criteria in the Amud catchment, where four well-known Paleolithic caves are located. The study included a systematic pedestrian survey of the canyon, detailed documentation of the physical properties and locational characteristics of the caves, and analysis for pattern recognition with GIS and statistical methods (at an area of 2.6 km 2). One hundred and twenty caves and rock shelters were located, studied and mapped. By comparing the characteristics of caves that were uninhabited with those of the four known Paleolithic sites we constructed a model of the "preferable cave". Paleolithic hominins selected large caves, consisting of one large central hall, with large entrance that allowed good ventilation and natural day light. Preferable caves were rather hidden and protected in the lower part of the canyon and could be approached easily from the streambed or lower slopes. Finally, prehistoric caves in the Amud canyon are located next to the stream outlet (rather than at the center of the hilly region), where a large number of habitats could be reached on a daily basis.

Journal of Islamic Archaeology, 8(2), 2021

Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A. and Bar-Matthews, M., 2021. Mitigating Water Scarcity in the Medieval a... more Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A. and Bar-Matthews, M., 2021. Mitigating Water Scarcity in the Medieval and Islamic Periods: The Example of Safed, Israel. Journal of Islamic Archaeology, 8(2).
Abstract
During the intermediate Islamic period, the settlement of Safed was transformed from a small unknown village in Upper Galilee to an important stronghold and administrative center, aggravating the problem of the town's water supply. Lacking natural springs, Safed depended on cisterns fed by gutters that channeled seasonal rainwater from the roofs and on distant springs in the Nahal Amud ravine. As the town's population grew, its rulers were required to install public water systems. Our field study of the region reveals several Mamluk water systems whose outstanding features are an aqueduct that channeled water by force of gravity from ʿAyn Bīriyyā to the Crusader/Mamluk citadel in Safed, and a spring tunnel flowing beneath the town that was accessible via shafts in the houses. The composition of the water in the tunnel is similar to that of a famous ritual bath in one of these houses, indicating a probable connection. The water systems were dated using Uranium-Thorium analysis and by radiocarbon dating. An ancient spring tunnel at the nearby site of ʿAyn al-Zaytun that may have inspired the construction of Safed's water systems is also discussed. The archaeological finds and dating are consistent with several historical sources describing the construction of water systems in Safed.

Journal of Human Evolution 160, 2021

Frumkin, A., Comay, O., 2021. The last glacial cycle of the southern Levant: Paleoenvironment and... more Frumkin, A., Comay, O., 2021. The last glacial cycle of the southern Levant: Paleoenvironment and chronology of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution 160
Abstract
Archaeozoology change from the last glacial period to the Holocene in spite of the observed fluctuations. The extreme environmental event of MIS 5e was not repeated during the Holocene in terms of natural vegetation and fauna. Anthropogenic environmental change, accelerating towards the present, is overriding the natural trend.

אופקים בגאוגרפיה 85, 2014

צנירים סלעיים או מצוקיים. בישראל מוכרים צנירים בכל האזור הים תיכוני, עד ספר המדבר. במסגרת העבודה ... more צנירים
סלעיים או מצוקיים. בישראל מוכרים צנירים בכל האזור הים תיכוני, עד ספר המדבר. במסגרת העבודה
הנוכחית מופו בכרמל 127 צנירים. הם מרוכזים ב 7- אגני ניקוז, ונמצאים בין 56 ל 428- מטרים מעל פני
הים. רוב הצנירים חתורים לאורך המדרונות הבונים את ערוצי הנחלים וניתן למצוא אותם עד לגבהים של
270 מטרים מעל הערוץ. הצנירים מפותחים רק בסלעי דולומיט או גיר קשים המאופיינים בבלייה קרסטית;
בעיקר בתצורות יגור ובינה. אורך מקטעי הצנירים נע בין מטרים ספורים ל 200- מטר; גובהם ועומקם
הממוצע נמדד ל 3-2- מטרים אך עשוי להגיע עד 9.5 מטרים. הצנירים מפותחים לאורך שכבות מוגדרות
ואינם חותכים בניצב או באלכסון להן. 65% מהצנירים בעלי רכיב מפנה מערבי, ורומזים בכך לקשר עם
מערכות הגשם המגיעות מהים התיכון. לא נמצא קשר בין ממדי חלל הצניר לבין הרום, גובהו מעל האפיק
או שיפוע המדרון. הצנירים מופיעים בכל הגבהים, ללא העדפה למפלסי רום מסויימים.
התהליכים הגאומורפיים הפועלים לבניית צניר משלבים בלייה כימית, מכנית וביוגנית. בשלב הראשון, מים
חודרים בקו השיכוב בין שתי שכבות בעלות כושר מסיסות שונה, ממיסים ויוצרים התקערות ראשונית
(צניר עוברי). בשלב השני, בפני הדופן של הצניר העוברי נוצרים סדקים רדודים ומקבילים המורחבים על
ידי המסה, על ידי חרסיות שנלכדות בתוכם, ובסיוע אפשרי של שורשים ואורגניזמים חיים אחרים. תהליך
שעוביים נע ממספר (flake weathering, exfoliation) הסידוק המקביל יוצר התקלפות ופירוק לשבבים
מ"מ ועד למעלה מ 10- ס"מ. התהליך הגאומורפי העיקרי הפועל לנסיגת שכבת גג הצניר היא קריסה
.(rockfall) והתמוטטות

Marder, O., Barzilay, O., Hershkowitz, I., Frumkin A., 2013. Karst and prehistory at the western Galilee, with emphasize on Manot Cave. Shtober-Zisu. N., ed., Israel Geological Society annual meeting, geological field trips, p. 34-46 (Hebrew).

מרדר, ע. ברזילי ע. הרשקוביץ י. פרומקין ע. 2013. קרסט ופרהיסטוריה בגליל המערבי בדגש על מערת מנות. ... more מרדר, ע. ברזילי ע. הרשקוביץ י. פרומקין ע. 2013. קרסט ופרהיסטוריה בגליל המערבי בדגש על מערת מנות. כנס החברה הגאולוגית, סיורים, בעריכת נ. שטובר-זיסו

Frumkin, A., Shimron, A. E. and Miron, Y., 1998, Karst morphology across a steep climatic gradient, southern Mount Hermon, Israel: Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Supplementband, v. 109, p. 23-40

Ronen, A., Neber, A., Mienis, H. K., Horwitz, L. K., Frumkin, A., Boenigk, W., and Galili, E., 2008, Mousterian occupation on an OIS 5e shore near the mount carmel caves, Israel, in Sulgostowska, Z., and Tomaszewski, A. J., eds., Men – Millennia – Environment: Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, p. 197-205

D. Sivan, G. Sisma-Ventura, N. Greenbaum , O.M. Bialik d, F.H. Williams, M.E. Tamisiea, E.J. Rohling , A. Frumkin, S. Avnaim-Katav, G. Shtienberg, M. Stein 2016. Eastern Mediterranean sea levels through the last interglacial from a coastal-marine sequence in northern Israel.

Quaternary Science Reviews

A last interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage, MIS5e) marine-coastal sequence has been identified alo... more A last interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage, MIS5e) marine-coastal sequence has been identified along the Galilee coast of Israel, with the type section located at Rosh Hanikra (RH). The microtidal regime and tectonic stability, along with the detailed stratigraphy of the RH shore, make the study region ideally suited for determining relative sea level (RSL) through the MIS5e interval in the eastern Mediterranean. The sequence contains fossilized microtidal subunits at a few meters above the current sea level. Unfortunately , all fossils were found to be altered, so that U-Th datings cannot be considered to represent initial deposition. We contend that U-Th dating of Strombus bubonius shells (recrystallized to calcite) suffices to indicate a lower limit of ~110 ± 8 ka for the time sea level dropped below the RH sedimentary sequence. The RH-section comprises three main subunits of a previously determined member (the Yasaf Member): (a) a gravelly unit containing the diagnostic gastropod Strombus bubonius Lamarck (Persistis-trombus latus), which was deposited in the intertidal to super-tidal stormy zone; (b) Vermetidae reef domes indicating a shallow-water depositional environment; and (c) coarse to medium-sized, bioclastic sandstone, probably deposited in the shallow sub-tidal zone. The sequence overlies three abrasion platforms that are cut by tidal channels at elevations of þ0.8 m, þ2.6 m and þ3.4 m, and which are filled with MIS5e sediments. We present a detailed study of the sequence, with emphasis on stratigraphic, sedimentological, and palaeontological characteristics that indicate sea-level changes. Although without precise absolute dating, the stratigraphic sequence of RH through MIS5e allows us to identify a time-series of RSL positions, using the elevations of three stratigraphic subunits. Reconstructed RSL values range from þ1.0 m to þ7 m (with uncertainly < 1 m), and most fall within a narrow range of þ1.0 to þ3.3 m. Toward the end of MIS5e, RSL exceeded about þ7 m. Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) modelling using multiple ice histories suggests that GIA corrections range between about À1.8 m and þ5.4 m. This implies that global mean sea level resided between À0.8 m and þ8.7 m during most of MIS5e. The absolute GIA correction would not be constant through the interglacial, and reduces to a range of À1.2 m toþ 2.4 m towards the end of the interglacial.

Inland notches, are elongated concave-shape indentations that develop on the carbonate rocky clif... more Inland notches, are elongated concave-shape indentations that develop on the carbonate rocky cliffs of mountainous zones, down to the desert fringe. These rock shelters form as a result of the interaction between specific petrologic characteristics and climatic controls, emphasizing the importance of environment upon rock decay. Inland notches are shaped due to slight differences (1–15%) in the porosity of the visor and cavity bed: the cavity bed is more porous, so more likely to erode by exfoliation and dissolution. Thus, the cavity bed retreats at a faster rate compared to the slower subaerial dissolution of the visor bed, until a critical point is reached where the visor collapses. In Israel, inland notches inhabit the same lithostratigraphic units as do large caves. The vast majority (71%) of inland notches are formed in hard, dense, and crystalline limestone deposited throughout the Turonian age. Another 27% are cut into the dolomitic sequence of the upper Albian and lower Cenomanian. The rest (2%) are dispersed in the various formations of the Cenomanian and Eocene eras. Notches are most common in semi-arid and in Mediterranean climates but mainly in areas with annual rainfall of between 400 mm and 850 mm. In more humid areas (> 900 mm/yr) notches are negligible or completely absent, due to the rapid rate of chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks. In the desert fringe (200–300 mm/yr), mechanical decay is accelerated and notches exhibit disintegration processes, visor collapse, and rock falls. In the desert area (< 200 mm/yr), salt decay replaces the chemical decay characteristic of inland notches, encouraging tafoni formation. In addition, notches form through fluvial activity or on account of greater petrophysical differences between consecutive beds; i.e. elongated cavities may form in soft rocks, shaded by harder visors or crusts.

To date, the earliest modern human fossils found outside of Africa are dated to around 90,000 to ... more To date, the earliest modern human fossils found outside of Africa are dated to around 90,000 to 120,000 years ago at the Levantine sites of Skhul and Qafzeh. A maxilla and associated dentition recently discovered at Misliya Cave, Israel, was dated to 177,000 to 194,000 years ago, suggesting that members of the Homo sapiens clade left Africa earlier than previously thought. This finding changes our view on modern human dispersal and is consistent with recent genetic studies, which have posited the possibility of an earlier dispersal of Homo sapiens around 220,000 years ago. The Misliya maxilla is associated with full-fledged Levallois technology in the Levant, suggesting that the emergence of this technology is linked to the appearance of Homo sapiens in the region, as has been documented in Africa.

Journal of Human Evolution, 2019

A karst survey of the western upper Galilee in Israel shows that karst has been a dominant geomor... more A karst survey of the western upper Galilee in Israel shows that karst has been a dominant geomorphic factor throughout the Cenozoic. We discuss the geomorphic character of Manot Cave on the background of other karst features of the region, in order to decipher the preferences of the humans who favored this cave over others. Tens of caves distributed over the study area demonstrate that phreatic and hypogene isolated voids and conduit segments are more abundant than vadose shafts, sinking stream caves and spring caves, although all these types are present. Most caves belong to old stages of landform development , prior to Plio-Pleistocene uplift and stream entrenchment. Manot Cave is a relict chamber cave, which corresponds to a plaeo-water table and the erosion plain above it. Subaerial denudation and slope processes have opened the cave to the surface during the mid-late Pleistocene. Manot Cave is compared with other caves in the region, demonstrating its unique character. It may have been selected due to the small entrance facing to the SW, and the large inner chamber which could be used for non-domestic purposes. This suggests a possible role of a unique behavioral and cultural suite of characters which influenced hominin preferences. The cave was used by hominins and animals until being closed again by colluvium and possibly collapse, ~30 ka. Clastic, chemical, archaeozoological and anthropogenic accumulations reflect the various stages of cave development and gradual sealing of the entrance.

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2019

The Levant region of Israel, located along the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, is characterized by Med... more The Levant region of Israel, located along the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, is characterized by Mediter-ranean climate, but sixty km eastwards towards the Dead Sea Rift Valley (DSRV), the region rapidly becomes a 'rain shadowʼ desert. Speleothems from the Mediterranean climate zone continuously grew throughout several glacial/interglacial cycles, indicating that water was always available in the unsatu-rated zone. Their d 18 O variations match global and regional climate changes, with the Eastern Medi-terranean Sea being the major control on their d 18 O values, as evident from the similarity between the speleothems and the planktonic foraminifer G. ruber records. In contrast, speleothems along the central and southern segments of the DSRV grew mainly during last glacial periods coinciding with the higher stands of Lake Lisan, the precursor of the present-day Dead Sea. This paper discusses the newly discovered Zalmon Cave speleothems, located in the northern segment of the DSRV shedding light on the hydrological conditions along the rift during last glacial. Unlike speleothems located further south along the DSRV, Zalmon Cave speleothems grew both during glacial and interglacial periods. However, during last glacial their d 18 O values, shifted to lower values by ~1e2‰ relative to speleothems from central Israel coinciding also with the largest difference in d 18 O values between Zalmon Cave speleothems and the marine record. The data suggest that a change of the westerlies' storm tracks occurred during most of the last glacial period, which resulted in increased rainfall in the northern DSRV providing freshwater input during the otherwise relatively 'drierʼ glacial.

Frumkin A., Naor, R., 2019. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie

Closed depressions at the northern Golan volcanic plateau were attributed in the past to various ... more Closed depressions at the northern Golan volcanic plateau were attributed in the past to various processes without clear evidence and conclusions. We analyze the morphology, origin, and deformation of the depressions using geologic and speleologic techniques, assisted by air photos and satellite imaging. No ejecta, rim deposits, or lava tubes were found in association with the studied depressions. Comparison with similar recent features at Hawaii provides an explanation to their formation and subsequent definition as pit craters. They probably relate to the last, late Pleistocene volcanic phase of the northern Golan. The magma has apparently been channelled through faults and fractures associated with the Dead Sea Transform, without reaching the surface. The pit craters indicate that inflation by pressurized magmatic intrusion could cause extension along the unstable flanks of the deep Hula basin, while during the deflation stage the evacuated magma left voids which reached the surface by consecutive roof collapse. Since collapse reached the surface, recent erosion and sedimentation have modified the original morphology of the pit craters, commonly forming smooth and shallow bowl-shaped depressions. The youngest pit crater in the Golan breached the surface during the Holocene, still demonstrating the typical vertical pit morphology, similar to recent pit craters in Hawaii.

Geomorphology,, 2020

Inland notches are elongated half tube indentations that develop on the carbonate rocky cliffs of... more Inland notches are elongated half tube indentations that develop on the carbonate rocky cliffs of mountainous zones. Occasionally tufa accumulates within notches as stalactites, drapes and crusts, covering the cavity backwall or floors. In attempt to determine the age of the latest stage of notch formation and calculate the relative rate of slope retreat, U\ \Th dating was used on 16 tufa samples from 2 notches, providing 28 ages. Tufa grow during the time interval between the backwall erosion and visor collapse, and therefore tufa age is an approximation of the timing of the formation of the surface it developed on, i.e. the age of the notch. The oldest known tufa sample is 39.0 ± 10.4 ky (2σ), and the ages of other tufa samples range from 2.1 to 23.3 ky. At the Nahal Oren notch, the present-day backwall formed by the end of the last glacial period (14 to18 ky), whereas the visor in its present form is from the early Holocene (7 to10 ky). The oldest sample was found~1 m from the backwall, suggesting that backwall retreat rate ranges from 20 to 35 mm/ky. Other samples were deposited 50 to 200 cm from the visor edge, suggesting that slope retreat order of magnitude ranges from 10 1 to 10 2 mm/ky. The backwall of the Nesher notch formed between 10 and 14 ky. Our results correspond with the rates of tens of meters per million years, similar to the magnitude of denudation found by previous studies in the Med-iterranean zone of Israel. Dating tufa deposits is a good proxy to estimate the rate of erosion in carbonate slope retreat; however, a precautionary approach should be taken, as rock particles from the eroded bedrock might embed within the tufa, affecting the age results. Questionable samples can be identified using Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy.

Israel Geological Society Guidebook, 2023

Goren et al. 2023. Caves, sinkholes, and canyons: Landscape evolution in response to piping erosi... more Goren et al. 2023. Caves, sinkholes, and canyons: Landscape evolution in response to piping erosion in the Dead Sea Basin

The Dead Sea scrolls at seventy: 'Clear a path in the wilderness', 2024

Understanding the geology of the Qumran caves is essential to understanding the context of the sc... more Understanding the geology of the Qumran caves is essential to understanding the context of the scrolls' physical setting, their preservation in the caves, and their association with the Qumran site. It is also important for gauging the potential for the existence of additional scroll caves. Detailed descriptions and surveys of individual Qumran caves and their geology have been published earlier.1 Here, I discuss the general geology of the caves. Qumran is situated at the northwestern margin of the Dead Sea. Located on the leeward flank of the Judean Mountains, the region is a rain shadow desert, experiencing a hyperarid climate, with mild winters and hot, dry summers. Mean annual precipitation is ~100 mm; potential annual evaporation is ~2,000 mm. Precipitation is lost by evapotranspiration, except in the case of major storms, which promote runoff. Present karst denudation rates are 1-3 mm/thousand years.2 The region's geological history has dictated the cave environment and processes of natural cave formation.

במעבה ההר 5, 2015

נחל דלייה השומרוני - ריכוז ייחודי של מערות קרסטיות ומאות שנות מפלט

Lisker, S., Porat, R., and Frumkin, A., 2010. Geology of caves in the northern section of the Dead Sea Fault Escarpment (Hebrew). In: M. Bilig (Editor), Judea and Samaria Research Studies, Volume 19: Ariel University Center of Samaria, Ariel, p. 323-346.

סורין ליסקר, רועי פורת ועמוס פרומקין, 2010. גיאולוגיה ומורפולוגיה של מערות בצפון מצוק ההעתקים של ... more סורין ליסקר, רועי פורת ועמוס פרומקין, 2010. גיאולוגיה ומורפולוגיה של מערות בצפון מצוק ההעתקים של ים המלח. מחקרי יהודה ושומרון, קובץ י"ט, עמ' 323-346, המרכז האוניברסיטאי אריאל בשומרון.

לנגפורד, ב., פרומקין, ע. ,2015, המערות הגדולות במדבר יהודה ומיפויין. בתוך פרומקין, ע., עורך, אטלס... more לנגפורד, ב., פרומקין, ע. ,2015, המערות הגדולות במדבר יהודה ומיפויין. בתוך פרומקין, ע., עורך, אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. ירושלים עמ' 48-52

פרומקין, ע. ,2015, מערות מדבר יהודה: גאולוגיה, מורפולוגיה והתפתחות הנוף. בתוך פרומקין, ע., עורך, ... more פרומקין, ע. ,2015, מערות מדבר יהודה: גאולוגיה, מורפולוגיה והתפתחות הנוף. בתוך פרומקין, ע., עורך, אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. ירושלים עמ' 12-22

: ע. פרומקין, 2015, מערת חריטון. בתוך ע. פרומקין, עורך, אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס, ירושלים, עמ... more : ע. פרומקין, 2015, מערת חריטון. בתוך ע. פרומקין, עורך, אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס, ירושלים, עמ' 90-95.

