Benjamin Armstrong | U.S. Naval Academy (original) (raw)
Papers by Benjamin Armstrong
Naval War College Review, 2020
The Northern Mariner / Le marin du nord
Naval War College Review, 2015
The Mariner's Mirror, 2019
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 License.
Defense & Security Analysis, 2009
Over the past century, the strategic implications of aviation have played an important role in th... more Over the past century, the strategic implications of aviation have played an important role in the modernization of military strategy. Development of strategic air planning has accelerated with the constant improvement in technology and weapon systems. However, the majority of that development has been in search of the best way to fight the next big war, a conflict between nation-states, each having a certain level of technological capability. As Western militaries continue to search for old and new ways of countering insurgent forces and conducting small war operations, all aspects of the armed forces are being addressed. There has been a great deal of debate in military aviation over the proper role that air power can play in small wars and counter-terrorist operations. These debates have generally centered on the role of high technology, fixedwing aircraft in an attempt to use the bombers and fighters designed to fight the "big war" to help win "small wars". This focus loses sight of an aircraft type that has served as a central player in the conduct of small wars and counter-insurgency since nearly its first flight-the helicopter. Using modern technology and adaptive tactics, the helicopter provides a platform able to conduct strategic strike missions on the smaller scale that is required in small wars. After the success of the Gulf War air campaign, the principles of "effectsbased targeting" began to be applied beyond the realm of high-performance bomber and ground attack aircraft. Leadership targeting developed as an outgrowth of these ideas. Such missions required several key elements to be successful. These include: proper intelligence, proper strategic planning and the use of the proper weapon system. The helicopter can fulfill two of the three pillars required for successful engagement of
Since the fall of the Soviet Union, China has become a source of increased focus for military str... more Since the fall of the Soviet Union, China has become a source of increased focus for military strategists and policy-makers throughout the West and most especially in the United States. With the largest army in the world and obvious aspirations to, at the very least, regional power ...
The Mariner's Mirror, 2019
Naval War College Review, 2010
As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great de... more As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great deal of discussion of counterinsurgency, hybrid conflict, and irregular warfare. In military history none of these concepts are new. Much of the recent scholarship and writing on these forms of warfare has focused on today’s operations ashore, particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, there are significant implications for naval warfare as well. The leaders of the sea services stated in the “Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower” that “preventing wars is as important as winning wars.” If the U.S. Navy is going to embrace this belief as it sails deeper into the twenty-first century, development of naval irregular warfare will become vital to its future success and relevance. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote that the best use of a navy is to find and defeat an opponent’s fleet, but from the earliest history of the republic the U.S. Navy has been involved in operations other th...
On Contested Shores: The Evolving Role of Amphibious Operations in the History of Warfare, 2020
Operations in the littorals of the world and the amphibious raids and assaults that make up key e... more Operations in the littorals of the world and the amphibious raids and assaults that make up key elements of American naval history are often studied through the examples of wartime operations. However, there is a second list of amphibious operations worth some attention: past missions of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps that took place during eras that were otherwise considered peacetime. They demonstrate that the role of amphibious operations extends beyond war, to include the methods used by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps during peacetime and in how the United States faced the struggles between great powers. Examining the Korea expedition of 1871, we can see the interplay between diplomatic and military objectives during peacetime amphibious operations. This study can help us better understand the wider role of amphibious missions beyond war and contemplate how
these missions fit into the dynamics of great power competition.
Naval War College Review, 2020
By looking to the maritime past and scuttling the idea that somehow the “gray zones” of today hav... more By looking to the maritime past and scuttling the idea that somehow the “gray zones” of today have initiated something unique to our contemporary world, naval forces will be better prepared to address the challenges presented by maritime security, naval irregular warfare, and great-power friction on the world’s oceans. In particular, an examination of America’s first post independence conflict, the Quasi War with France, illuminates key questions for strategists and planners considering the
interactions among great powers.
Naval History, 2021
In a commandeered Confederate steamer, the slave Robert Smalls piloted himself and his crew of ot... more In a commandeered Confederate steamer, the slave Robert Smalls piloted himself and his crew of other slaves to freedom and garnered the plaudits of a grateful Union Navy.
This article placed 3rd in the U.S. Naval Institute's 2017 General Prize essay contest. It is a ... more This article placed 3rd in the U.S. Naval Institute's 2017 General Prize essay contest. It is a brief examination of 3 elements of American naval policy and culture which require reassessment as international dynamics return to multi-polarity. The role of small combatants in US fleet architecture, the service wide views of "Distributed Lethality" as an operating concept, and the foundational understanding of naval professionalism all require hard work from senior leaders and fleet sailors alike.