Despite Israel's small size and relative aridity, the country has thousands of caves in sever... more Despite Israel's small size and relative aridity, the country has thousands of caves in several rock types, spread out from Mt. Hermon in the north to Eilat in the south. The most common ones are hypogenic karst caves in limestone. Here we update the list of Israel longest limestone caves, originally published in 1983. The main changes since then result from the discovery of new long caves, as well as the development in caving and survey techniques. For example, the 150 m long southern part of the Abud Cave (western Shomron) was discovered by enlarging a tight squeeze. The newly discovered passages and chambers contained important archeological finds dated to the Chalcolithic and Bronze age. A new survey (by Boaz Langford and Mika Ulman in 2010) extended A'rak Na'sane Cave (eastern Shomron) from 310 to 1,150 m. Such developments led the Cave Research Center to re-survey the long limestone caves of Israel. After two years of intensive survey, it is now possible to present...

Lisker, S., Porat, R., Davidovich, U., Eshel, H., Lauritzen, S.E., Frumkin, A., 2007, Late Quaternary environmental and human events at En Gedi, reflected by the geology and archaeology of the Moringa Cave (Dead Sea area, Israel), Quaternary Research, v. 68, 203–212

Lisker, S. Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, Miryam, Porat, R. Frumkin, A., 2009 Stromatolites in caves of the Dead Sea Fault Escarpment: implications to latest Pleistocene lake levels and tectonic subsidence, Quaternary Science Reviews, v. 28, 1-2, p. 80-92

Lisker, S., Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Porat, R., and Frumkin, A. 2010. Late Pleistocene palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Dead Sea area (Israel) based on speleothems and cave stromatolites. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 1201–1211

Matmon, A., Fink, D., Davis, M., Niedermann, S., Rood, D., Frumkin, A., 2014. Unraveling rift margin evolution and escarpment development ages along the Dead Sea fault using cosmogenic burial ages. Quaternary Research 82, 281-295.

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Schilman, B., Gilmour, M., Hawkesworth, C. J., Frumkin, A., Kaufman, A. and Matthews, A., 2003, Paleoclimate reconstruction based on the timing of speleothem growth, oxygen and carbon isotope composition from a cave located in the rain shadow in Israel

Quaternary Research, 2003

The Judean Desert - the major hypogene cave region of the southern Levant. In: Klimchouk, A., Palmer, A., De Waele, J., Auler, A., Audra, P., eds., Hypogene karst regions and caves of the world. Springer. p. 463-477. Frumkin, A., Langford, B., Porat, R., 2017,

Hypogene karst regions and caves of the world, 2017

The Judean Desert in eastern Israel consists of late Cretaceous epicontinental carbonate terrain ... more The Judean Desert in eastern Israel consists of late Cretaceous epicontinental carbonate terrain at the interface between the Neotethys Ocean and the Gondwanian African-Arabian plate. In the subsurface, the variety of rock types were deposited through fluctuations between marine and continental environments due to ingressions and regressions. Orogenic folding of the Syrian Arc fold system occurred between late Cretaceous and late Tertiary. The folds formed a barrier for deep flowing groundwater, which upwelled along the SE flank of the folds. Possibly mixing with local confined circulation the hypogenic flow created maze caves at the top of the late Cretaceous limestone, under the confinement of thick chalk and marl. The larger caves are up to 3.5 km long 2D mazes, less commonly with some additional tiers. Speleogenesis occurred most likely during the Oligocene when the Afar dome war rising, which was followed by regional erosion and peneplanization. During the Neogene the Dead Sea transform has dissected the region, forming a deep endorheic depression at the eastern border of the Judean Desert. This was followed by falling watertable and dewatering of the caves. Fault escarpments and downcutting canyons have dissected the caves, forming the present entrances. The caves are mostly dry, with rare speleothems. Gypsum rinds indicate that hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid took part in speleogenesis.

International Journal of Speleology, 2018

New Studies in the Archaeology of the Judean Desert. The Israel Antiquities Authority, 2023

The geological and climatic history of the Dead Sea region greatly influenced the environment and... more The geological and climatic history of the Dead Sea region greatly influenced the
environment and formation processes of the Qumran caves. Therefore, understanding
the geology of the caves is essential for studying the setting and context of the Dead
Sea Scrolls found in the 11 caves surrounding Qumran, their preservation and
association with the site, as well as for estimating the potential for the existence
of additional scroll caves. This paper discusses the general geology of the caves.

Landscapes and Landforms of Israel, 2024

Mount Sedom diapir is one of the few places on Earth where rock-salt is exposed, due to extreme a... more Mount Sedom diapir is one of the few places on Earth where rock-salt is exposed, due to extreme aridity. The relief and surface features of the diapir basically reflect its parent-rock geological structure, stratigraphy, and lithology on one hand, and recent erosion and dissolution on the other one. Major landforms include lines of sliding faults, dissolution furrows, dolines of dissolution and collapse origin, karstic shafts, and an irregular drainage system dominated by many blind valleys. The diapir rock-salt is covered by residual caprock, in turn partly overlain by less consolidated insoluble sediments. Gravels and terraces of abrasion of the regressing lake shore appear in places. Exposed salt outcrops are relatively rare and undergo rapid dissolution, demonstrated by karst features, from sharp rillenkarren to the largest salt caves known globally. The extreme solubility of the underlying salt influences the surface landscape by inducing high permeability, which promotes runoff to be swallowed into the underlying salt. The young relief and erodible sediments allow for various rock towers and inselbergs which remain standing after surrounding erosion took place.

Zucker E., Frumkin A., Agnon A., Weinberger R. 2019. Journal of Structural Geology, 2019

Despite numerous studies examining salt tectonics, relatively little is known regarding the inter... more Despite numerous studies examining salt tectonics, relatively little is known regarding the internal movements of salt units that build diapirs such as the Mount Sedom salt wall. In this study we focus on the recent deformation processes of southern Mount Sedom. We choose a fossilized dissolution surface known as the "salt mirror" of Mount Sedom as a structural datum, in order to understand and resolve the deformation processes during the last 14 ka. Surveying the salt mirror surface from outcrops and natural dissolution "chimney" caves, sets constraints for the structural map. Our results indicate that the salt wall rises as a telescopic antenna, with the internal salt units sliding across each other along bedding-plane slip faults, influenced by the subsiding Dead Sea basin. The flow of the rising salt forms an elongated ridge, distinctly asymmetric across its short dimension. The uplift rate of the Southern part of Mount Sedom throughout the last 14 ka is at least 11 mm/yr. This result is somewhat higher but in a fair agreement with the results of previous studies that assessed the rates in a variety of methods. The telescopic behavior of the salt wall represents a mode of internal deformation that might be applicable to other salt diapirs worldwide.

Karst y los Acuiferos Karsticos: Granada, Universidad de Granada, 1994

Frumkin, A., 1994, Operating an experimental catchment in an arid karst environment, in Pulido-Bo... more Frumkin, A., 1994, Operating an experimental catchment in an arid karst environment, in Pulido-Bosch, J. R., Fagundo, J. E. and Rodriguez, R., eds., El Karst y los Acuiferos Karsticos: Granada, Universidad de Granada, p. 269-278.

Water, Environment and Society in Times of Climatic Change: Amsterdam, Kluwer, 1998

Frumkin, A., Greenbaum, N. and Schick, A. P., 1998, Paleohydrology of the northern Negev: compara... more Frumkin, A., Greenbaum, N. and Schick, A. P., 1998, Paleohydrology of the northern Negev: comparative evaluation of two catchments, in Brown, N. and Issar, A., eds., Water, Environment and Society in Times of Climatic Change: Amsterdam, Kluwer, p. 97-111. 4.

12'th International Congress of Speleology proceedings, 1997

Frumkin, A., 1997, Classification and some morphometric features of salt caves, in Proceedings of... more Frumkin, A., 1997, Classification and some morphometric features of salt caves, in Proceedings of the 12'th International Congress of Speleology, v. 1: La Chaux-de-Fonds, International Union of Speleology, p. 139-142.

Encyclopedia of cave and karst science: New York, Fitzroy Dearborn, p. 637-639., 2004

Frumkin, A., 2004, Sedom salt karst, Israel, in Gunn, J., ed., Encyclopedia of cave and karst sci... more Frumkin, A., 2004, Sedom salt karst, Israel, in Gunn, J., ed., Encyclopedia of cave and karst science: New York, Fitzroy Dearborn, p. 637-639.

Rivista Mineralogica Italiana, 1984

Forti, P., Buzio, A. and Frumkin, A., 1984, Le concrezioni de sale nelle grotte del Monte Sedom (... more Forti, P., Buzio, A. and Frumkin, A., 1984, Le concrezioni de sale nelle grotte del Monte Sedom (Israele): Rivista Mineralogica Italiana v. 2, p. 45-48.

Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers, 2000

9. Frumkin, A., 2000, Speleogenesis in salt — the Mount Sedom area, Israel, in Klimchouk, A. B., ... more 9. Frumkin, A., 2000, Speleogenesis in salt — the Mount Sedom area, Israel, in Klimchouk, A. B., Ford, D. C., A., P. and Dreybrodt, W., eds., Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers: Huntsville, National Speleological Society, p. 443-451.

Israel Journal of Earth Sciences, 1996

10. Frumkin, A., 1996, Structure of northern Mount Sedom salt diapir (Israel) from cave evidence ... more 10. Frumkin, A., 1996, Structure of northern Mount Sedom salt diapir (Israel) from cave evidence and surface morphology: Israel Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 45, p. 73-80.

. Journal of Structural Geology 127:103870., 2019

Despite numerous studies examining salt tectonics, relatively little is known regarding the inter... more Despite numerous studies examining salt tectonics, relatively little is known regarding the internal movements of salt units that build diapirs such as the Mount Sedom salt wall. In this study we focus on the recent deformation processes of southern Mount Sedom. We choose a fossilized dissolution surface known as the "salt mirror" of Mount Sedom as a structural datum, in order to understand and resolve the deformation processes during the last 14 ka. Surveying the salt mirror surface from outcrops and natural dissolution "chimney" caves, sets constraints for the structural map. Our results indicate that the salt wall rises as a telescopic antenna, with the internal salt units sliding across each other along bedding-plane slip faults, influenced by the subsiding Dead Sea basin. The flow of the rising salt forms an elongated ridge, distinctly asymmetric across its short dimension. The uplift rate of the Southern part of Mount Sedom throughout the last 14 ka is at least 11 mm/yr. This result is somewhat higher but in a fair agreement with the results of previous studies that assessed the rates in a variety of methods. The telescopic behavior of the salt wall represents a mode of internal deformation that might be applicable to other salt diapirs worldwide.

15th International Congress of Speleology. International Union of Speleology, Kerrville, Texas, Vol. 3 p. 1490-1494., 2009

Hill, C. and Forti, P., eds., Cave Minerals of the World: Huntsville, U. S. National Speleological Society, p. 319-322., 1997

Geomorphology, 1998

Salt caves respond rapidly to environmental changes. Direct measurement and 14 C dating show that... more Salt caves respond rapidly to environmental changes. Direct measurement and 14 C dating show that complex cross-sec-Ž. tions may develop in a few hundred years. Two basic forms are discussed: 1 ingrowing vadose canyons where changing Ž. width may correspond to changing discharge; 2 wide low passages with flat ceilings, developed by upward dissolution, which may indicate rising base level. Some cross-sections are deformed by Holocene tectonics.

Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean, 1994

Frumkin, A., Carmi, I., Zak, I. and Magaritz, M., 1994, Middle Holocene environmental change dete... more Frumkin, A., Carmi, I., Zak, I. and Magaritz, M., 1994, Middle Holocene environmental change determined from the salt caves of Mount Sedom, Israel, in Bar-Yosef, O. and Kra, R., eds., Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean: Tucson, The University of Arizona, p. 315-322.

נקרות צורים, 2020

Frumkin, A. 2021. Discovering the world-largest salt cave. Niqrot Zurim 21:136-156 (Hebrew).

Zucker, E., Frumkin, A., Agnon, A. and Weinberger, R., 2020. Journal of Structural Geology

Charrach’s Comment does not present any relevant evidence about the salt mirror which might refut... more Charrach’s Comment does not present any relevant evidence about
the salt mirror which might refute or significantly improve Zucker et al.
(2019) detailed measurements and observations. The telescopic
behavior of the Sedom salt wall represents a mode of internal deformation
that might be applicable to other salt walls worldwide.

Frumkin, A., Pe'eri, S. and Zak, I., 2021. Development of banded terrain in an active salt diapir: potential analog to Mars, 2021

Banded terrain is a planetary enigma that may be associated with salt diapirs. We study such feat... more Banded terrain is a planetary enigma that may be associated with salt diapirs. We study such features in Mount Sedom diapir, which is one of the few places on Earth where rock-salt is partly exposed and well-preserved because of the extreme aridity of its setting. The relief and surface features of the diapir generally reflect its parentrock geological structure, stratigraphy and lithology on one hand, and recent erosion and dissolution on the other hand. We show that these features are commonly aligned along parallel strike-oriented lines forming banded terrain. We measure the surface deformation, demonstrating an absolute uplift rate reaching~7-8 mm/yr. The extruded volume rate of Mt. Sedom bedrock is estimated to be 48,000 ± 12,000 m 3 /yr. Subtracting erosion and dissolution, the ridge mass increases by 70,000 ± 20,000 metric tons per year, inducing a young (Holocene) and steep landscape. We compare surface landforms with subsurface geology exposed in caves. They include lines of sliding faults, dissolution furrows, sinkholes of dissolution and collapse origin, karstic shafts, and an irregular disrupted drainage system dominated by blind valleys. The diapir rock-salt is covered by residual caprock, in its turn partly overlain by less consolidated hardly-soluble sediments and gravels. Terraces of abrasion and regressing lakeshore of the Dead Sea appear along the ridge margins. Exposed salt outcrops are relatively rare and undergo rapid dissolution, demonstrated by karst features which range from ponors to the longest salt caves known globally. The extreme solubility of the underlying salt influences the surface and subsurface landscape, inducing high permeability along fractures, and promoting runoff capture into the underlying salt. All studied landforms contribute to the banded relief of Mount Sedom, which can be used to analyze banded or closely-related honeycomb terrain across other terrestrial and planetary diapirs.

Landcapes and Landforms of Israel, 2024

We describe collapse features, tens up to 100 m in diameter, in the north-central Negev Desert. T... more We describe collapse features, tens up to 100 m in diameter, in the north-central Negev Desert. These affect mainly the upper part of the Judea Group and the Mount Scopus Group layers. These indicate the development of isolated chamber-like karstic voids under hypogenic conditions, probably by long-range groundwater flow during the Oligocene-early Miocene. These had collapsed and affected the overlying layers.

Mining for ancient copper, Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg, 2018

Avner, U., Ginat, H., Shalev, S., Shilstine, S., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., Shem-Tov, R., Filin, ... more Avner, U., Ginat, H., Shalev, S., Shilstine, S., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., Shem-Tov, R., Filin, S., Arav, R., Basson, U., Shamir, O., Scott-Cummings, L., 2018. Ancient copper mines at nahal Amram, southern Arabah. In: Ben-Yosef, E., ed., Mining for ancient copper, Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg. Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph 37, 147-177. ISBN: 978-1-57506-964-7

Ancient copper mines at Nahal Amram were first discovered by IDF soldiers in 1949, than visited b... more Ancient copper mines at Nahal Amram were first discovered by IDF soldiers in 1949, than visited by N. Glueck
in 1950, surveyed by B. Rothenberg during the 1960s and by L. Willis in 1989. In 2010, a new, multidisciplinary
study begun by the writers, supported by the Israel Ministry of Science. An archaeological survey recorded in
detail the previously discovered mines but also uncovered many more mines and related sites. The main periods
of mining were the Late Bronze and Iron Age )13th to 9th centuries BC(, the Nabataean to Byzantine periods )1st
to 5th centuries AD( and the Early Islamic )7th to 11th centuries AD(. The survey and limited excavations yielded
ample finds, while additional scientific studies )geological-geomorphological survey, ground penetrating radar,
3D scanning and chemical analyses( brought up much new information as to the history and technology of the
ancient copper industry in the Araba Valley.

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Matthews, A., Frumkin, A., Dayan, U., Halicz, L., Almogi-Labin, A., and Schilman, B., 2006, Paleoclimate and location of the border between Mediterranean climate region and the Saharo–Arabian Desert as revealed by speleothems from the northern Negev Desert, Israel: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 249, 384–399

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Matthews, A., Halicz, L. and Frumkin, A., 2007, Desert speleothems reveal climatic window for African exodus of early modern humans, Geology v. 35:9, 831-834

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Matthews, A., Ayalon, A. and Frumkin, A., (2010). Middle-Late Quaternary paleoclimate of northern Saharan-Arabian Desert: reconstruction from speleothems of Negev Desert, Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews 29 1201–1211

Yahalom-Mack N., Langgut D., Dvir O., Tirosh O., Eliyahu-Behar A., Erel Y., Langford B., Frumkin A., Ullman M., Davidovich U. The earliest lead object in the Levant. 2015. PloS one, 10(12), DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0142948.‏

In the deepest section of a large complex cave in the northern Negev desert, Israel, a bi-conical... more In the deepest section of a large complex cave in the northern Negev desert, Israel, a bi-conical lead object was found logged onto a wooden shaft. Associated material remains and radiocarbon dating of the shaft place the object within the Late Chalcolithic period, at the late 5 th millennium BCE. Based on chemical and lead isotope analysis, we show that this unique object was made of almost pure metallic lead, likely smelted from lead ores originating in the Taurus range in Anatolia. Either the finished object, or the raw material, was brought to the southern Levant, adding another major component to the already-rich Late Chalcolithic metallurgical corpus known to-date. The paper also discusses possible uses of the object, suggesting that it may have been used as a spindle whorl, at least towards its deposition.

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Matthews, A. and Frumkin, A., 2017. Pliocene–Pleistocene palaeoclimate reconstruction from Ashalim Cave speleothems, Negev Desert, Israel. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 466, pp.SP466-10.

Langford, B., Frumkin, A., Avner, U., Ginat, H., 2018. Nahal Amram, southern Arabah valley: a survey of underground copper mines. In: Ben-Yosef, E., ed., Mining for ancient copper, Essays in Memory of Beno Rothenberg. Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph 37, ch. 14, 217-227

Nahal >Amram is an erosive valley on the southwestern side of the Arabah Valley, exposing a wide ... more Nahal >Amram is an erosive valley on the southwestern side of the Arabah Valley, exposing
a wide range of sandstone and magmatic rocks. Several copper mines have been explored
here since the 1950s, but in a recent study, many more mines were discovered and charted.
Mapping the interior of the mines was undertaken to allow analysis of their plans and extent,
the use of digging tools, methods and strategies of mining, periods of exploitation and
temporal changes. This paper presents the preliminary mapping and survey results of the
Nahal >Amram major mines.

Dead Sea and Arava Studies , 2022

Ancient copper mining and smelting activities occurred on both sides of the ʻAraba valley. These ... more Ancient copper mining and smelting activities occurred on both sides of the ʻAraba valley. These took place in four main centers: The Faynan region and Wadi Abu Khushayba in the eastern ʻAraba and their counterparts Timna Valley and Nahal ʻAmram in the southwestern ʻAraba. However, beyond these well-known copper industry centers, there are isolated mining sites that so far have received only limited attention in research, some of which have only recently been discovered and are presented here for the first time. They include fairly large mines, some of which are of the type defined as 'Columned Mines' (or the Umm al-ʻAmad type) as well as a number of very small mines. The characteristics of these isolated mines will be discussed in the present article, compared with the known sites in the main mining centers. Despite their unusual location, it seems that at least some of the isolated mines had the potential to make a significant contribution to the history of copper exploitation in the area. Documentation of the isolated mines completes the overall picture of mining activity in the ʻAraba, in addition to what is already known about the major mining centers.

Nature, 2021

Titus, T.N., Wynne, J.J., Malaska, M.J., Agha-Mohammadi, A.A., Buhler, P.B., Alexander, E.C., Ash... more Titus, T.N., Wynne, J.J., Malaska, M.J., Agha-Mohammadi, A.A., Buhler, P.B., Alexander, E.C., Ashley, J.W., Azua-Bustos, A., Boston, P.J., Buczkowski, D.L. Chiao, L., Glen E. Cushing, G.E., DeDecker, J., de León, P., Demirel-Floyd, C., De Waele, J., Fairén, A.G., Frumkin, A., Harris, G.L., Jones, H., Kerber, L.H., Leonard, E.J., Léveillé, R.J., Manyapu, K., Massironi, M., Miller, A.Z., Mylroie, J.E., Onac, B.P., Parazynski, S., Phillips, C.B., Phillips-Lander, C.M., Prettyman, T.H., Sapers, H.M., Sauro, F., Schorghofer N., Schulze-Makuch, D., Scully, J.E., Kyle, K., Wagner, R.V., Whittaker, W.L., Williams, K.E., and Wong, U.Y., 2021. A roadmap for planetary caves science and exploration. Nature Astronomy, 5(6), pp. 524-525.

The Dead Sea sinkhole hazard: Geophysical assessment of salt dissolution and collapse, 2011

A geophysical approach is presented for analyzing processes of subsurface salt dissolution and as... more A geophysical approach is presented for analyzing processes of subsurface salt dissolution and associated sinkhole hazard along the Dead Sea. The implemented methods include Seismic Refraction (SRFR), Transient Electromagnetic Method (TEM), Electric Resistivity Tomography (ERT), and Ground Penetration Radar (GPR). The combination of these methods allows the delineation of the salt layer boundaries, estimating its porosity distribution, finding cavities within the salt layer, and identifying deformations in the overlying sediments. This approach is shown to be useful for anticipating the occurrence of specific sinkholes, as demonstrated on both shores of the Dead Sea. These sinkholes are observed mainly along the edge of a salt layer deposited during the latest Pleistocene, when Lake Lisan receded to later become the Dead Sea. This salt layer is dissolved by aggressive water flowing from adjacent and underlying aquifers which drain to the Dead Sea. Sinkhole formation is accelerating today due to the rapid fall of the Dead Sea levels during the last 30 years, caused by anthropogenic use of its water.

מחקרי הנגב, ים המלח והערבה, 2022

אתרי כריית נחושת בערבה, בדרום-מזרח ישראל ובדרום-מערב ירדן: תפוצה ומאפייני החללים של אתרים "חדשים"... more אתרי כריית נחושת בערבה, בדרום-מזרח ישראל ובדרום-מערב ירדן:
תפוצה ומאפייני החללים של אתרים "חדשים" ושל אתרי כרייה מוכרים
ב' לנגפורד 1*, ע' פרומקין 1, א' בן-יוסף 2
תקציר
Ancient copper mining and smelting activities occurred on both sides of the ʻAraba valley. These took place in four main centers: The Faynan region and Wadi Abu Khushayba in the eastern ʻAraba and their counterparts Timna Valley and Nahal ʻAmram in the southwestern ʻAraba. However, beyond these well-known copper industry centers, there are isolated mining sites that so far have received only limited attention in research, some of which have only recently been discovered and are presented here for the first time. They include fairly large mines, some of which are of the type defined as 'Columned Mines' (or the Umm al-ʻAmad type) as well as a number of very small mines. The characteristics of these isolated mines will be discussed in the present article, compared with the known sites in the main mining centers. Despite their unusual location, it seems that at least some of the isolated mines had the potential to make a significant contribution to the history of copper exploitation in the area. Documentation of the isolated mines completes the overall picture of mining activity in the ʻAraba, in addition to what is already known about the major mining centers.

The Iraqi Geological Journal,, 2023

Naouadir, I., Dridri, A., El Asmi, H., Marzouki, A., Chellai, E.H., Ettaki, M., Frumkin, A. and N... more Naouadir, I., Dridri, A., El Asmi, H., Marzouki, A., Chellai, E.H., Ettaki, M., Frumkin, A. and Naouadir, I., 2023. Coupling Field Investigations with the Contribution of Remote Sensing and GIS for the Moroccan Middle Atlas Karst: A Case Study of the El Menzel Causse. The Iraqi Geological Journal, pp.19-35.
Abstract
Little work has been done on the processes that control karstic phenomena in the Causse
of El Menzel. This carbonate section of the Moroccan tabular Middle Atlas has undergone
significant karstification due to favorable conditions that contribute to good karstification
potential. Our field and remote sensing results confirm the tectogenetic nature of a set of
expressions found in the Causse. The maps produced show good agreement between the
structural, fluvial, and karstic network, given that the large NE-SW oriented faults in the
sector played an inhibiting role in the triggering of karstic processes during the different
phases of the Alpine cycle and neotectonics: on the one hand by the fact of weakening the
liasic carbonate series sensitivity to dissolution at faulted zones and on the other hand by
guiding the action of the external phenomena causing incision and fluvial erosion, forming
a system of valleys which simultaneously coincides with the genesis of the karstic forms
found in the Causse of El Menzel.

Frumkin, A. , Bar-Matthews, M., Vaks, A., 2008, Paleoenvironment of Jawa basalt plateau, Jordan, inferred from calcite speleothems from a lava tube, Quaternary Research, 70, 3, 358-367

Audra, P., Bosák, P., Gázquez, F., Cailhol, D., Skála, R., Lisá, L., Jonásová, S., Frumkin, A., Knez, M., Slabe, T. and Hajna, N.Z., 2017. Bat urea-derived minerals in arid environment. First identification of allantoin, C4H6N4O3, in Kahf Kharrat Najem Cave, United Arab Emirates.

International Journal of Speleology

Kahf Kharrat Najem Cave is a small cave in United Arab Emirates (UAE) that hosts a bat colony whi... more Kahf Kharrat Najem Cave is a small cave in United Arab Emirates (UAE) that hosts a bat colony which is the source of guano deposits and peculiar centimeter-long yellowish stalactites. The mineralogy and geochemistry of these deposits were analyzed using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic microanalysis (EDX), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and stable isotope composition (δ 13 C and δ 15 N). Urea CO(NH 2) 2 was found to be the main compound of these stalactites, while allantoin C 4 H 6 N 4 O 3 was found to be an accessory urea byproduct. This paper is the first to mention allantoin in a cave environment. We also identified rare sulfate minerals (aphthitalite, alunite) and phosphates that probably correspond to the archerite-biphosphammite series. The occurrence of these rare bat-related minerals is due to the extremely dry conditions in the cave, which accounts for the extraordinary preservation of the guano deposits and allows for the crystallization of these very soluble minerals. cave minerals, allantoin, bat guano, bat urea, Kahf Kharrat Najem Cave, United Arab Emirates

Google Earth, topographic maps and verification from a small surveyed pyroduct segment (Ariqa Cav... more Google Earth, topographic maps and verification from a small surveyed pyroduct segment (Ariqa Cave, Tawk et al. 2009) are used to infer the trace of the longest lava tube system in the Levant, without visiting the studied site. The studied system includes segments of intact pyroduct caves, collapsed segments and lava channels. The system is within the recent lava flows of Tell Shihan, Al-Lajāʾ, Harrat Ash-Shaam, southern Syria. The lava tube carried late Quaternary lava from the base of Tell Shihan volcano westward.

Pomeroy, E., Hunt, C.O., Reynolds, T., Abdulmutalb, D., Asouti, E., Bennett, P., Bosch, M., Burke, A., Farr, L., Foley, R. and French, C., 2020. Issues of theory and method in the analysis of Paleolithic mortuary behavior: a view from Shanidar Cave. Evolutionary Anthropology, 2020

Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits that were previ... more Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits
that were previously widely considered to have been uniquely human, but on which
perspectives have changed markedly in recent years. Theoretical approaches to
hominin mortuary activity and its evolution have undergone major revision, and
advances in diverse archeological and paleoanthropological methods have brought
new ways of identifying behaviors such as intentional burial. Despite these
advances, debates concerning the nature of hominin mortuary activity, particularly
among the Neanderthals, rely heavily on the rereading of old excavations as new
finds are relatively rare, limiting the extent to which such debates can benefit from
advances in the field. The recent discovery of in situ articulated Neanderthal
remains at Shanidar Cave offers a rare opportunity to take full advantage of these
methodological and theoretical developments to understand Neanderthal mortuary
activity, making a review of these advances relevant and timely.

Fundamental Science and Engineering Questions in Planetary Cave Exploration, 2022

early half a century ago, two papers postulated the likelihood of lunar lava tube caves using mat... more early half a century ago, two papers postulated the likelihood of lunar lava tube caves using mathematical models. Today, armed with an array of orbiting and fly-by satellites and survey instrumentation, we have now acquired cave data across our solar system—including the identification of potential cave entrances on the Moon, Mars, and at least six other planetary bodies. These discoveries gave rise to the study of planetary caves. To help advance this field, we leveraged the expertise of an interdisciplinary group to identify a strategy to explore caves beyond Earth. Focusing primarily on astrobiology, the cave environment, geology, robotics, instrumentation, and human exploration, our goal was to produce a framework to guide this subdiscipline through at least the next decade. To do this, we first assembled a list of 198 science and engineering questions. Then, through a series of social surveys, 114 scientists and engineers winnowed down the list to the top 53 highest priority questions. This exercise resulted in identifying emerging and crucial research areas that require robust development to ultimately support a robotic mission to a planetary cave—principally the Moon and/or Mars. With the necessary financial investment and institutional support, the research and technological development required to achieve these necessary advancements over the next decade are attainable. Subsequently, we will be positioned to robotically examine lunar caves and search for evidence of life within martian caves; in turn, this will set the stage for human exploration and potential habitation of both the lunar and martian subsurface.

International Journal of Speleology, 2017

We report the remnants of five new scorpion specimens discovered dead in Levana Cave in Israel in... more We report the remnants of five new scorpion specimens discovered dead in Levana Cave in Israel in December 2015. We confirm that they belong to the relict scorpion Akrav israchanani Levy, 2007 (Akravidae), famously described from the neighboring Ayyalon Cave, also from dead specimens. The details of morphology of the new specimens are given; they match completely the characters of A. israchanani redescribed by Fet, Soleglad & Zonstein (2011). This second record indicates a wider distribution of this unique cave scorpion, which, however, is extinct in both caves. There is still no evidence that live populations of this species exist

Diversity, 2024

The conquest of land by arthropods is commonly believed to be a surface phenomenon associated wit... more The conquest of land by arthropods is commonly believed to be a surface phenomenon
associated with the arrival of photosynthetic plants, atmospheric oxygenation, and an ozone shield
in the mid-Paleozoic Era. However, recent molecular and fossil evidence suggests terrestrial fauna
may have first appeared in the Cambrian, before the proliferation of plants and ozone, which are
thought to be essential for survival. This raises the question—how could arthropods survive on land
without established plants and an ozone shield? We propose a hypothesis that chemolithoautotrophic
cave ecosystems, independent of photosynthesis, may have served as a subsurface stepping stone,
providing a possible explanation for the land invasion enigma. Chemolithoautrophic caves have
offered abundant food and radiation protection, enabling ancient arthropods to evolve strategies to
adapt to new frontiers through gradual dispersion from the sea to shielded cave waters, then to cave
hygropetric margins of cave waters, and, finally, to the surface.

PeerJ, 2023

Background. Tethysbaena are small peracarid crustaceans inhabiting extreme environments such as s... more Background. Tethysbaena are small peracarid crustaceans inhabiting extreme environments such as subterranean lakes and thermal springs, represented by endemic species found around the ancient Tethys, including the Mediterranean, Arabian Sea, Mid-East Atlantic, and the Caribbean Sea. Two Tethysbaena species are known from the Levant: T. relicta, found along the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley, and T. ophelicola, found in the Ayyalon cave complex in the Israeli coastal plain, both belonging to the same species-group based on morphological cladistics. Along the biospeleological research of the Levantine subterranean fauna, three biogeographic hypotheses determining their origins were proposed: (1) Pliocenic transgression, (2) Mid-late Miocenic transgression, and (3) The Ophel Paradigm, according to which these are inhabitants of a chemosynthetic biome as old as the Cambrian. Methods. Tethysbaena specimens of the two Levantine species were collected from subterranean groundwaters. We used the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and the nuclear ribosomal 28S (28S rRNA) gene to establish the phylogeny of the Levantine Tethysbaena species, and applied a molecular clock approach for inferring their divergence times. Results. Contrary to the morphological cladistic-based classification, we found that T. relicta shares an ancestor with Tethysbaena species from Oman and the Dominican Republic, whereas the circum-Mediterranean species (including T. ophelicola) share another ancestor. The mean age of the node linking T. relicta from the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley and Tethysbaena from Oman was 20.13 MYA. The mean estimate for the divergence of T. ophelicola from the Mediterranean Tethysbaena clade dated to 9.46 MYA. Conclusions. Our results indicate a two-stage colonization of Tethysbaena in the Levant: a late Oligocene transgression, through a marine gulf extending from the Arabian Sea, leading to the colonization of T. relicta in the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley, whereas T. ophelicola, originating from the Mesogean ancestor, inhabited anchialine caves in the coastal plain of Israel during the Mid-Miocene.

PeerJ, 2018

Background: Aquatic subterranean species often exhibit disjunct distributions, with high level of... more Background: Aquatic subterranean species often exhibit disjunct distributions, with high level of endemism and small range, shaped by vicariance, limited dispersal, and evolutionary rates. We studied the disjunct biogeographic patterns of an endangered blind cave shrimp, Typhlocaris, and identified the geological and evolutionary processes that have shaped its divergence pattern. Methods: We collected Typlocaris specimens of three species (T. galilea, T. ayyaloni, and T. salentina), originating from subterranean groundwater caves by the Mediterranean Sea, and used three mitochondrial genes (12S, 16S, cytochrome oxygnese subunit 1 (COI)) and four nuclear genes (18S, 28S, internal transcribed spacer, Histon 3) to infer their phylogenetic relationships. Using the radiometric dating of a geological formation (Bira) as a calibration node, we estimated the divergence times of the Typhlocaris species and the molecular evolution rates. Results: The multi-locus ML/Bayesian trees of the concatenated seven gene sequences showed that T. salentina (Italy) and T. ayyaloni (Israel) are sister species, both sister to T. galilea (Israel). The divergence time of T. ayyaloni and T. salentina from T. galilea was 7.0 Ma based on Bira calibration. The divergence time of T. ayyaloni from T. salentina was 5.7 (4.4-6.9) Ma according to COI, and 5.8 (3.5-7.2) Ma according to 16S. The computed interspecific evolutionary rates were 0.0077 substitutions/Myr for COI, and 0.0046 substitutions/Myr for 16S. Discussion: Two consecutive vicariant events have shaped the phylogeographic patterns of Typhlocaris species. First, T. galilea was tectonically isolated from its siblings in the Mediterranean Sea by the arching uplift of the central mountain range of Israel ca. seven Ma. Secondly, T. ayyaloni and T. salentina were stranded and separated by a marine transgression ca. six Ma, occurring just before the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Our estimated molecular evolution rates were in one order of magnitude lower than the rates of closely related crustaceans, as well as of other stygobiont species. We suggest that this slow evolution reflects the ecological conditions prevailing in the highly isolated subterranean water bodies inhabited by Typhlocaris.

International Journal of Speleology, 2024

The Berenike hypogenic cave system near Lake Kinneret, Israel, provides a valuable case study for... more The Berenike hypogenic cave system near Lake Kinneret, Israel, provides a valuable case study for investigating the recently proposed Confined-Cooling-Flow (CCF) speleogenesis model. Field and speleological surveys, along with existing research, are used to provide a thorough analysis. The CCF model relies on a simple thermo-hydro-chemical scenario, involving the rise of CO 2-rich hydrothermal fluids discharging into a confined layer. The cooling of these CO 2-rich fluids turns them into aggressive solutions due to the inverse relation between temperature and solubility of carbonates (retrograde solubility). Previous geochemical and numerical analyses of the CCF model predict localized and persistent dissolution and speleogenesis on short geologic timescales and reproduce common characteristics of hypogene cave morphology. The present study examines speleogenesis in Berenike by correlating it spatially and temporally with the geologic history and hydrogeology of the region and refers to the cave location and appearance in the rock section. The relatively clear and preserved morphologic features at various scales allow for further insights. Particularly, the CCF model can explain enigmatic field observations, such as the location of the largest passages at some distance away from the feeder. It also accounts for the formation of intricate maze-like networks in soluble rock successions and confined conditions, not explained by other models. Finally, this study suggests that the CCF model has broader applicability in understanding the formation of numerous large hypogenic karst and maze cave systems that are globally widespread. Hypogene speleogenesis, Cooling hydrothermal flow, Maze caves, Numerical modelling

Frumkin, A., Karkanas, P., Bar-Matthews, M., Barkai, R., Gopher, A., Shahack-Gross, R., and Vaks, A., 2009, Gravitational deformations and fillings of aging caves: the example of Qesem karst system, Israel: Geomorphology, 106, 154–164

Communications Earth & Environment, 2023

Karst systems, comprising interconnected voids and caves, are ubiquitous in carbonate formations ... more Karst systems, comprising interconnected voids and caves, are ubiquitous in carbonate formations and play a pivotal role in the global water supply. Accumulating evidence suggests that a significant portion of the global karst is hypogenic, formed via rock dissolution by groundwater ascending from depth (rather than by infiltration from the surface), yet the exact formation mechanism remains unclear. Here we show that cooling of carbon dioxiderich geothermal fluids, which turns them into highly corrosive agents due to their retrograde solubility, can dissolve and sculpt large caves on short geological timescales. A conceptual hydro-thermo-geochemical scenario is numerically simulated, showing cave formation by rising hot water discharging into a confined layer. Our models predict field observations characteristic of hypogenic caves, including enigmatic locations of the largest passages and intricate maze-like networks. Finally, we suggest that deep-seated carbon dioxide consumption during karst formation may constitute a link to the global carbon cycle.

מחקרי יהודה ושומרון , 2013

מערות הגיר הארוכות בישראל. מחקרי יהודה ושומרון 2013לנגפורד פרומקין תקציר על אף קוטנה היחסי נתברכ... more מערות הגיר הארוכות בישראל. מחקרי יהודה ושומרון 2013לנגפורד פרומקין
תקציר
על אף קוטנה היחסי נתברכה ארץ ישראל בעולם מערות עשיר הכולל אלפי מערות פעורות
כמעט בכל סוג מסלע הקיים בארץ ובפריסה בכל חלקיה - מהר החרמון בצפון ועד ראש
מפרץ אילת בדרום. המערות הארוכות הנפוצות ביותר הן מערות טבעיות שנוצרו בתהליכי
המסה קרסטיים בסלע גיר ובסלע מלח. המסת הסלע ויצירת המערה מתרחשות כאשר מים
מגיעים למגע עם סלעים קרבונטים ו/או אוופוריטים וממיסים בהם חללים. התהליכים
הקרסטיים יכולים להיווצר ממים שמקורם בפני השטח או ממי תהום שפעלו במערה בזמן
שהיה קשר בין מי התהום לגוף הסלע שבו פעורה המערה.
רוב המערות הקרסטיות בישראל הן מערות שנוצרו בסלע גיר. מערות קרסטיות
נוספות הן מערות הר סדום שנוצרו כערוצי נחלים תת־קרקעיים שהתחתרו בסלע מלח
)פרומקין, 1992 (. במערות אלו מופיעות מערות ענק דוגמת מערת המלח"ם, שאורכה מגיע
לשישה קילומטרים, המציבים אותה כמערה הארוכה בישראל וכמערת המלח הארוכה
בעולם. מערות נוספות בהר סדום, דוגמת מערת סדום, מערת דורבן ומערת זכוכית, הן
מערות ענק שאורכן עומד על כמה מאות מטרים.
במאמר זה יוצגו מערות הגיר הארוכות בישראל, בלי התייחסות למערות המלח
הראויות להתייחסות נפרדת ואף זכו לה.