The history of the War of 1812 has been dominated by scrutiny of the duelling frigates, squadron ... more The history of the War of 1812 has been dominated by scrutiny of the duelling frigates, squadron actions, and the British blockade of American ports. Yet, during the conflict from 1812 to 1815, sailors and marines were just as likely to be involved in maritime raiding operations and other irregular missions as they were to work the 'great guns' in ship versus ship combat. This paper reexamines operations on the Great Lakes, and particularly Lake Ontario, in order to illuminate the role of irregular operations and small unit and small craft actions. These types of operations were common throughout the age of sail, but receive little attention from scholars. In order to broaden the scope of operational naval history, and the understanding of the roles and missions of naval forces, a wider investigation of naval irregular warfare is warranted both in the War of 1812 and across naval history more generally.
The defense innovation movement has taken hold in the United States, with junior officers and enl... more The defense innovation movement has taken hold in the United States, with junior officers and enlisted service-members embracing the need for reform and change. Despite the fact that this tends to be cast as a uniquely 21st century ideal, derived in many ways from the language of Silicon Valley and the ideals of business entrepreneurs, there is actually a long history of these types of movements. A study of a few examples from naval history can help today's innovators and reformers by placing their efforts in a larger context.
Debate over the operational concept Air-Sea Battle / JAM-GC has tended to dominate naval strategi... more Debate over the operational concept Air-Sea Battle / JAM-GC has tended to dominate naval strategic discussion of the past several years. Despite the amount that has been written on the subject, very little has engaged with the actual theory and classic concepts of naval strategy. A better understanding of where today's naval discourse fits within the ideas of classical naval strategy will not only help us better understand the proposals and counter-proposals, but it will also help strategists to better evaluate and develop future thinking.
As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great de... more As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great deal of discussion of counterinsurgency, hybrid conflict, and irregular warfare. In military history none of these concepts are new. Much of the recent scholarship and writing on these forms of warfare has focused on today’s operations ashore, particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan.However, there are significant implications for naval warfare as well...
Maritime interests in the twenty-first century are not immune to the growing number of irregular ... more Maritime interests in the twenty-first century are not immune to the growing number of irregular challenges and hybrid threats that have come to dominate land warfare. In order to better understand these challenges a study of naval history can help provide a vital foundation. In the early 1830s the United States Navy dispatched the frigate USS Potomac to Sumatra to investigate a pirate attack on the spice trader Friendship. Potomac’s crew of sailors and Marines conducted a landing at the village Quallah Batoo and fought a pitched battle. As the navies of the world approach naval irregular warfare in the new century, studying past examples like Potomac’s mission can help illuminate the principles of successful naval irregular warfare.
The history of naval irregular warfare spans the American naval experience. In the War of 1812, ... more The history of naval irregular warfare spans the American naval experience. In the War of 1812, both the Americans and British participated in non-traditional operations in the brown and green waters of the world. Twenty-three hundred miles from home, a small crew of American privateers fought off nearly 400 British sailors and marines—and may have helped save New Orleans in the process.
During the War of 1812, operations that present-day naval analysts would call ‘maritime irregular... more During the War of 1812, operations that present-day naval analysts would call ‘maritime irregular warfare’ were an important part of the conflict on the Great Lakes. Cutting-Out Expeditions by both the USN and RN at Black Rock offer just two examples of an under studied element of the war.
Naval War College Review, 2020
The Northern Mariner / Le marin du nord
Naval War College Review, 2015
The Mariner's Mirror, 2019
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 License.
Defense & Security Analysis, 2009
Over the past century, the strategic implications of aviation have played an important role in th... more Over the past century, the strategic implications of aviation have played an important role in the modernization of military strategy. Development of strategic air planning has accelerated with the constant improvement in technology and weapon systems. However, the majority of that development has been in search of the best way to fight the next big war, a conflict between nation-states, each having a certain level of technological capability. As Western militaries continue to search for old and new ways of countering insurgent forces and conducting small war operations, all aspects of the armed forces are being addressed. There has been a great deal of debate in military aviation over the proper role that air power can play in small wars and counter-terrorist operations. These debates have generally centered on the role of high technology, fixedwing aircraft in an attempt to use the bombers and fighters designed to fight the "big war" to help win "small wars". This focus loses sight of an aircraft type that has served as a central player in the conduct of small wars and counter-insurgency since nearly its first flight-the helicopter. Using modern technology and adaptive tactics, the helicopter provides a platform able to conduct strategic strike missions on the smaller scale that is required in small wars. After the success of the Gulf War air campaign, the principles of "effectsbased targeting" began to be applied beyond the realm of high-performance bomber and ground attack aircraft. Leadership targeting developed as an outgrowth of these ideas. Such missions required several key elements to be successful. These include: proper intelligence, proper strategic planning and the use of the proper weapon system. The helicopter can fulfill two of the three pillars required for successful engagement of
Since the fall of the Soviet Union, China has become a source of increased focus for military str... more Since the fall of the Soviet Union, China has become a source of increased focus for military strategists and policy-makers throughout the West and most especially in the United States. With the largest army in the world and obvious aspirations to, at the very least, regional power ...