Sheffer, N., Cohen, M., Morin, E., Grodek, T., Gimburg; A., Magal, E., Gvirtzman, H., Nied, M., Isele, D., Frumkin, A., (2011). Integrated Cave Drip Monitoring for Epikarst Recharge Estimation in a Dry Mediterranean Area, Sif Cave, Israel. Hydrological Processes 25, 2837-2845.

Geomorphology, v. 67, 2005

Frumkin, A., and Fischhendler, I., 2005, Morphometry and distribution of isolated caves as a guid... more Frumkin, A., and Fischhendler, I., 2005, Morphometry and distribution of isolated caves as a guide for phreatic and confined paleohydrological conditions. Geomorphology, v. 67, p. 457-471.

ournal of Hydrology 406, 2011

66. Laskow, M., Gendler, M., Goldberg, I., Gvirtzman, H., and Frumkin, A. (2011). Deep confined k... more 66. Laskow, M., Gendler, M., Goldberg, I., Gvirtzman, H., and Frumkin, A. (2011). Deep confined karst detection, analysis and paleo-hydrology reconstruction at a basin-wide scale using new geophysical interpretation of borehole logs. Journal of Hydrology 406, p. 158–169.
Deep karst voids can be identified by a new method of geophysical interpretation of commonly used borehole logs in deeply confined carbonate aquifers. We show that deep, buried karst voids can be characterized by combining this geophysical interpretation together with geological and hydrological data, and with known speleological constraints. We demonstrate how this characterization can reveal past hydrological regimes and allow mapping of karst distribution on a basin-wide scale. A combined analysis of geophysical, geological, hydrological, and speleological data in the confined Yarkon-Taninim aquifer, Israel, led us to reconstruct past groundwater levels at different relief and sea levels, with the karst voids as a marker for long-term flow close to the water table. Paleo-canyons along the Mediterranean Sea shoreline strongly affected the region's paleo-hydrology, by serving as major outlets of the aquifer during most of the Cenozoic. We conclude that intensive karstification was promoted by flow periods of longer duration and/or higher flux and flow velocities close to the aquifer's past and present outlets. In addition, we suggest that karst voids found under shallow confinement were developed by renewed aggressivity due to hypogene water rising in cross-formational flow becoming mixed with fresh lateral water flow from the east.

International Journal of Speleology, 2018

Recent environmental processes are studied in ʻA'rak Naʻasane Cave at the northern Judean Desert,... more Recent environmental processes are studied in ʻA'rak Naʻasane Cave at the northern Judean Desert, Israel. The outer zone of the cave is heavily influenced by the outside environment through a large entrance, facilitating entry of air flow, fauna and humans, with minor cave-forming modifications. Conversely, the inner cave sustains humid and warm conditions, favoring modifications by condensation corrosion of convective air flow, associated with deposition of popcorn speleothems at the lower parts of dissolution pockets. The warm humid air of the inner cave may be associated with an underlying thermal water table. Active condensation corrosion is decreasing, possibly because of gradual change in the cave microclimate, associated with falling water table and ventilation. Increasing connection with the surface is indicated by high collapse domes, rare flood invasion, and a large Trident Leaf-nosed bat community which spends the winter within the innermost parts of the cave. Bat guano supports bedrock corrosion and a rich invertebrate fauna, but humans preferred the outer parts of the cave, particularly for refuge during the second Jewish revolt against the Romans. Rare occasions of ancient human entry into the inner cave support this scenario by the small number of artifacts compared with the outer cave. Enigmatic small cairns in the largest inner hall were probably erected during the Intermediate Bronze Age. confined cave, cave microclimate, condensation corrosion, bat guano, popcorn speleothem

Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers, 2000

Frumkin, A., 2000, Dissolution of salt, in Klimchouk, A. B., Ford, D. C., Palmer, A. and Dreybrod... more Frumkin, A., 2000, Dissolution of salt, in Klimchouk, A. B., Ford, D. C., Palmer, A. and Dreybrodt, W., eds., Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers: Huntsville, National Speleological Society, p. 169-170.

פרומקין ע, לנגפורד, ב. 2015, סיכונים ואמצעי בטיחות במערות. בתוך פרומקין ע,, , עורך, אטלס מערות מד... more פרומקין ע, לנגפורד, ב. 2015, סיכונים ואמצעי בטיחות במערות. בתוך פרומקין ע,, , עורך, אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה

Langford, B., Frumkin, A., Davidovich, U., 2015. Survey and research methods in caves. In: Frumkin, A., ed., Atlas of the Holey Land. Jerusalem, p. 7-11.

לנגפורד, ב., דוידוביץ', א., פרומקין, ע., 2015, שיטות סקר, מיפוי ומחקר במערות. בתוך פרומקין, ע., ... more לנגפורד, ב., דוידוביץ', א., פרומקין, ע., 2015, שיטות סקר, מיפוי ומחקר במערות. בתוך פרומקין, ע., עורך, אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. ירושלים עמ' 7-11

We analyzed maze caves and the associated hydrogeology in the northern Negev–Judean Desert in Isr... more We analyzed maze caves and the associated hydrogeology in the northern Negev–Judean Desert in Israel to provide insight on fluid migration and porosity development, with relevance to groundwater and petroleum reservoirs on the Arabian Platform flanks. The caves occur specifically in the arid region of the southern Levant, with no equivalent in the moister climate areas further to the north. The karstified bedrock consists of Upper Cretaceous epicontinental carbonates. Caves were formed mainly above deep faults associated with the Syrian arc fold system. Hypogenic flow is shown to have formed the maze caves particularly under the confinement of thick chalk and marl cap rock. Spe-leogenesis occurred during the Oligocene– early Miocene when the Afro-Arabian dome was rising and became erosionally truncated. Calcite deposits depleted in 18 O point to a connection between the caves and recharge over far-field Nubian Sandstone outcrops, north of the Precambrian basement outcrops on the eastern side of the Red Sea. During the early–middle Miocene, the Dead Sea rift began dissecting the region, forming a deep endorheic depression at the eastern margin of the study area and disconnecting the far-field groundwater flow. This was followed by subsiding groundwater levels and associated dewatering of the caves. Fault escarpments and canyon downcutting then dissected the caves, forming the present entrances. The caves are currently mostly dry, with scarce speleothem occurrences. Gypsum crusts with d 34 S SO 4 values lower than other sulfate deposits point to bacterial sulfur reduction, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfuric acid being involved in the speleogenesis.

Despite Israel's small size and relative aridity, the country has thousands of caves in several r... more Despite Israel's small size and relative aridity, the country has thousands of caves in several rock types, spread out from Mt. Hermon in the north to Eilat in the south. The most common ones are hypogenic karst caves in limestone. Here we update the list of Israel longest limestone caves, originally published in 1983. The main changes since then result from the discovery of new long caves, as well as the development in caving and survey techniques. For example, the 150 m long southern part of the Abud Cave (western Shomron) was discovered by enlarging a tight squeeze. The newly discovered passages and chambers contained important archeological finds dated to the Chalcolithic and Bronze age. A new survey (by Boaz Langford and Mika Ulman in 2010) extended A'rak Na'sane Cave (eastern Shomron) from 310 to 1,150 m. Such developments led the Cave Research Center to re-survey the long limestone caves of Israel. After two years of intensive survey, it is now possible to present the updated list. Eight of the ten presently listed caves were unknown to us on 1983. The Judean and Samarian Desert continues to be the leading area in the number of caves. On 1983 only one limestone cave was known to be longer than half a kilometre, while today all 10 caves are longer than half a kilometer.

Marder, Alex, Ayalon, Bar-Matthews, Bar-Oz, Bar-Yosef Mayer, Berna, Boaretto, Caracuta, Frumkin, Goder-Goldberger, Hershkovitz, Latimer, Lavi, Matthews, Weiner, Weiss, Yas'ur, Yeshurun, OBarzilai, 2013. The Upper Palaeolithic of Manot Cave, Western Galilee, Israel: the 2011–12 excavations.

Antiquity

Science Advances, 2017

The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of m... more The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of modern humans with Upper Paleolithic traditions. We report a high-resolution radiocarbon chronology for Early Upper Paleolithic industries (Early Ahmarian and Levantine Aurignacian) from the newly excavated site of Manot Cave, Israel. The dates confirm that the Early Ahmarian industry was present by 46,000 calibrated years before the present (cal BP), and the Levantine Aurignacian occurred at least between 38,000 and 34,000 cal BP. This timing is consistent with proposed migrations or technological diffusions between the Near East and Europe. Specifically, the Ahmarian could have led to the development of the Protoaurignacian in Europe, and the Aurignacian in Europe could have spread back to the Near East as the Levantine Aurignacian.

Levantine cranium from Manot Cave (Israel) foreshadows the first European modern humans, 2015

Akey event in human evolution is the expansion ofmodernhumans of African origin across Eurasia b... more Akey event in human evolution is the expansion ofmodernhumans
of African origin across Eurasia between 60 and 40 thousand years
(kyr) before present (BP), replacing all other forms of hominins1.Owing
to the scarcity of human fossils fromthis period, these ancestors
of all present-day non-African modern populations remain largely
enigmatic. Here we describe a partial calvaria, recently discovered
at Manot Cave (Western Galilee, Israel) and dated to 54.765.5 kyr
BP (arithmetic mean62 standard deviations) by uranium–thorium
dating, that sheds light on this crucial event. The overall shape and
discretemorphological features of theManot 1 calvaria demonstrate
that this partial skull is unequivocally modern. It is similar in shape
to recent African skulls as well as to European skulls from the Upper
Palaeolithic period, but different frommost other early anatomically
modern humans in the Levant. This suggests that the Manot people
could be closely related to the first modern humans who later successfully
colonized Europe. Thus, the anatomical features used to
support the ‘assimilation model’ in Europe might not have been inherited
fromEuropeanNeanderthals, but rather fromearlier Levantine
populations. Moreover, at present, Manot 1 is the only modern
human specimen to provide evidence that during the Middle to
Upper Palaeolithic interface, both modern humans and Neanderthals
contemporaneously inhabited the southern Levant, close in time
to the likely interbreeding event with Neanderthals2,3.
Manot is an active karstic cave located 40kmnorthe

Zissu B., Langford B., Porat R., Raviv D., and Frumkin A., 2017. The ʿAbud Cave during the Jewish Revolts against the Romans – New Findings, in: Tavger A., Amar Z., (eds.), In the Highland's Depth, Ephraim Range and Binyamin Research Studies 7. Ariel-Talmon. pp. 163-180 (Hebrew).

The ʿAbud Cave during the Jewish Revolts against the Romans – New Findings Boaz Zissu, Boaz Langf... more The ʿAbud Cave during the Jewish Revolts against the Romans – New Findings
Boaz Zissu, Boaz Langford, Roi Porat, Dvir Raviv and Amos Frumkin

The ʿAbud Cave is a large karstic cave located on a rocky slope on the northern bank of Nahal Beit Arif (Wadi el-Harub) near the village of ʿAbud, in southwestern Samaria.
The cave was explored and it's finds are currently studied by our team, on behalf of the Israel Cave Research Center (ICRC) at the Hebrew University and the Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology at Bar-Ilan University.
The archaeological survey uncovered artifacts from the Chalcolithic, Middle Bronze, Iron, Roman, Byzantine, and Early Islamic periods.
Among the finds was a rich assemblage of artifacts brought to the cave by Jewish fugitives during the Jewish War and the Bar Kokhba Revolt.
The article presents these finds, and discusses the significance of the pottery and numismatic assemblages.

Karkanas, P., Shahack-Gross, R., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Barkai, R., Frumkin, A., Gopher, A., and Stiner, M. C.,2007, Evidence for habitual use of fire at the end of the Lower Paleolithic: Site formation processes at Qesem Cave, Israel: Journal of Human Evolution, 53, 197-212

Frumkin A., Zissu B., Langford B., Porat R., and Cassel R., 2014. The King's Stone in Mount Ephraim: Alabaster Quarry in the 'Abud Cave. In: Tavger A., Amar Z., and Billig M., (eds.), In the Highland's Depth, Ephraim Range and Binyamin Research Studies 4. Ariel-Talmon. pp. 69-78 (Hebrew).

Until recently, calcite-alabaster (apparently the biblical בהט 'Bahat') artifacts from the Levant... more Until recently, calcite-alabaster (apparently the biblical בהט 'Bahat') artifacts from the Levant were commonly attributed to Egyptian sources. This raw material was used for the production of luxury vessels as well as high-class architectural elements and furniture. We show for the first time that calcite-alabaster was quarried in the southern Levant from flowstone, which is deposited in karstic caves under free air conditions. Two flowstone quarries were discovered, in Te’omim and ‘Abud Caves, located on the western slopes of the Central Highlands of Israel. In this article we describe ‘Abud quarry. It produced few tens m3 of raw material. Both quarries produced together over 200 m3 of raw material. A broken column at the base of a built ramp in ‘Abud Cave indicates that large calcite-alabaster artifacts were produced inside the cave. The raw material may have been carried out of the cave via the ramp.

Evolutionary Anthropology., 2020

Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits that were previ... more Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits that were previously widely considered to have been uniquely human, but on which perspectives have changed markedly in recent years. Theoretical approaches to hominin mortuary activity and its evolution have undergone major revision, and advances in diverse archeological and paleoanthropological methods have brought new ways of identifying behaviors such as intentional burial. Despite these advances, debates concerning the nature of hominin mortuary activity, particularly

Quaternary International

Abstract Routine quarrying activity at the Nesher-Ramla Quarry, in the Judean Lowlands, Israel, h... more Abstract Routine quarrying activity at the Nesher-Ramla Quarry, in the Judean Lowlands, Israel, has recently exposed a new Early Holocene archaeological site located in a small natural sinkhole, one of many dolines scattered in the area, dated to the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (EPPNB). It is the first site of this period to be uncovered in the narrow strip of land between the Judean Mts. and the coastal plain. This site, dubbed NRQN, contains lithic artifacts, groundstone tools, shells and beads as well as botanical and faunal remains. Here we combine data from a series of studies on the site's stratigraphy and radiometric dating, paleoenvironment, sediments and material culture, with the aim of understanding the role of the site in the EPPNB sphere. Various human activities took place in or immediately adjacent to the sinkhole, predominantly domestic in nature, including stone-tool making and food consumption. However, some of the sediments deep within the sinkhole underwent intense in situ combustion, possibly associated with episodes of lime-plaster production. The filling of the sinkhole appears to have occurred rapidly, not exceeding a few hundred years (ca. 10,500–10,300 cal. BP) and was driven by both geogenic and anthropogenic sedimentation processes. Good preservation of microvertebrate, macrovertebrae, short-lived plants and wood remains at the site, provides a unique opportunity to study the environmental characteristics of this geographical area during the Early Holocene, which appears to have been of an open grassy landscape with patchy Mediterranean forest, resembling the current environmental conditions. Studying the characteristics of Early Holocene human activity at the site, its paleoenvironment, and the site formation mechanisms, also provides useful comparisons with the nearby NRQ Middle Paleolithic site (this issue).

Zaidner, Y., Frumkin, A., Porat, N., Tsatskin, A., Yeshurun, R., Weissbrod, L., 2014. A series of Mousterian occupations in a new type of site: The Nesher Ramla karst depression, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution 66, 1-17.

Journal of Human Evolution, 2014

Speleology & Spelestology, 2022

The Te’omim cave is situated on the western edge of the Jerusalem Hills. The cave consists of the... more The Te’omim cave is situated on the western edge of the Jerusalem Hills. The cave consists of the main hall (approximately
50×70 meters with a maximum height of about 10 meters). Several passages lead from the main hall to
other small chambers and systems of crevices. The cave detailed description is presented. The Te’omim cave has been
researched by archaeologists since the late 19th century till now. Modern excavations discovered multiple artifacts of
various periods of time, including Neolith, Bronze and Iron Ages, Roman and Byzantine periods and etc. Recent finds
are described in the paper.
In the antique times calcite deposits in the cave main hall were quarried to produce “calcite alabaster”. This is
the first “alabaster” quarry known in the southern Levant. Quarry faces, toolmarks and unfinished blocks remained,
and they are described in the paper.

Gopher, A., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Barkai, R., Frumkin, A., Karkanas, P. and Shahack-Gross, R. 2010. The chronology of the late Lower Paleolithic in the Levant: U-series dates of speleothems from Middle Pleistocene Qesem Cave, Israel. Quaternary Geochronology 5, 644-656.

Barkai, R., Gopher, A., Lauritzen, S. E. and Frumkin, A. 2003, Uranium series dates from Qesem Cave, Israel, and the end of the Lower Palaeolithic: Nature, v. 423, p. 977-979.

Nature, 2003

Journal of Human Evolution, 2007

Palestine exploration quarterly, 2007

Finds from two caves that were excavated in Ein Gedi in 2002 are described. Eleven bronze coins o... more Finds from two caves that were excavated in Ein Gedi in 2002 are described. Eleven bronze coins of the
Bar-Kokhba Revolt, twelve arrowheads and fragments of two papyrus documents were recovered in the
Har Yishay Cave, located along the northern slopes of Nahal David. A hoard of nine silver coins, including
a Bar-Kokhba tetradrachm, were found in the Sabar Cave. This is the second Bar-Kokhba tetradrachm to
have been found in the context of a scientifically controlled archaeological project. Along with it were six
Roman dinars and two dinars overstruck by Bar Kokhba. From the evidence of one of the Bar Kokhba documents
dated to the third year of the revolt, it is possible to estimate that when this hoard was deposited in the
cave, the total value of the coins exceeded that of a house!

Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology, 2007

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014

International Journal of Speleology, 1999

Frumkin, A., Carmi, I., Gopher, A., Tsuk, T., Ford, D. C. and Schwarcz, H. P., 1999, Holocene millenial-scale climatic cycle from Nahal Qanah Cave speleothem, Israel: The Holocene, v. 9, 6, p. 677-682

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2009

Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2006

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Matthews, A., Ayalon, A. and Frumkin, A., 2010. Middle-Late Quaternary paleoclimate of northern Saharan-Arabian Desert: reconstruction from speleothems of Negev Desert, Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 1201–1211.

Frumkin, A., Kadan, G., Enzel, Y., and Eyal, Y., 2001, Radiocarbon chronology of the Holocene Dead Sea: Attempting a regional correlation: Radiocarbon, v. 43, no. 2C, p. 1179-1190

מפלס ים המלח מייצג את התנאים האקלימיים ואת התערבות האדם באגן הניקוז שלו, ובעיקר בחלקו הצפוני של ה... more מפלס ים המלח מייצג את התנאים האקלימיים ואת התערבות האדם באגן הניקוז שלו, ובעיקר
בחלקו הצפוני של האגן, באזור מקורות הירדן והירמוך. תנודות המפלס באמצע ההולוקן היו
חריפות ביחס לחלקו האחרון. בתקופת הברונזה הקדומה היה המפלס גבוה יותר מבשאר 7,000
השנים האחרונות. בסוף תקופה זו חלה התייבשות משמעותית שהביאה את מפלס האגם למצב
דומה למצבו הנוכחי, בקירוב. יחד עם זאת, השינויים שהתרחשו במפלס ים המלח בהולוקן
אינם גדולים, ואינם מגיעים לסדר גודל של שינויי המפלס בפליסטוקן המאוחר. האגן הדרומי
של ים המלח ויסת את התנודות במפלס, מאחר שהצפתו מעלה את שיעור ההתאדות ומקטינה
בכך את קצב עליית המפלס. ירידה דרמטית של עשרות מטרים במפלס מתרחשת בעשרות
השנים האחרונות, ועיקרה נובע מהתערבות האדם. המפלס עומד כיום ) 1.1.2013 ( על -426.89
מטרים )מטרים מתחת פני הים התיכון(. קצב ירידת המפלס שהיה מאז שנות התשעים כמטר
בשנה, התגבר לאחרונה. האגן הדרומי של הים התייבש כולו בתחילת שנות השמונים. מפעלי
האשלג משמרים אותו כבריכות אידוי על ידי שאיבת מים מן החלק הצפוני והזרמתם בתעלה
דרומה. הסיבה העיקרית להתייבשות המהירה היא ניצול המים באגן הניקוז, ובייחוד מי הירדן
והירמוך, להשקיה ולשתייה, וכן שאיבת מי ים המלח ואידויָם בבריכות האשלג בידי מפעלי ים
המלח. לאגן הצפוני של ים המלח לא צפויה סכנת התייבשות, אבל גם בו נודד קו החוף בקביעות
לכיוון מרכז הים. לירידה זו השלכות סביבתיות חמורות בהווה ובעתיד, השלכות שמחייבות
בחינה שקולה של האלטרנטיבות לבלימת הירידה, מול המצב הקיים של המשך ירידת המפלס.
בין החלופות השונות אין פתרון פשוט מבחינה כלכלית וסביבתית, ויש לבחור באלטרנטיבה
הגרועה פחות.

Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A., Schilman, B., Gilmour, M., Hawkesworth, C. J., Frumkin, A., Kaufman, A. and Matthews, A., 2003, Paleoclimate reconstruction based on the timing of speleothem growth, oxygen and carbon isotope composition from a cave located in the rain shadow in Israel: Quaternary Research, v. 59, p. 182-193

Journal of Human Evolution, 2019

d 13 C Speleothem MIS 5e Micromammals Paleo-vegetation a b s t r a c t The spectrum of glacial-in... more d 13 C Speleothem MIS 5e Micromammals Paleo-vegetation a b s t r a c t The spectrum of glacial-interglacial environmental shifts in the southern Levant Mediterranean zone is evaluated based upon carbon isotopic records of speleothems from several caves, faunal records of Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic layers in caves, together with additional evidence from the base levels of the region. The studied evidence suggests that food resources were commonly abundant, but some water scarcity and increase in summer rains occurred during MIS 5e, when soils and C 3 vegetation were eliminated, causing soil erosion. This was followed by penetration of summer rainfall and lightning storms from the south, and associated C 4 vegetation and fires. Faunal resources remained abundant, and humans using the southern Levant corridor enjoyed also a favorable passage through the greening Sahara Desert during MIS 5e, which was crucial for human and faunal dispersion. Qafzeh and Rantis caves' environmental records indicate xeric grassland-type ecosystem with AfroeArabian elements that can be attributed to MIS 5e. As the environmental conditions of MIS 5e were unique, faunal and isotopic records within this region can be used in the future as chronologic markers for MIS 5e. During the last glacial period, conditions became gradually cooler and wetter, and C 3 vegetation dominated the Medi-terranean zone. Lower temperatures promoted the entry of Palearctic mammals. Fluctuations of spe-leothem d 13 C increased during the latest Pleistocene e early Holocene, indicating environmental instability through the deglaciation. Significantly, the d 13 C records indicate that vegetation did not change from the last glacial period to the Holocene in spite of the observed fluctuations. The extreme environmental event of MIS 5e was not repeated during the Holocene in terms of natural vegetation and fauna. Anthropogenic environmental change, accelerating towards the present, is overriding the natural trend.

Israel Journal of Earth Sciences, 43, 1994

Frumkin, A., Schwarcz, H. P. and Ford, D. C., 1994, Evidence for isotopic equilibrium in stalagmi... more Frumkin, A., Schwarcz, H. P. and Ford, D. C., 1994, Evidence for isotopic equilibrium in stalagmites from caves in a dry region: Jerusalem, Israel

'Atiqot 113, 2023

This article describes the geological setting of the Mount Scopus chalk-vessel production and qua... more This article describes the geological setting of the Mount Scopus chalk-vessel production and quarry cave. This artificial cave was manually quarried in chalk of the middle of Menuḥa Formation, which consists of tiny calcitic skeletons of microorganisms living in the open sea. Due to its clay content, this rock unit was easier for quarrying, but also caused stability problems and the breakage of stone vessels during manufacture.

ICS Proceedings, 2013

The city of Jerusalem, Israel, is growing for ~4,000 years on karst terrain. Lacking closed depre... more The city of Jerusalem, Israel, is growing for ~4,000 years on karst terrain. Lacking closed depressions, surface topography seems fluvial, but karst is well demonstrated by speleology and subsurface hydrology. Several caves in the city were truncated by construction works, including an 800 m long river cave (longest limestone river cave in Israel), and a 200 × 140 × 90 m isolated chamber cave (largest chamber cave in Israel). Caves are being discovered at a growing rate, as construction works dig deeper into the subsurface in the crowded city. Some of them are eventually destroyed by the construction works; only presently accessible caves are discussed here. The hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of the Gihon, Jerusalem's main karst spring, was studied in order to understand its behavior, as well as urbanization effects on karst groundwater resources. High-resolution monitoring of the spring discharge, temperature and electrical conductivity, as well as chemical and bacterial analysis demonstrate a rapid response of the spring to rainfall events and human impact. A complex karst system is inferred, including conduit flow, fissure flow and diffuse flow. Electrical conductivity is high compared to nearby springs located at the town margins, indicating considerable urban pollution in the Gihon area. The previously cited pulsating nature of the spring does not exist today. This phenomenon may have ceased due to additional water sources from urban leakage and irrigation feeding the spring. The urbanization of the recharge area thus affects the spring water dramatically, both chemically and hydrologically.

‘Atiqot, 2023

This article describes the geological setting of the Mount Scopus chalk-vessel production and qua... more This article describes the geological setting of the Mount Scopus chalk-vessel production and quarry cave. This artificial cave was manually quarried in chalk of the middle of Menuḥa Formation, which consists of tiny calcitic skeletons of microorganisms living in the open sea. Due to its clay content, this rock unit was easier for quarrying, but also caused stability problems and the breakage of stone vessels during manufacture.

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 2022

EPSL, 2004

This paper explores the potential of Sr and U isotope systems in speleothems as tracers of eolian... more This paper explores the potential of Sr and U isotope systems in speleothems as tracers of eolian dust transport and
hydrological conditions. The study focuses on a speleothem from Jerusalem spanning the past 220 kyr. This
speleothem provides a precisely dated record of dust flux from the Sahara to the East Mediterranean. Enhanced dust
flux and Terra Rossa soil development are reflected by elevated 87Sr/86Sr ratios in the speleothem (0.7082^0.7086),
while lower 87Sr/86Sr ratios (V0.7078) indicate higher contribution of the local bedrock due to low dust flux and low
soil accumulation. The strontium isotope system in the speleothem is a robust monitor of the Sahara monsoonmodulated
climate, since dust uptake is related to development or reduction in vegetation cover of Sahara soil. The
[234U/238U] activity ratios in the speleothem range between 1.12and 1.0. The high activity values may indicate
selective removal of 234U from the soil while the low values converge to the bedrock. The migration of 234U to the
cave reflects mainly the regional hydrological conditions that are modulated by the North Atlantic^Mediterranean
climate system. Thus, the speleothem provides a combined record of the monsoon^North Atlantic climatic systems.
Long-term stability in glacial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.708360.0001 over the past 220 kyr) suggests an overall similarity in
eolian dust sources, and uniformity in the synoptic conditions that dominate the dust storm tracks during glacial
periods.

Frumkin, A., Ford, D. C. and Schwarcz, H. P., 1999, Continental oxygen isotopic record of the last 170,000 years in Jerusalem:Quaternary Research, v. 51, 3, p. 317-327

Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Speleology, Sydney, VOL. 1, 2017

Ayalon Cave near Ramla, Israel, received worldwide attention in 2006, soon after its discovery, b... more Ayalon Cave near Ramla, Israel, received worldwide attention in 2006, soon after its discovery, because of its eight previously undescribed, obligate, cave-adapted invertebrate species. The discovery added Ayalon Cave to a growing list of known chemolithoautotrophically-based cave ecosystems worldwide, including Movile Cave (Romania), the Frasassi Caves (Italy), Cueva de Villa Luz (Mexico), and Lower Kane Cave (USA). The cave formed from hypogenic speleogenesis in Turonian limestone, and is part of the regional Yarqon-Tanninim karst freshwater aquifer that is also influenced by the local Ayalon Saline Anomaly of warm, sulfidic water. Most of the biological diversity in the Ayalon system is found near a large pool of anaerobic and sulfidic water (up to 4.7 mg/L dissolved sulfide, 1371 ± 395 mg/L total dissolved solids, ~29 °C). In the past decade, descriptions of the new invertebrates have included the aquatic Metacyclops longimaxillis Defaye & Por (Crustacea: Copepoda), Metacyclops subdolus Kiefe (Crustacea: Copepoda), Tethysbaena ophelicola Wagner (Crustacea: Thermosbaenacea), and Typhlocaris ayyaloni Tsurnamal (Crustacea:Decopoda), and the terrestrial Akrav israchanani Levy (Arachnida: Scorpiones), Ayyalonia dimentmani Čurčič (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones), Lepidospora ayyalonica (Insecta: Zygentoma), and Troglopedetes sp. (Collembola: Paronellidae). Over the past decade, hydrogeological monitoring and study of the cave system revealed that regional aquifer levels have declined precipitously, which has resulted in significant habitat loss. However, almost nothing is known about the ecosystem microbiology. We undertook a field campaign in late 2016 to collect water and microbiological samples from the cave to investigate the cave's aquatic and terrestrial microbial diversity, as well as to examine the potential functional diversity of the microbial communities using shotgun metagenomics. Previous research indicates the microbial community is dominated by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria belonging to the genus Beggiatoa spp., but other sulfidic karst systems have a range of microbes, including uncultured Epsilonproteobacteria and Thiothrix spp., among others. From the environmental DNA (eDNA), we also evaluated the potential to detect the aquifer, and even terrestrial, invertebrate fauna from the cave and aquifer system. The results from this study have important implications for protecting the Ayalon Cave and its ecosystem into the future, and will provide potential eDNA-based approaches that can be used to investigate the distribution of fauna beyond the accessible cave passages.

PeerJ, 11, 2023

Guy-Haim, T., Kolodny, O., Frumkin, A., Achituv, Y., Velasquez, X. and Morov, A.R., 2023. Sheddin... more Guy-Haim, T., Kolodny, O., Frumkin, A., Achituv, Y., Velasquez, X. and Morov, A.R., 2023. Shedding light on the Ophel biome: The Trans-Tethyan phylogeography of the sulfide shrimp Tethysbaena (Peracarida: Thermosbaenacea) in the Levant. PeerJ, 11, p.e16690.
Abstract
Background. Tethysbaena are small peracarid crustaceans inhabiting extreme environments such as subterranean lakes and thermal springs, represented by endemic species found around the ancient Tethys, including the Mediterranean, Arabian Sea, Mid-East Atlantic, and the Caribbean Sea. Two Tethysbaena species are known from the Levant: T. relicta, found along the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley, and T. ophelicola, found in the Ayyalon cave complex in the Israeli coastal plain, both belonging to the same species-group based on morphological cladistics. Along the biospeleological research of the Levantine subterranean fauna, three biogeographic hypotheses determining their origins were proposed: (1) Pliocenic transgression, (2) Mid-late Miocenic transgression, and (3) The Ophel Paradigm, according to which these are inhabitants of a chemosynthetic biome as old as the Cambrian. Methods. Tethysbaena specimens of the two Levantine species were collected from subterranean groundwaters. We used the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and the nuclear ribosomal 28S (28S rRNA) gene to establish the phylogeny of the Levantine Tethysbaena species, and applied a molecular clock approach for inferring their divergence times. Results. Contrary to the morphological cladistic-based classification, we found that T. relicta shares an ancestor with Tethysbaena species from Oman and the Dominican Republic, whereas the circum-Mediterranean species (including T. ophelicola) share another ancestor. The mean age of the node linking T. relicta from the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley and Tethysbaena from Oman was 20.13 MYA. The mean estimate for the divergence of T. ophelicola from the Mediterranean Tethysbaena clade dated to 9.46 MYA. Conclusions. Our results indicate a two-stage colonization of Tethysbaena in the Levant: a late Oligocene transgression, through a marine gulf extending from the Arabian Sea, leading to the colonization of T. relicta in the Dead Sea-Jordan Rift Valley, whereas T. ophelicola, originating from the Mesogean ancestor, inhabited anchialine caves in the coastal plain of Israel during the Mid-Miocene.

The early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site at Nesher-Ramla Quarry, Israel, 2022

Routine quarrying activity at the Nesher-Ramla Quarry, in the Judean Lowlands, Israel, has recent... more Routine quarrying activity at the Nesher-Ramla Quarry, in the Judean Lowlands, Israel, has recently exposed a new Early Holocene archaeological site located in a small natural sinkhole, one of many dolines scattered in the area, dated to the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (EPPNB). It is the first site of this period to be uncovered in the narrow strip of land between the Judean Mts. and the coastal plain. This site, dubbed NRQN, contains lithic artifacts, groundstone tools, shells and beads as well as botanical and faunal remains. Here we combine data from a series of studies on the site's stratigraphy and radiometric dating, paleoenvironment, sediments and material culture, with the aim of understanding the role of the site in the EPPNB sphere. Various human activities took place in or immediately adjacent to the sinkhole, predominantly domestic in nature, including stone-tool making and food consumption. However, some of the sediments deep within the sinkhole underwent intense in situ combustion, possibly associated with episodes of lime-plaster production. The filling of the sinkhole appears to have occurred rapidly, not exceeding a few hundred years (ca. 10,500-10,300 cal. BP) and was driven by both geogenic and anthropogenic sedimentation processes. Good preservation of microvertebrate, macrovertebrae, short-lived plants and wood remains at the site, provides a unique opportunity to study the environmental characteristics of this geographical area during the Early Holocene, which appears to have been of an open grassy landscape with patchy Mediterranean forest, resembling the current environmental conditions. Studying the characteristics of Early Holocene human activity at the site, its paleoenvironment, and the site formation mechanisms, also provides useful comparisons with the nearby NRQ Middle Paleolithic site (this issue).

Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 18 73, 2014

Ayyalon Cave is the longest (2.7 km) and most important known cave in the Ayyalon Saline Anomaly ... more Ayyalon Cave is the longest (2.7 km) and most important known cave in the Ayyalon Saline Anomaly (ASA), Israel (Frumkin and Gvirtzman 2006; Naaman 2011). Located in the inner costal plane of Israel, 21 km from the Mediterranean Sea, it has been truncated by an open quarry in the center of ASA.

Frumkin, Dimentman, and Naaman, 2022. Biogeography of living fossils as a key for geological reconstruction of the East Mediterranean: Ayyalon-Nesher Ramla system, Israel, 2022

The Ayyalon-Nesher Ramla (ANR) system combines hypogenic karst with endemic subterranean fauna. T... more The Ayyalon-Nesher Ramla (ANR) system combines hypogenic karst with endemic subterranean fauna. The unique faunal assemblage utilizes chemosynthetic food web based upon H 2 S within the ascending plumes of hydrothermal water. We attempt to constrain the regional biogeography and the age of the hypogene system using subterranean extant 'living fossils', combined with related taxa in the Dead Sea Rift and Mediterranean, as well as geological evidence and previously published molecular phylogenetic data. The molecular evidence of Typhlocaris ayyaloni and T. salentina suggested that ANR aquatic system age is > 5.8 Ma. Evidence from Dead Sea Rift and East Mediterranean biogeographic evolution of aquatic fauna indicates isolation of the rift water bodies from the Mediterranean ~7 Ma. The high endemism of terrestrial troglobites at Ayyalon-Nesher Ramla caves indicate longer isolation age, most probably ~14 Mathe end of the last transgression which inundated the lower Shefela region. We show that the Ayyalon terrestrial fauna of tropical origin invaded the subsurface warm, humid, and food-rich habitat, escaping middle Miocene surface aridization. Shefela sinkholes preserving middle Miocene sediments share similar features with Nesher Ramla sinkholes, suggesting that they share the same formation processes ~14 Ma, and implying a minimum age of the sulfidic hypogenic aquifer.

Frumkin, A. Zaidner, Y., Na'aman, I., Tsatskin, A., Porat, N., Vulfson, L., 2015. Sagging and collapse sinkholes over hypogenic hydrothermal karst in a carbonate terrain. Geomorphology 229, 45-57.

Zaidner, Y., Frumkin, A., Friesem, D., Tsatskin, A., & Shahack-Gross, R., 2016. Landscapes, depositional environments and human occupation at Middle Paleolithic open-air sites in the southern Levant, with new insights from Nesher Ramla, Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews, 138, 76-86.

Middle Paleolithic human occupation in the Levant (250e50 ka ago) has been recorded in roofed (ca... more Middle Paleolithic human occupation in the Levant (250e50 ka ago) has been recorded in roofed (cave and rockshelter) and open-air sites. Research at these different types of sites yielded different perspectives on the Middle Paleolithic human behavior and evolution. Until recently, open-air Middle Paleolithic sites in the Levant were found in three major sedimentary environments: fluvial, lake-margin and spring. Here we describe a unique depositional environment and formation processes at the recently discovered open-air site of Nesher Ramla (Israel) and discuss their contribution to understanding site formation processes in open-air sites in the Levant. The site is 8-m-thick Middle Paleolithic sequence (OSL dated to 170e80 ka) that is located in a karst sinkhole formed by gravitational deformation and sagging into underground voids. The sedimentary sequence was shaped by gravitational collapse, cyclic colluviation of soil and gravel into the depression, waterlogging, in situ pedogenesis and human occupation. Original bedding and combustion features are well-preserved in the Lower archaeological sequence, a rare occurrence in comparison to other open-air archaeological sites. This phenomenon coincides with episodes of fast sedimentation/burial, which also allowed better preservation of microscopic remains such as ash. The Upper archaeological sequence does not exhibit bedding or preservation of ash, despite presence of heat-affected lithic artifacts, which makes it similar to other open-air sites in the Levant. We suggest that rate of burial is the major factor that caused the difference between the Upper and Lower sequences. The differences in the burial rate may be connected to environmental and vegetation changes at the end of MIS 6. We also identified an interplay between sediment in-wash and density of human activity remains, i.e. during episodes of low natural sediment input the density of artifacts is higher relative to episodes with high rate of sediment in-wash. The detailed analysis of natural and anthropogenic processes at Nesher Ramla suggests a much wider spectrum of processes than previously reported for southern Levantine Paleolithic sites. Nesher Ramla shares certain depositional and post-depositional characteristics with both cave and open-air sites and provides a better insight into processes which control both types of sites.

Zaidner, Y., Frumkin, A., Porat, N., Tsatskin, A., Yeshurun, R., Weissbrod, L., 2014. A series of Mousterian occupations in a new type of site: The Nesher Ramla karst depression, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution 66, 1-17.

Integrative Conservation, 2023

While pessimism dominates discussions on biodiversity loss, it is increasingly recognized that fo... more While pessimism dominates discussions on biodiversity loss, it is increasingly recognized that for the long-term success of conservation programs, we also need hope. One way to foster hope is to celebrate the positive outcomes of conservation efforts. Here, we report on a successful step in the conservation efforts of Ayyalon cave, a unique subterranean ecosystem discovered in 2006 as a result of mining activities in a quarry in central Israel. Ayyalon cave is one of the few known fully sustained subterranean autotrophic sulfur-based food webs, in turn supporting a diverse, specialized endemic fauna. Upon the discovery of the cave, its isolation from the surface was compromised, resulting in colonization of alien species and changes in environmental conditions. In May 2021, the cave was put at additional risk following a plan to inject millions of cubic meters of fresh, cold, and oxidized water into the quarry. A team of Israeli scientists decided to take action, starting a highly mediatic campaign to save the cave. This campaign involved cooperation among domestic and foreign academics, the general public sector, and diverse stakeholders. Despite strong economic interests, the conservation campaign succeeded in pushing the National Infrastructure Committee to rectify the plan to inject water into the cave. Stemming from this success, we discuss important take-home messages that are paramount for the broader conservation science community.

Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2023

The stable isotopes composition of chemolithoautotrophic cave ecosystems is known to differ from ... more The stable isotopes composition of chemolithoautotrophic cave ecosystems
is known to differ from epigenic caves. Here we show that in addition,
dead carbon (devoid of 14C), is utilized and transferred throughout this
ecosystem, rendering it unsuitable for radiocarbon dating. The connectivity
of the Ayyalon Cave ecosystem with the surface is studied, along with its
sources of energy and carbon, as well as the interconnections between
its constituents. We use isotopic evidence to show that its ancient resilient
ecosystem is based on an underground food web depending on rich biomass
production by chemolithoautotrophic nutrient supplies, detached from
surface photosynthesis. Carbon isotopic values indicate that: (1) the microbial
biota use bicarbonate from the groundwater (23.34 pMC [% of modern
carbon]) rather than the atmospheric CO2 above the water (71.36 pMC); (2)
the depleted 14C signal is transferred through the entire ecosystem, indicating
that the ecosystem is well-adapted and based on the cave biofilm which is
in turn based on groundwater-dissolved inorganic carbon. Incubation of
Ayyalon biofilm with 14C-labelled bicarbonate indicates uptake of the radiolabeled
bicarbonate by sulfur-oxidizing proteobacteria Beggiatoa, suggesting
that these sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms use the water-dissolved inorganic
carbon for chemolithoautotrophic carbon fixation. Organic matter in the
cave is much lighter in its stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes compared with
respective surface values, as expected in chemolithoautotrophic systems. This
evidence may be applicative to subsurface voids of ancient Earth environments
and extraterrestrial systems.

THE EARLY PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC B SITE AT NESHER-RAMLA QUARRY (NRQN), ISRAEL, 2020

Middle Pleistocene Homo behavior and culture at 140,000 to 120,000 years ago and interactions with Homo sapiens., 2021

Fossils of a Middle Pleistocene (MP) Homo within a well-defined archaeological context at the ope... more Fossils of a Middle Pleistocene (MP) Homo within a well-defined archaeological context at the open-air site of Nesher Ramla, Israel, shed light on MP Homo culture and behavior. Radiometric ages, along with cultural and stratigraphic considerations, suggest that the fossils are 140,000 to 120,000 years old, chronologically overlapping with H. sapiens in western Asia. Lithic analysis reveals that MP Homo mastered stone-tool production technologies, previously known only among H. sapiens and Neanderthals. The Levallois knapping methods they used are indistinguishable from that of concurrent H. sapiens in western Asia. The most parsimonious explanation for such a close similarity is the cultural interactions between these two populations. These findings constitute evidence of contacts and interactions between H. sapiens and MP Homo.

Fet, V., Soleglad, M.E., Zonstein, S.L., Naaman, I., Lubaton, S., Langford, B. and Frumkin, A., 2017. The Second Record of a Relict Akrav israchanani Levy, 2007 (Scorpiones: Akravidae) from Levana Cave, Israel. Euscorpius, 2017(247), pp.1-12.(Scorpiones: Akravidae) from Levana Cave, Israel

We report the remnants of five new scorpion specimens discovered dead in Levana Cave in Israel in... more We report the remnants of five new scorpion specimens discovered dead in Levana Cave in Israel in December 2015. We confirm that they belong to the relict scorpion Akrav israchanani Levy, 2007 (Akravidae), famously described from the neighboring Ayyalon Cave, also from dead specimens. The details of morphology of the new specimens are given; they match completely the characters of A. israchanani redescribed by Fet, Soleglad & Zonstein (2011). This second record indicates a wider distribution of this unique cave scorpion, which, however, is extinct in both caves. There is still no evidence that live populations of this species exist.

In loving memory of our friend, teacher and colleague Professor Hanan Eshel z"l. a B s t r ac t t... more In loving memory of our friend, teacher and colleague Professor Hanan Eshel z"l. a B s t r ac t the te'omim Cave is a large natural cave, located in the Jerusalem hills. the article presents the results of an archaeological survey in the hard-to-reach section of the cave. Archaeological finds, as hoards of coins, weapons, fragmentary human bones, pottery and oil lamps from the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt were discovered in situ. the finds attest that the cave served as the last place of refuge for rebels who met there their death. the highlights of the survey were three hoards of coins. 'hoard A' included 83 silver coins restruck by the Bar Kokhba administration. it is the only hoard of silver Bar Kokhba coins discovered thus far by archaeologists. 'hoard B' included nine silver coins and a bronze perutah. 'hoard C' included five Roman gold coins, 15 silver coins and four Roman bronze coins of Ascalon. the article discusses various numismatic and archaeological aspects of the finds.

נקרות צורים 15, 1989

1989. מערת נקבות המים - בית גוברין. נקרות צורים 15 119-144-קלונר ופרומקין

מחקרי יהודה ושומרון כה2, 2016

תקציר מערת הנמרים היא מערה קרסטית גדולה הנמצאת בגדה הצפונית של ואדי סמיה שבדרום־ מזרח השומרון. המ... more תקציר
מערת הנמרים היא מערה קרסטית גדולה הנמצאת בגדה הצפונית של ואדי סמיה שבדרום־
מזרח השומרון. המערה תועדה ונסקרה בקיץ 5102 בידי צוות 'סקר דרום השומרון' מטעם
המכון לארכיאולוגיה של אוניברסיטת בר־אילן וקמ"ט ארכיאולוגיה ביהודה ושומרון
ובשיתוף המרכז לחקר מערות )מלח"ם( באוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים. במהלך הסקר
התגלו במערה ממצאים מתקופות שונות, ביניהן תקופת הברונזה התיכונה, הברזל,
הפרסית, ההלניסטית, הרומית והממלוכית. במאמר זה מוצגים הממצאים משלהי התקופה
הפרסית, מהתקופה ההלניסטית ומימי מרידות היהודים ברומאים. נראה כי אופייה של
המערה )גישה נוחה, פתח נסתר ומבנה מסועף הכולל מעברים צרים המובילים לאגפים
פנימיים( וכן קרבתה לעין סמיה השופע ולעמק סמיה הפורה שהיה מיושב במרבית
התקופות, משכו אליה פליטים ומורדים במשך תקופות רבות. המכלולים המרכזיים
שנתגלו במערה מתוארכים לשלהי התקופה הפרסית, לתקופה ההלניסטית ולימי מרידות
היהודים ברומאים. ממצאים אלו מצטרפים לעדויות ההיסטוריות ולממצאים מתקופות
אלו שפורסמו זה מכבר ממערות קרסטיות באזור דרום מדבר שומרון וצפון מדבר יהודה.
ממצאים אלו מלמדים על שומרונים שמצאו מקלט במערות האזור בשלהי התקופה
הפרסית, על יהודים שנמלטו לאזור במהלך התקופה החשמונאית ועל יהודים שמצאו
מקלט במערות האזור מפני חרב הרומאים, בעיקר בימי מרד בר־כוכבא.

A Memorial Volume for Adam Zertal Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Veröffentlichungen zur Kultur und Geschichte des Alten Orients und des Alten Testaments. Band 454, 2021

Raviv, D., Tavger, A., Har-Even, B., Aharonovich, Y., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., 2021. An Archaeo... more Raviv, D., Tavger, A., Har-Even, B., Aharonovich, Y., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., 2021. An Archaeological Survey of the Nemerim (Leopards) Cave. In: A Memorial Volume for Adam Zertal Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Veröffentlichungen zur Kultur und Geschichte des Alten Orients und des Alten Testaments. Band 454 Ugarit-Verlag, Münster. Pp. 145-174.
Abstract:
The Nemerim Cave is a large karst cave located on the north bank of Wādi Sāmiye in southeastern Samaria. The cave was surveyed and documented in the summer of 2015 by the new South Samaria Survey team that was conducted on behalf of the Institutes of Archaeology at Bar-Ilan and Ariel universities and the Staff Officer for Archaeology in Judea and Samaria, in cooperation with the Israel Cave Research Center (ICRC) of the Hebrew University. During the survey, artifacts were discovered in the cave from various periods, including the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Ayyu-bid/Mamluk periods. In this paper, we present finds from the end of the Persian period, the Hellenistic period and from the time of the Jewish revolts against the Romans. It seems that the cave’s natural conditions (easy access, the branched structure that includes both open and hidden narrow passages leading to inner wings) and its proximity to the Sāmiye spring and to the lush and fertile Sāmiye valley, which was inhabited during most of the periods, attracted refugees and rebels during many periods. The main assemblage discovered in the cave dates to the end of the Persian period, the Hellenistic period and the time of Revolts. These findings join the historical evidence and the finds from these periods already pub-lished from karst caves in both the southern Samaria Desert and the Judean Desert. These finds indicate that Samaritans took refuge in the caves of the region at the end of the Persian period and that Jews fled to the region during the Hasmonean period and found refuge in the region following the Jewish revolts against the Romans, especially during the Bar Kokhba Revolt.

Langford, B., Frumkin, Valdman, E., Yaaran, S., Buslov, V., Lisovich, Y. 2019. The Epigenic Karst field of Ofra, the southernmost Holokarst region in the Levant. Studies on The Land of Judea: Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference in Memory of Dr. David Amit, p. 265-280שדה הקרסט בעפרה

מחקרי ארץ יהודה, 2019

Zissu, B., Porat, R., Langford, B., Eshel, H., Stiebel, G.D. Frumkin, A. 2010. Twin treasures. Eretz, Jan. 2010 p. 62-69.

Zissu, B., Langford, H., Porat, R., Frumkin, A., 2009. Finds from the Bar Kokhba period from the Teomim Cave. In: Refuge caves of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, Vol. 2. Israel Exploration Society (Hebrew), p.402-422.

בועז זיסו, בועז לנגפורד, רועי פורת ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. הממצאים מתקופת מרד בר־כוכבא ממערת התאומים... more בועז זיסו, בועז לנגפורד, רועי פורת ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. הממצאים מתקופת מרד בר־כוכבא ממערת התאומים שבמערב הרי ירושלים. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא, קובץ שני. החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה

Zissu, B., Eshel, H., Langford, B., and Frumkin, A., 2010, Coins from the Bar Kokhba Revolt, hidden in Mearat Ha-Teomim (Mughâret Umm et Tûeimîn), Western Jerusalem Hills. Israel Numismatic Journal 17, 113-147.

Frumkin, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Davidovich, U., Langford B., Porat R., Ullman M., Zissu, B., (2014). In-situ dating of ancient quarries and the source of flowstone (‘calcite-alabaster’) artifacts in the southern Levant. Journal of Archaeological Science 41, 749-758.

Zissu, B., Klein, E., Davidovich, U., Porat, R., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., Votive offerings from the late Roman period in the Te'omim Cave, western Jerusalem hills. In: Tal, O., and Weiss, Z.: Expressions of cult in the Southern Levant in the Greco-Roman period. Brepols, Turnhout, pp. 111-130.

Zissu, B., Klein, E., Porat, R., Langford, B., and Frumkin, A., 2017. Roman Cult, Jewish rebels, share Jerusalem cave site. Biblical Archaeology Review 43:30-39

In queste pagine: grotta di Teomim (Israele). Alcune immagini dell'esplorazione: in basso, a sini... more In queste pagine: grotta di Teomim (Israele). Alcune immagini dell'esplorazione: in basso, a sinistra, Ayala Amir pulisce le tracce in negativo lasciate dai blocchi cavati sulla superficie del giacimento di alabastro; in basso, a destra, Boaz Zissu e Boaz Langford esaminano due lucerne; sulle due pagine, Boaz Langford si guadagna l'uscita dalla fenditura L3064.

Zissu, B., Eshel, H., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., 2009. The coins from the Teomim Cave. In: Refuge caves of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, Vol. 2. Israel Exploration Society (Hebrew), p.423-453.

בועז זיסו, חנן אשל, בועז לנגפורד ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. המטבעות ממערת התאומים. בתוך: מערות המפלט מת... more בועז זיסו, חנן אשל, בועז לנגפורד ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. המטבעות ממערת התאומים. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא, קובץ שני. החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה

Yechezkel, A., Negev, Y., Frumkin, A. and Leibner, U., 2021. The Shaft Tunnel of the Biar aqueduct of Jerusalem: Architecture, hydrology, and dating., 2021

The Biar aqueduct is the most sophisticated of the aqueducts supplying water to Jerusalem during ... more The Biar aqueduct is the most sophisticated of the aqueducts supplying water to Jerusalem during classical periods. It includes the Biar spring, an underground Shaft Tunnel ∼3 km long harvesting groundwater (cuniculus), a dam, a surface channel, and a tunnel traversing a ridge. We conducted a survey of the Biar underground Shaft

The southernmost authigenic karst plateau of the Levant. Frumkin, A., Valdman, E., Langford, B., Yaaran, S., Buslov, V., 2017. Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Speleology Sydney, VOL. 2, p. 13-16

Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Speleology Sydney, 2017

Karst plateaus with closed depressions, subterranean drainage, vadose shafts and other karst feat... more Karst plateaus with closed depressions, subterranean drainage, vadose shafts and other karst features are common in the north-and northeast Mediterranean regions, but absent in the desert belt of the south Mediterranean. The Ofra karst basin, located in the central ridge of Israel, is the southernmost karst plateau in the Levant. Tens of caves, dolines and karren fields stand in sharp contrast with the nearby Judean Desert. Developed in a plateau of Cenomanian dolomitic limestone, most caves are active vadose shaft systems, up to 93 m deep. Some cut into ancient phreatic systems with 3D development. Water flows in the caves during winter storms. Laminar sub-critical film flow of vadose water is dominant along shaft walls, developing from the epikarst downward. Concentrated flow occurs locally draining small catchments of terra-rossa soil covered karst surfaces. Remains of unroofed shafts indicate karstification over long periods of time. The occurrence of this well-developed authigenic karst close to the desert border suggests using similar relict and paleokarst plateaus as paleoclimatic indicators for delineating the extent of humid conditions in the past.

Studies on the Land of Judea: Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference in Memory of Dr. David Amit, 2019

New finds in the architecture, hydrology and chronology of the Biar aqueduct of Jerusalem, 2021

אופקים בגאוגרפיה

In this study, the influence of annual and multiannual precipitation on the discharge of a large ... more In this study, the influence of annual and multiannual precipitation on the discharge of a large number of perched springs)n=36(, in the Jerusalem hills was examined. The analysis is based on records of the changes in water volume of springs' storage reservoirs over the years 2002/03-2012/13, and is classified by geological formation of springs and elevation difference between the spring reservoir and the nearest ridge. A good correlation with annual precipitation was found for perched springs on the Moza formation discharging from a karstic aquifer. This in contrast to the perched springs on the Soreq formation, discharging from a non-karstic aquifer. The longest 'memory' of perched springs was found to be five years; i.e. water emanating from perched springs are a mix of one to five years of precipitation. Historically, human activity in the central mountain range of Israel was concentrated around numerous small perched springs such as those investigated in this research. From the findings of this research it seems likely that small fluctuations of annual precipitation causing a short sequence of)up to five(relatively dry years adversely affected the viability of these settlements.

במעבה ההר, 2005

פרומקין 2005. יקב תת קרקעי מתקופת המלוכה במערב השומרון

Geomorphology, 2009

The Qesem karst system may serve as an example for aging chamber caves. It includes two caves whi... more The Qesem karst system may serve as an example for aging chamber caves. It includes two caves which have
undergone several stages of natural and human-induced deposition, as well as subsidence and collapse.
Natural deposits include calcite speleothems, bedrock collapse debris, and clay fill. Karst dissolution and
associated sagging and decomposition have operated since the initial cave formation. Inclined sediments are
attributed to several processes, mostly dominated by gravitational sagging into underlying dissolution voids,
affecting cave deposits and sometimes the host-rock. U–Th dating shows that speleothem deposition has
been common during the mid-late Quaternary, but deposition sites shifted according to local conditions. The
aging of caves occurs when they become totally filled by sediments and ultimately consumed by surface
denudation, as documented in Qesem Cave.

Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology, 2022

Raviv, D., Lewis, R.Y., Tavger, A., Shkolnik, H., Har-Even, B., Aharonovich, E., Ullman,M., Langf... more Raviv, D., Lewis, R.Y., Tavger, A., Shkolnik, H., Har-Even, B., Aharonovich, E., Ullman,M., Langford,B., and Frumkin, A., 2022. An Archaeological Survey at el-Janab Cave, Central Samaria. Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology 3/2: 233-282.
Abstract
El-Janab Cave (‘Usarin Cave) is a large karst system located about 11
km south of Shechem (Nablus) in Central Samaria. It comprises a series
of large chambers connected by narrow passages that developed as a
hypogenic cave in Upper-Cenomanian dolomite. During 2017–2018,
we mapped and surveyed the cave, retrieving archaeological finds from
various periods, including the Late Chalcolithic, early Bronze Age,
Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age I, Iron Age II, Persian, early Hellenistic,
Early Roman, Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. It seems that the cave’s
geographical and morphological features—its location in an open but
settled landscape and its complex structure of passages leading to spacious
chambers—attracted distinct human activities in several periods. In
some phases, it was used as a refuge in turbulent times. In this paper, we
present the archeological assemblages from the cave and discuss their
interpretation and association with the history of the area.

Springer, 2024

Selected examples of karst features and landscapes are discussed, demonstrating the karst landfor... more Selected examples of karst features and landscapes are discussed, demonstrating the karst landforms origin and development of the mountainous backbone of Israel. These range across various scales, from mega-landscape features, such as polje and epigenic karst basin, through rounded hills, caves, and dolines, to rock-pillar karren, mostly under fluviokarst conditions. Considering the varied features, it is deduced that karst dissolution has played a major role in landscape development since the late Eocene regression.

Raviv D., Aharonovich E., Har-Even B., Tavger A., Langford B. & Frumkin A., 2018, "Remains from the Bar-Kokhba Revolt at Qibia and Na'ale Caves", In the Highland's Depth - Ephraim Range and Binyamin Research Studies, 8, Ariel-Talmon, pp. 85-101. (Hebrew)

Many Karstic caves, in the western part of the Bethel Hills, were used by the nearby population a... more Many Karstic caves, in the western part of the Bethel Hills, were used by the nearby population at various periods for different uses. The first documentation of those caves has been made by the Cave Research Unit, as part of a speleological research. An archaeological survey of two karstic caves was conducted at the end of 2015 and the beginning of 2016, as part of the New South Samaria Survey project (NSSS) in collaboration with the Cave Research Unit. Na'ale Cave and Qibiya Cave are located 6 km apart. Many finds were exposed during the survey, including mainly pottery sherds and coins, suggesting that Jewish refugees hid in them during the time of the revolts against the Romans, especially during the Bar-Kokhba Revolt. The exposure of these caves joins the additional refuge caves in Southwestern Samaria, which were recently published: The 'Abud Cave, located 6 km north and east of the Na'ale and Qibiya Caves, 'Arak Batin ej-Jami' Cave, Elqana Cave, and more caves in the vicinity as yet unpublished. The existence of many refuge caves in the western Bethel Hills and not only in the Judean Desert provides further evidence of the active participation of the residents of North Judaea in the second revolt. The numismatic evidence from the Na'ale and Qibiya Caves allow us to clarify historical conclusions about the date of the conquest of this region by the Roman troops during the Jewish revolts.

Zissu, B., Langford, B., Raviv, D., Davidovich, U., Porat, R., Frumkin, A., 2014. Coins from the Elqana Cave in Western Samaria. The Israel Numismatic Journal 18, 146-154.

Paléorient, 2012

A series of short successive occupations were revealed at the new Middle Paleolithic site of Eman... more A series of short successive occupations were revealed at the new Middle Paleolithic site of Emanuel Cave. A date of 191± 1 Ka (U/ Th) is suggested as a terminus post quem for the archaeological deposits. Despite the ephemeral nature of the site, the lithic assemblage displays two distinct facies ; the lower layers with a predominantly laminar nature and the upper layers, reflecting more use of the Levallois technology. Techno-typological comparison of the lower layers with other Levantine assemblages position it within the early Middle Paleolithic technological tradition as seen at Hayonim lower E and F and Hummal 6b. Thus implying a wider range of technological variability than suggested by the Tabun “ cultural” classification commonly used to defi ne the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant.

Jackson-Tal, R.E., Raviv, D., Langford, B., Davidovich, U., Frumkin, A., Porat, R., Zissu, B. 2020. Glass Use as a Reflection of Abandonment Processes: The ‘Abud Refuge Cave, Roman Judea (133/134 C.E.). Journal of Glass Studies 62:6-82., 2020

Gopher, A., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Barkai, R., Frumkin, A., Karkanas, P. and Shahack-Gross, R. 2010. The chronology of the late Lower Paleolithic in the Levant: U-series dates of speleothems from Middle Pleistocene Qesem Cave, Israel. Quaternary Geochronology 5, 644-656.

Quaternary Geochronology, 2010

Journal of human evolution, 2007

The Amudian (late Lower Paleolithic) site of Qesem Cave in Israel represents one of the earliest ... more The Amudian (late Lower Paleolithic) site of Qesem Cave in Israel represents one of the earliest examples of habitual use of fire by middle Pleistocene hominids. The Paleolithic layers in this cave were studied using a suite of mineralogical and chemical techniques and a contextual sedimentological analysis (i.e., micromorphology). We show that the lower ca. 3m of the stratigraphic sequence are dominated by clastic sediments deposited within a closed karstic environment. The deposits were formed by small-scale, concentrated mud slurries (infiltrated terra rosa soil) and debris flows. A few intervening lenses of mostly in situ burnt remains were also identified. The main part of the upper ca. 4.5 m consists of anthropogenic sediment with only moderate amounts of clastic geogenic inputs. The deposits are strongly cemented with calcite that precipitated from dripping water. The anthropogenic component is characterized by completely combusted, mostly reworked wood ash with only rare rem...

Frumkin, A., Carmi, I., Gopher, A., Ford, D.C., Schwarcz, H.P. and Tsuk, T., 1999. A Holocene millennial-scale climatic cycle from a speleothem in Nahal Qanah Cave, Israel. The Holocene, 9(6), pp.677-682.

The Holocene, 1999

Frumkin, A., Langford, B., Marder, O., & Ullman, M., 2016. Paleolithic caves and hillslope processes in south-western Samaria, Israel: Environmental and archaeological implications. Quaternary International, 398 (2016) 246-258.

Quaternary International, 2016

Southwestern Samaria is emerging as a major province of Paleolithic cave sites. Most recently dis... more Southwestern Samaria is emerging as a major province of Paleolithic cave sites. Most recently discovered caves have been naturally filled with terra-rossa type colluvial deposits when the hillslopes above the caves were stripped from vegetation during late Quaternary times. Site formation processes differ significantly between caves with pit-like openings, such as Qesem, Emanuel, and Rantis caves, vs. those with cliff-side entrances, such as Shukbah, Tinshemet, and Deir Kaddis caves. The former favored accumulation of colluvial debris, while the latter were relatively protected from these deposits. Caves discovered in the 20th century were mainly of the latter, cliff-face type, while in the 21st century new discoveries commonly occur where construction works intersect previously unnoticed filled caves.

Marder, O., Yeshurun, R., Lupu, R., Bar-Oz, G., Belmaker, M., Porat, N., Ron, H., and Frumkin, A. (2011). Mammal remains at Rantis Cave, Israel, and middle-late Pleistocene human subsistence and ecology in the Southern Levant. Journal of Quaternary Science 26(8) p. 769–780.

Barkai, R., Gopher, A., Lauritzen, S. E., and Frumkin, A., 2003, Uranium series dates from Qesem Cave, Israel, and the end of the Lower Palaeolithic: Nature, v. 423, p. 977-979

Biblical Archaeology Review, v. 27, 6, p. 42-50., 2001

Ben-Avraham, Z., Gat, Y. and Niemi, T. M., eds., The Dead Sea — the Lake and its Setting: Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics no. 36, Oxford University Press, p. 237-248. , 1997

Israel and Jordan. It takes place in very saline groundwater dissolving buried salt layers, causi... more Israel and Jordan. It takes place in very saline groundwater dissolving buried salt layers, causing collapse of the surface. In this paper, groundwater salinity throughout the DS coastal area is investigated using the Transient Electromagnetic (TEM) method. Twenty-
eight TEM soundings along the DS coastal area were carried out close to observation boreholes to calibrate resistivity–salinity relationships. Groundwater electrical conductivity was measured in these boreholes, and its salinity was analyzed at the laboratory by the Geological Survey of Israel (GSI). Quantitative relationships between bulk resistivity
(rx), water resistivity (rw) and chloride concentration (Ccl) were derived in the resistivityrange less than 1.0 Vm that enabled to evaluate the salinity of the aquifer in in situ conditions. Average values of the effective porosity of sandy sediments, we = 0.32, and of
silty ones, we = 0.44, were used to generate the corresponding Archie equations. The study has shown that a DS aquifer with bulk resistivity in the range of 0.55–1.0 Vm contains in
pores brine with 50–110 gchloride/l of (22–50% of that in saturated conditions, respectively), i.e. it keeps the potential to dissolve up to 114–174 g/l of salt.

Near Surface 2011 - 17th EAGE European Meeting of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, 2011

Geomorphology, 2020

The western and eastern Dead Sea (DS) shores are hit by intensive sinkhole collapse during the la... more The western and eastern Dead Sea (DS) shores are hit by intensive sinkhole collapse during the last 30 years. The first researchers have considered a piping model of sinkhole formation, based on washing out fines by underground flows. Then, it was proved by numerous boreholes and seismic refraction surveys that sinkholes along western shore are caused by dissolution of buried salt layers and collapse of the surface into dissolution caverns. However, signs of piping and subsurface flows were observed in some sinkhole sites. In this paper, we show that robust identification of sinkhole origin can be achieved when proper geophysical methodologies and their application are used. We consider Newe Zohar site located in the southern part of the Dead Sea in order to analyse different signs of sinkhole formation models using various geophysical methods. The Seismic refraction method (SRFR), enables us to discover the salt layer based on longitudinal wave velocity Vp; the Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) method allows to determine the salt layer properties (rigidity) based on shear wave velocity Vs; finally, the Time Electromagnetic (TEM) method allows us to evaluate the degree of aggressiveness of groundwater with respect to salt, based on bulk resistivity values. Here we analyse competitive models of sinkhole formation and suggest geophysical methods to determine the subsurface geomorphology. We show that various geophysical methods should be applied in concert to explore the subsurface for the occurrence of salt, as well as understanding sinkhole formation processes. The underlying voids along the Dead Sea are shown to form primarily by salt dissolution, with some cases of additional piping. Applying the right geophysical parameters for groundwater and salt sediments classification proves to be crucial for understanding the subsurface geomorphology.

Radiocarbon, 2001

Holocene sedimentary and geomorphic sequences from the Dead Sea region, Israel, are compared by c... more Holocene sedimentary and geomorphic sequences from the Dead Sea region, Israel, are compared by correlation of more than 50 radiocarbon dates. The 14C dates provided the chronological basis that enabled us to detect basin-scale events that are hard to ascertain in single-site records. This paper is the first attempt to compare different Holocene records from several sites along the Dead Sea, based on their chrono-stratigraphy. Included is the first publication of the paleoclimatic record of the Nahal Darga ephemeral stream valley. Such a regional compilation is needed, because only the integration and comparative evaluation of several records can produce a reliable climatic history by establishing the height of former Dead Sea levels that may be complicated by tectonics and the rise of Mount Sedom. A relatively high level of the Holocene Dead Sea occurred during the mid-Holocene around 4400 BP or about 3000 cal BCE after calibration. The lake level fell sharply around 4000 BP, i.e. ...

Ezersky, M.G., Frumkin, 2021. Subaerial morphology affected by groundwater aggressiveness: sinkhole susceptibility above karstified salt, Dead Sea., 2021

Evaporite karst is intensively developing at the Dead Sea (DS), both along its western and easter... more Evaporite karst is intensively developing at the Dead Sea (DS), both along its western and eastern shores. The collapse of overlying sediments into evaporite karst cavities results in sinkhole formation. The dissolution is produced by undersaturated water, aggressive concerning halite. The evaporite karst is developing rapidly, in the time scale of months to years, so groundwater aggressiveness is a relevant factor for sinkhole susceptibility assessment. The present study analyzes sinkhole development concerning groundwater aggressiveness. The aggressiveness is evaluated from bulk resistivity (ρ x) of the aquifer, measured from the surface using the Transient Electromagnetic (TEM) method, and from resistivity (ρ w) of groundwater filling its pores. We suggest a methodology for water aggressiveness determination and its classification concerning salt. We then demonstrate a significant correlation between water aggressiveness and the actual distribution of sinkholes in five study areas along the Dead Sea. Conversely, we show that the timing of sinkholes occurrence within recent decades does not correlate with water aggressiveness. The timing is attributed to the multiple factors that control the dissolution of salt and consequent collapse. Acknowledging that the real hydrogeological conditions involve multifactorial processes, we shortly analyze other concurrent factors, including water table depth, existing salt karstification east of the salt edge, and site location relative to the salt edge.

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2023

Water availability in the Levant is predicted to decline due to global warming in the upcoming de... more Water availability in the Levant is predicted to decline due to global warming in the upcoming decades and is expected to substantially impact the region. Determining the long-term natural rainfall variability in this region is essential for understanding the regional hydroclimatic response to external climate forcings and for contextualizing future hydroclimate changes. The Dead Sea (DS), located in the southern Levant, is a closed-basin lake whose size varies as a function of water availability. Reconstructing DS lake-level variations through time provides a quantitative measure of the natural hydroclimate variability and can inform on the local hydroclimate response to changes in global climate. Here, we constructed an updated lake-level history of the Holocene DS by: 1) studying lake high-stands derived from a series of new cores collected in the DS southern basin, 2) re-dating of the two major Holocene high-stand exposures, and 3) compiling all previously published ages of Holocene DS lake-level markers (n = 296 radiocarbon ages). The results show that the early (10-6.1 kyr cal BP) and late Holocene (3.6-0 kyr cal BP) in the DS were predominantly wet albeit punctuated by dry intervals, whereas the middle Holocene (6.1-3.6 kyr cal BP) was most likely relatively dry. This pattern of two Holocene humid intervals is also evident in distillation records derived from Levant speleothem caves (which represent the integrated magnitude of rainout from the vapor source to the caves), indicating that rainfall intensity and total water availability were correlated throughout the Holocene. These two humid intervals occurred during high and low summer insolation conditions, suggesting that they were modulated by different climatic mechanisms. The predicted future drying in the Levant is of similar magnitude to the natural hydroclimate variability and thus, it is crucial to assess whether the anthropogenic drying is in-or out-of phase with the natural climate variability.

Int. Congress of Speleology Proceedings, 2013

מלח הארץ 1, 2005

סקר ארכאולוגי במערות מדבר יהודה במרחב עין גדי-קומרן

מחקרי ארץ יהודה ה, 2022

ממצאים מימי מרד בר כוכבא במצוקי נחל תקוע (ואדי חריטון)

Jםורמשך םכ Dקשג Sקש שמג Aרשהש Rקדקשרבי, 2010

מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא במרחב שבין עין גדי לחורבת קומראן לאור המחקר המחודש במדבר יהודה

Iדרשקך Nוצןדצשאןב Jםורמשך, 2003

Archaeological excavations and research studies in southern Israel, 2021

Sourcing Herod the Great's calcite-alabaster bathtubs by a multi-analytic approach, 2022

Herod “the Great”, king of Judea in the second half of the first century BC, was known for his bu... more Herod “the Great”, king of Judea in the second half of the first century BC, was known for his building
projects, wealth, and political power. Two of his personal calcite-alabaster bathtubs, found in the
Kypros fortress and the palace of Herodium, are among the very limited archaeological evidence of
his private life. It seemed plausible that they were imported from Egypt, the main source of calcitealabaster
in ancient periods. Yet, the recent identification of a calcite quarry in the Te’omim cave,
Israel, challenges this hypothesis. Here, we developed an approach for identification of the source
of calcite-alabaster, by combination of four analytical methods: ICP, FTIR, ssNMR and isotope ratio.
These methods were then applied to Herod’s bathtubs demonstrating that they were indeed quarried
in Israel rather than in Egypt.

Porat, R., Amit, D., Frumkin, A., Ulman, M., Langford, B., 2019. The caves of Wadi Charitun (Nahal Tqoa). Studies on The Land of Judea: Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference in Memory of Dr. David Amit, p. 9-29מערות ואדי חריטון - נחל תקוע

מחקרי ארץ יהודה, 2019

Finds from the Bar-Kokhba Revolt on the Cliffsides of Wadi Chariton (Naḥal Teqoa). , 2021

Porat, R., Davidovich, U., Frumkin, A., 2012. Environmental setting of the Christmas Cave, Judean Desert, Israel. In: Gunneweg, J., and Greenblatt, C. Eds. Outdoor Qumran and the Dead Sea, Proceedings of the Hebrew University - COST Cultural Heritage Workshop.

Heritage Science, 2022

The present study reports a series of interdisciplinary archaeometrical analyses of objects found... more The present study reports a series of interdisciplinary archaeometrical analyses of objects found in the Christmas Cave, which was discovered by John Allegro and his team in 1960 on the West Bank of the Dead Sea and assumed to be inhabited only in the Chalcolithic era and by Jewish refugees of the second century CE, at the end of the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Like many other Judaean desert caves, there was an abundance of organic material, especially textiles, surviving in the dry environment. In the absence of clear stratigraphy and even a proper publication of the finds, the present study shows how archaeometry can provide important insights. We analysed food crusts on ceramics by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC–MS), made petrographic descriptions to estimated provenance of the ceramics, produced new radiocarbon dates from organic material and thermoluminescence (TL) dates from the pottery. It appears from the data that the Christmas Cave has been briefly inhabit...

רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. מערות מפלט מתקופת מרד בר־כוכבא במצוקי נחל ערוגות. בתוך: מ... more רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. מערות מפלט מתקופת מרד בר־כוכבא במצוקי נחל ערוגות. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא, קובץ שני. החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה

רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. ממצאים מתקופת מרד בר־כוכבא ממערת הר־ישי. בתוך: מערות המפל... more רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. ממצאים מתקופת מרד בר־כוכבא ממערת הר־ישי. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא, קובץ שני. החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה

רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. מטמון מטבעות הכסף ממערת צבר. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד... more רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. מטמון מטבעות הכסף ממערת צבר. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא, קובץ שני. החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה

רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. הממצאים ממערות צבר. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא... more רועי פורת, חנן אשל ועמוס פרומקין, 2009. הממצאים ממערות צבר. בתוך: מערות המפלט מתקופת מרד בר כוכבא, קובץ שני. החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה

Sheffer, N., Dafny, E., Gvirtzman, H., Navon, S., Frumkin, A., Morin, E., 2010. Hydrometeorological daily recharge assessment model (DREAM) for the Western Mountain Aquifer, Israel: Model application and effects of temporal patterns. Water Resources Research 46, W05510

Hydrological Processes, 2011

אופקים בגאוגרפיה 69, 2019

יחזקאל ופרומקין 2019 . השפעת השינוי בכמות המשקעים השנתית על ספיקת מעיינות השכבה בהרי ירושלים תקצי... more יחזקאל ופרומקין 2019 . השפעת השינוי בכמות המשקעים השנתית על ספיקת מעיינות השכבה בהרי ירושלים
תקציר
במחקר זה נעשה לראשונה ניסיון לבחון את השפעת השינוי בכמות המשקעים השנתית על הספיקה של קבוצה
גדולה של מעיינות שכבה בהרי ירושלים ) n=36 (. זאת, תוך השוואת נתוני משקעים לנפח המים בבריכות אגירה של
מעיינות שכבה בין השנים 2002/03 – 2012/13 . ניתוח השפעת השינוי בכמות המשקעים השנתית התבצע על כלל
המדגם ועל פי שני קריטריונים: תצורה גאולוגית בנביעה והפרש הגובה של המעיין מקו הרכס.
נמצא שלספיקת מעיינות הנובעים על גבי תצורת מוצא, הניזונים מאקוויפר קארסטי, התאמה טובה יותר לכמות
המשקעים באותה שנה. זאת בניגוד למעיינות הנובעים על גבי תצורת שורק הניזונים מאקוויפר סדוק ופחות קארסטי,
להם התאמה לכמות המשקעים המצטברת כמה שנים אחורה. כמו כן נראה שטווח ה'זיכרון' – זמן התגובה של
מעיינות השכבה – לשינוי בכמות המשקעים השנתית הוא חמש שנים. קרי, המים הנובעים ממעיינות השכבה בהרי
ירושלים הם תמהיל של משקעים שירדו עד חמש שנים אחורה. מעיינות השכבה הם מקור המים היחיד הזמין לאדם
בשדרת ההר המרכזי, וחשיבותם רבה ליציבות ההתיישבות בהר לאורך ההיסטוריה. מסיבה זו, חשוב להבין את
השפעת התנודות בכמות המשקעים השנתית על ספיקת המעיינות באזור ההר. מילות מפתח: מעיינות שכבה, קארסט,
בצורת, זיכרון אקוויפרים שעונים, הרי ירושלים, תצורת שורק, תצורת מוצא.

Landscapes and Landforms of Israel. , 2022

Frumkin, A. and Shtober-Zisu, N., eds., 2024. Landscapes and Landforms of Israel. Cham: Springer ... more Frumkin, A. and Shtober-Zisu, N., eds., 2024. Landscapes and Landforms of Israel. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 388 pp.
Preface
Israel is a land of contrasts, where the ancient and the modern coexist. From the desert to
the mountains, the landscapes of Israel are diverse and spectacular, celebrating natural
beauty and cultural richness. Climate variability and geologic events are the foundation of
present and past geomorphological evolution, responsible for most morphogenetic processes
and landforms currently observed in Israel—fluvial, coastal, aeolian, karstic, volcanic, or
gravitational. The natural geomorphological processes in Israel have created highly scenic
and diverse landscapes; by their side, anthropic landscapes of enormous cultural value are
embedded as a heritage of humanity. These landscapes are the background for much of the
history and myths of the main religions of the Western world. A wide range of these landscapes
is described in this volume, which contains over twenty examples, representative of
all natural and human morphogenetic environments (Fig. 1).
This book is the result of a joint venture established among Israeli geomorphologists,
which has also included the participation of valuable experts from other disciplines. To
our knowledge, this is the first attempt to put together such a collection of papers on the
landscapes and landforms of Israel. More than 25 authors from five universities and three
research centres have contributed to the book. Furthermore, each chapter has undergone three
rounds of thorough peer review before being accepted for publication. This book, therefore,
offers a collection of contributions that can be valuable to a wide readership, ranging from
professionals who study the landscapes of Israel, students, teachers, tour guides, tourists, or
anyone in the international public who wants to expand their knowledge and learn about this
country from first-class researchers.
We are very grateful to Piotr Migoń, Series Editor, for having invited us to join the
important editorial project of the “World Geomorphological Landscapes” and for his precious
suggestions, constant availability, and continuous support. We would like to acknowledge
Dr. Robert K. Doe, Editorial Director and the assistance of the Springer book Project
Coordinators who took care of this book with remarkable dedication and patience, in particular
Ms. Banu Dhayalan who finalized the volume production.
Last but not least, our special thanks go to the individual authors for the enthusiasm with
which they responded to our invitation and for the outstanding efforts made for the success of
this valuable editorial initiative.

Landscapes and Landforms of Israel, 2024

Frumkin, A. and Shtober-Zisu, N., 2024. Landscapes and Landforms of Israel—An Overview. Landscape... more Frumkin, A. and Shtober-Zisu, N., 2024. Landscapes and Landforms of Israel—An Overview. Landscapes and Landforms of Israel, pp. 3-16, Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Abstract
Three geographical factors determine the character of Israel: its location in the Mediterranean zone, at the crossroads of three continents and two oceans, and on the border between the desert and the sown. Like other Mediterranean countries, Israel has a predominantly hilly topography, a bedrock foundation in which carbonate rocks predominate, and a sunny climate characterized by a sharp seasonal division between a rainy winter and an arid summer. The combination of these factors together create the country's distinctive landscapes, soils, and vegetation. This chapter aims to draw a brief picture of the four lengthwise strips, running north to south, and their subdivision into major physiographic units that together form the landscapes of this country.

Landscapes and Landforms of Israel , 2024

Frumkin, A., 2024. Geology and Relief Development of Israel. In Landscapes and Landforms of Israe... more Frumkin, A., 2024. Geology and Relief Development of Israel. In Landscapes and Landforms of Israel (pp. 17-37). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Abstract
Until the Eocene, Israel region was mostly affected by the passive margin conditions prevailing at the northwest edge of the African Plate, associated with epeirogenic movements and eustatic fluctuations close to the sea-land transition. The Syrian Arc folding, active since the Santonian, has some implications on the present-day relief. During the late Eocene-Oligocene, an extensive regression and regional uplift shifted the coast to the NW exposing the area to severe denudation. Moderate tectonism occurred since the Oligocene and the early Miocene and increased through the break-up of the Arabian-African plates along the Dead Sea transform since the early Miocene (Nuriel et al., 2017). Since the Miocene until today, the relief of Israel was enhanced mainly by deep depressions along the Dead Sea fault system, accompanied by arching of the hilly backbone of Israel, where a new water divide was established. Erosion, denudation and deposition have played a mixed role of shaping the landscape over geological timescales. The tectonic-based relief has been reduced and modified to gentle convex hills under Mediterranean environment. Fluvial erosion responding to backbone uplift coeval with lowering base levels has dissected the landscape and created canyons and cliffs, in particular under dry environments and in cohesive rocks, mainly along the Dead Sea transform margin.

Journal of Islamic Archaeology, 8(2), 2021

Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A. and Bar-Matthews, M., 2021. Mitigating Water Scarcity in the Medieval a... more Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A. and Bar-Matthews, M., 2021. Mitigating Water Scarcity in the Medieval and Islamic Periods: The Example of Safed, Israel. Journal of Islamic Archaeology, 8(2).
Abstract
During the intermediate Islamic period, the settlement of Safed was transformed from a small unknown village in Upper Galilee to an important stronghold and administrative center, aggravating the problem of the town's water supply. Lacking natural springs, Safed depended on cisterns fed by gutters that channeled seasonal rainwater from the roofs and on distant springs in the Nahal Amud ravine. As the town's population grew, its rulers were required to install public water systems. Our field study of the region reveals several Mamluk water systems whose outstanding features are an aqueduct that channeled water by force of gravity from ʿAyn Bīriyyā to the Crusader/Mamluk citadel in Safed, and a spring tunnel flowing beneath the town that was accessible via shafts in the houses. The composition of the water in the tunnel is similar to that of a famous ritual bath in one of these houses, indicating a probable connection. The water systems were dated using Uranium-Thorium analysis and by radiocarbon dating. An ancient spring tunnel at the nearby site of ʿAyn al-Zaytun that may have inspired the construction of Safed's water systems is also discussed. The archaeological finds and dating are consistent with several historical sources describing the construction of water systems in Safed.

Men – Millennia – Environment: Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, 2008

Ronen, A., Neber, A., Mienis, H. K., Horwitz, L. K., Frumkin, A., Boenigk, W., and Galili, E., 20... more Ronen, A., Neber, A., Mienis, H. K., Horwitz, L. K., Frumkin, A., Boenigk, W., and Galili, E., 2008, Mousterian occupation on an OIS 5e shore near the mount carmel caves, Israel, in Sulgostowska, Z., and Tomaszewski, A. J., eds., Men – Millennia – Environment: Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, p. 197-205.

‘Atiqot, 2023

The archaeological survey of the Kamon cave revealed several groups of finds, including a hoard o... more The archaeological survey of the Kamon cave revealed several groups of finds, including a hoard of coins and jewelry; a cache comprising a lamp with agate beads inside it; several pottery vessels and an arrowhead found together in a rock crevice; and scattered pottery and metal artifacts. Based on the finds, it was concluded that the major period of human activity in the cave was at the beginning of the Hellenistic period, with meager activity during Iron Age IIA. The cave probably served as a refuge for a group of people during the Wars of the Diadochi. This article discusses the social background of the refugees and the circumstances leading to the deposition of the hoard.

Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology , 2022

The site of Tell el-Hawy is located above the confluence of the Rukkad and Yarmuk Rivers, near Is... more The site of Tell el-Hawy is located above the confluence of the Rukkad and Yarmuk Rivers, near Israel's present-day borders with Syria and Jordan. A survey revealed ancient remains on the hilltop and slopes dating mainly from the Iron Age, Late Hellenistic, and Roman periods. Twenty caves were found, including a large burial cave with loculi. The finds from the survey, as well as the caves, are described. The location of the site and its function are also discussed.

Quaternary International, 2021

Abstract This paper focuses on new findings from Middle Paleolithic Geula Cave, Israel, located i... more Abstract This paper focuses on new findings from Middle Paleolithic Geula Cave, Israel, located in the northern part of Mt. Carmel. The cave, consists of several small chambers that are remnants of a larger cave system, initially excavated between 1958 and 1964. In 2016, a salvage excavation was conducted in areas of the cave that were not previously explored. Analyses of the new excavation revealed a consistency in lithic technology throughout the new excavation areas, with an emphasis on Levallois production using mainly bidirectional and centripetal core preparation modes. The faunal study identified intensive hyena and porcupine activities in small chambers, probably at the back part of the cave, while fractured bones in association with flint artifacts were found at what appears as the living area in the cave. Luminescence ages indicated that Geula Cave was occupied as early as 175 ka, but that the major occupation was from 120 to 100 ka. The major occupation at Geula chronologically overlaps with the Skhul and Qafzeh Caves thus reinforcing the notion that Homo sapiens dominated the southern Levant during early MIS 5. This study demonstrates the importance of reinvestigating and reevaluating past excavated prehistoric sites and their contents to enhance our understanding of the regional, cultural and biological history.

Science advances, 2017

The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of m... more The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of modern humans with Upper Paleolithic traditions. We report a high-resolution radiocarbon chronology for Early Upper Paleolithic industries (Early Ahmarian and Levantine Aurignacian) from the newly excavated site of Manot Cave, Israel. The dates confirm that the Early Ahmarian industry was present by 46,000 calibrated years before the present (cal BP), and the Levantine Aurignacian occurred at least between 38,000 and 34,000 cal BP. This timing is consistent with proposed migrations or technological diffusions between the Near East and Europe. Specifically, the Ahmarian could have led to the development of the Protoaurignacian in Europe, and the Aurignacian in Europe could have spread back to the Near East as the Levantine Aurignacian.

Science (New York, N.Y.), Jan 26, 2018

To date, the earliest modern human fossils found outside of Africa are dated to around 90,000 to ... more To date, the earliest modern human fossils found outside of Africa are dated to around 90,000 to 120,000 years ago at the Levantine sites of Skhul and Qafzeh. A maxilla and associated dentition recently discovered at Misliya Cave, Israel, was dated to 177,000 to 194,000 years ago, suggesting that members of the Homo sapiens clade left Africa earlier than previously thought. This finding changes our view on modern human dispersal and is consistent with recent genetic studies, which have posited the possibility of an earlier dispersal of Homo sapiens around 220,000 years ago. The Misliya maxilla is associated with full-fledged Levallois technology in the Levant, suggesting that the emergence of this technology is linked to the appearance of Homo sapiens in the region, as has been documented in Africa.

The Upper Palaeolithic of Manot Cave, Western Galilee, Israel: the 2011–12 excavations, 2013

ABSTRACT Our ongoing research has revealed that Manot Cave was intensively occupied during the Up... more ABSTRACT Our ongoing research has revealed that Manot Cave was intensively occupied during the Upper Palaeolithic period. Located within the Mediterranean woodland region and with its multi-layered units and thick archaeological accumulations, Manot Cave has the potential of refining the Levantine Upper Palaeolithic cultural sequence. This is especially true in light of the few Upper Palaeolithic excavations that have been conducted in this region in the last two decades (e.g. Kuhn et al. 2009).

Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel contains rich Early Middle Paleolithic (EMP) habitation layers... more Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel contains rich Early Middle Paleolithic (EMP) habitation layers. Sediments within a deep 1m2 sounding at the Upper Terrace of the site underwent detailed geo-archaeological analyses, coupled with techno-typological and taphonomic analyses of the archaeological material that enabled a focused look deep into the layers. While no significant temporal changes were observed in the lithic or faunal assemblages that for the most part represent EMP occupations, the caves' configuration underwent major changes. The EMP sequence was deposited under the cave roof whose westward extension retreated gradually. We distinguished two main sedimentological cycles and possibly also occupational phases above either a massive rock-fall or bedrock, separated by a gap of undetermined duration that was, however, long enough to have created a distinct paleo-surface. These cycles are related to major phases of cave collapse and it was only after the roof had fully fall...

Akey event in human evolution is the expansion ofmodernhumans of African origin across Eurasia b... more Akey event in human evolution is the expansion ofmodernhumans
of African origin across Eurasia between 60 and 40 thousand years
(kyr) before present (BP), replacing all other forms of hominins1.Owing
to the scarcity of human fossils fromthis period, these ancestors
of all present-day non-African modern populations remain largely
enigmatic. Here we describe a partial calvaria, recently discovered
at Manot Cave (Western Galilee, Israel) and dated to 54.765.5 kyr
BP (arithmetic mean62 standard deviations) by uranium–thorium
dating, that sheds light on this crucial event. The overall shape and
discretemorphological features of theManot 1 calvaria demonstrate
that this partial skull is unequivocally modern. It is similar in shape
to recent African skulls as well as to European skulls from the Upper
Palaeolithic period, but different frommost other early anatomically
modern humans in the Levant. This suggests that the Manot people
could be closely related to the first modern humans who later successfully
colonized Europe. Thus, the anatomical features used to
support the ‘assimilation model’ in Europe might not have been inherited
fromEuropeanNeanderthals, but rather fromearlier Levantine
populations. Moreover, at present, Manot 1 is the only modern
human specimen to provide evidence that during the Middle to
Upper Palaeolithic interface, both modern humans and Neanderthals
contemporaneously inhabited the southern Levant, close in time
to the likely interbreeding event with Neanderthals2,3

The human use of caves has its origins as far back as million years ago, when early humans began ... more The human use of caves has its origins as far back as million years ago, when early humans began to use them as seasonal camp sites. At about 500,000 Ka the use of caves by these small groups of hunter-gatherers became a widespread phenomenon in Africa and Eurasia. In Israel alone (at an area of 8,800 km 2) there are about 40 prehistoric caves, dated between 500,000 and 50,000 Ka. Because the number of caves on the landscape is much higher than the number of caves used by our ancestors, we assume that the preference of particular caves within a group's geographic territory involved a system of decision-making based on selection criteria. We attempted to identify these criteria in the Amud catchment, where four well-known Paleolithic caves are located. The study included a systematic pedestrian survey of the canyon, detailed documentation of the physical properties and locational characteristics of the caves, and analysis for pattern recognition with GIS and statistical methods (...

Weinstein-Evron, M., Tsatskin, A., Weiner, S., Shahack-Gross, R., Frumkin, A., Yeshurun, R., Zaidner, Y., 2012. A Window into Early Middle Paleolithic Human Occupational Layers: Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. PaleoAnthropology 2012:202−228. doi:10.4207/PA.2012.ART75

Nadel, D., Shtober-Zisu, N., Frumkin, A., Yaroshevich, A., 2012. New Prehistoric Cave Sites in Lower Nahal Oren, Mt. Carmel, Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 42:75-114.

Cathedra, 2020

Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A., Bar Matthews, M. 2020. Underground and Subaerial Water systems of Zefa... more Shivtiel, Y., Frumkin, A., Bar Matthews, M. 2020. Underground and Subaerial Water systems of Zefat during the Intermediate Islamic Period,
Abstract
During the intermediate Islamic period the settlement of Zefat has altered from a small unknown village to an important stronghold and administration center. The development of the site challenged its leaders with water supply. Lacking springs within its borders, Zefat depended on cisterns collecting runoff and the remote and deep springs of Nahal ‘Ammud ravine. Our field study of the region reveals several water systems dating to the Mamluk period, whose climax was an aqueduct from Biriyya to Zefat and a tunnel flowing under the city, whose water could be drawn through shafts in the houses. The water of the tunnel is similar to that in Ha’ari Miqve, indicating a possible connection. Archaeological study of the water systems and their plaster, as well as radiometric dating of speleothems, constrain the age of the water systems. A water tunnel at the nearby site of ‘En Zetim is also discussed. The archaeological finds and dating agree with several historical sources describing the construction of water systems in Zefat.

Klein, E., Ullman, M., Porat, R., Langford, B., Frumkin, A., 2017. Kamon Cave: Refuge cave from the Wars of the Diadochi period. Qadmoniot 154, 104-108 מערת כמון

קדמוניות 154, 2017

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

אטלס מערות מדבר יהודה. מאגנס והמרכז לחקר מערות, ירושלים, 2015

Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution

The stable isotopes composition of chemolithoautotrophic cave ecosystems is known to differ from ... more The stable isotopes composition of chemolithoautotrophic cave ecosystems is known to differ from epigenic caves. Here we show that in addition, dead carbon (devoid of 14C), is utilized and transferred throughout this ecosystem, rendering it unsuitable for radiocarbon dating. The connectivity of the Ayyalon Cave ecosystem with the surface is studied, along with its sources of energy and carbon, as well as the interconnections between its constituents. We use isotopic evidence to show that its ancient resilient ecosystem is based on an underground food web depending on rich biomass production by chemolithoautotrophic nutrient supplies, detached from surface photosynthesis. Carbon isotopic values indicate that: (1) the microbial biota use bicarbonate from the groundwater (23.34 pMC [% of modern carbon]) rather than the atmospheric CO2 above the water (71.36 pMC); (2) the depleted 14C signal is transferred through the entire ecosystem, indicating that the ecosystem is well-adapted and b...

Scientific Reports

Herod “the Great”, king of Judea in the second half of the first century BC, was known for his bu... more Herod “the Great”, king of Judea in the second half of the first century BC, was known for his building projects, wealth, and political power. Two of his personal calcite-alabaster bathtubs, found in the Kypros fortress and the palace of Herodium, are among the very limited archaeological evidence of his private life. It seemed plausible that they were imported from Egypt, the main source of calcite-alabaster in ancient periods. Yet, the recent identification of a calcite quarry in the Te’omim cave, Israel, challenges this hypothesis. Here, we developed an approach for identification of the source of calcite-alabaster, by combination of four analytical methods: ICP, FTIR, ssNMR and isotope ratio. These methods were then applied to Herod’s bathtubs demonstrating that they were indeed quarried in Israel rather than in Egypt.

Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 2020

Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits that were previ... more Mortuary behavior (activities concerning dead conspecifics) is one of many traits that were previously widely considered to have been uniquely human, but on which perspectives have changed markedly in recent years. Theoretical approaches to hominin mortuary activity and its evolution have undergone major revision, and advances in diverse archeological and paleoanthropological methods have brought new ways of identifying behaviors such as intentional burial. Despite these advances, debates concerning the nature of hominin mortuary activity, particularly among the Neanderthals, rely heavily on the rereading of old excavations as new finds are relatively rare, limiting the extent to which such debates can benefit from advances in the field. The recent discovery of in situ articulated Neanderthal remains at Shanidar Cave offers a rare opportunity to take full advantage of these methodological and theoretical developments to understand Neanderthal mortuary activity, making a review of th...

Geoarchaeology, 2021

The Biar aqueduct is the most sophisticated of the aqueducts supplying water to Jerusalem during ... more The Biar aqueduct is the most sophisticated of the aqueducts supplying water to Jerusalem during classical periods. It includes the Biar spring, an underground Shaft Tunnel ∼3 km long harvesting groundwater (cuniculus), a dam, a surface channel, and a tunnel traversing a ridge. We conducted a survey of the Biar underground Shaft Tunnel, mapping all of its accessible parts (∼1200 m), facilitating a new understanding of the cutting‐edge hydrogeologic and engineering skills used for this project. The last ∼536 m of the Biar Shaft Tunnel was constructed with a unique ashlar channel, divided into segments, designed to withstand different loads: (a) in a mechanically weak bedrock, a channel with arched gables and barrel vault specus was built within a hewn winding tunnel, (b) when dug as an open shallow trench, a channel roofed with complex gables of ashlars with drafted margins was built, and (c) to release hydraulic pressure, a channel roofed with alternations of barrel vaults and simpl...

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 2020

Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 2019

Closed depressions at the northern Golan volcanic plateau were attributed in the past to various ... more Closed depressions at the northern Golan volcanic plateau were attributed in the past to various processes without clear evidence and conclusions. We analyze the morphology, origin, and deformation of the depressions using geologic and speleologic techniques, assisted by air photos and satellite imaging. No ejecta, rim deposits, or lava tubes were found in association with the studied depressions. Comparison with similar recent features at Hawaii provides an explanation to their formation and subsequent definition as pit craters. They probably relate to the last, late Pleistocene volcanic phase of the northern Golan. The magma has apparently been channelled through faults and fractures associated with the Dead Sea Transform, without reaching the surface. The pit craters indicate that inflation by pressurized magmatic intrusion could cause extension along the unstable flanks of the deep Hula basin, while during the deflation stage the evacuated magma left voids which reached the surface by consecutive roof collapse. Since collapse reached the surface, recent erosion and sedimentation have modified the original morphology of the pit craters, commonly forming smooth and shallow bowl-shaped depressions. The youngest pit crater in the Golan breached the surface during the Holocene, still demonstrating the typical vertical pit morphology, similar to recent pit craters in Hawaii.

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2016

Quaternary International, 2016

Sedimentology, 2010

... depression of the Dead Sea started to form during the Late Miocene (Manspeizer, 1985; Horowit... more ... depression of the Dead Sea started to form during the Late Miocene (Manspeizer, 1985; Horowitz, 1987; Steinitz &amp; Bartov ... to Lower Cenomanian), Zafit (Lower to Upper Cenomanian; limestone, dolomite), Avnon (Upper Cenomanian; chalk, marl), Tamar (Upper Cenomanian to ...

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2006

Africa” exodus of early modern humans: evidence from desert stalactites A.VAKS , M. BAR-MATTHEWS,... more Africa” exodus of early modern humans: evidence from desert stalactites A.VAKS , M. BAR-MATTHEWS, A. AYALON, A. MATTHEWS, L. HALICZ, AND A. FRUMKIN 1 Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904; Israel; antonv@pob.huji.ac.il; alan@vms.huji.ac.il 2 Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501; Israel matthews@gsi.gov.il; ayalon@gsi.gov.il 3 Department of Physical Geography, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91905; Israel; msamos@mscc.huji.ac.il

Science, 2021

Middle PleistoceneHomoin the LevantOur understanding of the origin, distribution, and evolution o... more Middle PleistoceneHomoin the LevantOur understanding of the origin, distribution, and evolution of early humans and their close relatives has been greatly refined by recent new information. Adding to this trend, Hershkovitzet al.have uncovered evidence of a previously unknown archaicHomopopulation, the “Nesher RamlaHomo” (see the Perspective by Mirazon Lahr). The authors present comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analyses of fossilized remains from a site in Israel dated to 140,000 to 120,000 years ago indicating the presence of a previously unrecognized group of hominins representing the last surviving populations of Middle PleistoceneHomoin Europe, southwest Asia, and Africa. In a companion paper, Zaidneret al.present the radiometric ages, stone tool assemblages, faunal assemblages, and other behavioral and environmental data associated with these fossils. This evidence shows that these hominins had fully mastered technology that until only recently was linked to eitherHom...

Journal of Jewish Studies, 2011

ABSTRACT The Te’omim Cave is a large natural cave, located in the Jerusalem hills. The article pr... more ABSTRACT The Te’omim Cave is a large natural cave, located in the Jerusalem hills. The article presents the results of an archaeological survey in the hard-to-reach section of the cave. Archaeological finds, as hoards of coins, weapons, fragmentary human bones, pottery and oil lamps from the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt were discovered in situ. The finds attest that the cave served as the last place of refuge for rebels who met there their death. The highlights of the survey were three hoards of coins. ‘Hoard A’ included 83 silver coins restruck by the Bar Kokhba administration. It is the only hoard of silver Bar Kokhba coins discovered thus far by archaeologists. ‘Hoard B’ included nine silver coins and a bronze perutah. ‘Hoard C’ included five Roman gold coins, 15 silver coins and four Roman bronze coins of Ascalon. The article discusses various numismatic and archaeological aspects of the finds.