The Mariner's Mirror, 2019
Naval War College Review, 2010
As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great de... more As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great deal of discussion of counterinsurgency, hybrid conflict, and irregular warfare. In military history none of these concepts are new. Much of the recent scholarship and writing on these forms of warfare has focused on today’s operations ashore, particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, there are significant implications for naval warfare as well. The leaders of the sea services stated in the “Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower” that “preventing wars is as important as winning wars.” If the U.S. Navy is going to embrace this belief as it sails deeper into the twenty-first century, development of naval irregular warfare will become vital to its future success and relevance. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote that the best use of a navy is to find and defeat an opponent’s fleet, but from the earliest history of the republic the U.S. Navy has been involved in operations other th...
On Contested Shores: The Evolving Role of Amphibious Operations in the History of Warfare, 2020
Operations in the littorals of the world and the amphibious raids and assaults that make up key e... more Operations in the littorals of the world and the amphibious raids and assaults that make up key elements of American naval history are often studied through the examples of wartime operations. However, there is a second list of amphibious operations worth some attention: past missions of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps that took place during eras that were otherwise considered peacetime. They demonstrate that the role of amphibious operations extends beyond war, to include the methods used by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps during peacetime and in how the United States faced the struggles between great powers. Examining the Korea expedition of 1871, we can see the interplay between diplomatic and military objectives during peacetime amphibious operations. This study can help us better understand the wider role of amphibious missions beyond war and contemplate how
these missions fit into the dynamics of great power competition.
Naval War College Review, 2020
By looking to the maritime past and scuttling the idea that somehow the “gray zones” of today hav... more By looking to the maritime past and scuttling the idea that somehow the “gray zones” of today have initiated something unique to our contemporary world, naval forces will be better prepared to address the challenges presented by maritime security, naval irregular warfare, and great-power friction on the world’s oceans. In particular, an examination of America’s first post independence conflict, the Quasi War with France, illuminates key questions for strategists and planners considering the
interactions among great powers.
Naval History, 2021
In a commandeered Confederate steamer, the slave Robert Smalls piloted himself and his crew of ot... more In a commandeered Confederate steamer, the slave Robert Smalls piloted himself and his crew of other slaves to freedom and garnered the plaudits of a grateful Union Navy.
This article placed 3rd in the U.S. Naval Institute's 2017 General Prize essay contest. It is a ... more This article placed 3rd in the U.S. Naval Institute's 2017 General Prize essay contest. It is a brief examination of 3 elements of American naval policy and culture which require reassessment as international dynamics return to multi-polarity. The role of small combatants in US fleet architecture, the service wide views of "Distributed Lethality" as an operating concept, and the foundational understanding of naval professionalism all require hard work from senior leaders and fleet sailors alike.
The history of the War of 1812 has been dominated by scrutiny of the duelling frigates, squadron ... more The history of the War of 1812 has been dominated by scrutiny of the duelling frigates, squadron actions, and the British blockade of American ports. Yet, during the conflict from 1812 to 1815, sailors and marines were just as likely to be involved in maritime raiding operations and other irregular missions as they were to work the 'great guns' in ship versus ship combat. This paper reexamines operations on the Great Lakes, and particularly Lake Ontario, in order to illuminate the role of irregular operations and small unit and small craft actions. These types of operations were common throughout the age of sail, but receive little attention from scholars. In order to broaden the scope of operational naval history, and the understanding of the roles and missions of naval forces, a wider investigation of naval irregular warfare is warranted both in the War of 1812 and across naval history more generally.
The defense innovation movement has taken hold in the United States, with junior officers and enl... more The defense innovation movement has taken hold in the United States, with junior officers and enlisted service-members embracing the need for reform and change. Despite the fact that this tends to be cast as a uniquely 21st century ideal, derived in many ways from the language of Silicon Valley and the ideals of business entrepreneurs, there is actually a long history of these types of movements. A study of a few examples from naval history can help today's innovators and reformers by placing their efforts in a larger context.
Debate over the operational concept Air-Sea Battle / JAM-GC has tended to dominate naval strategi... more Debate over the operational concept Air-Sea Battle / JAM-GC has tended to dominate naval strategic discussion of the past several years. Despite the amount that has been written on the subject, very little has engaged with the actual theory and classic concepts of naval strategy. A better understanding of where today's naval discourse fits within the ideas of classical naval strategy will not only help us better understand the proposals and counter-proposals, but it will also help strategists to better evaluate and develop future thinking.
As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great de... more As the American military confronts the challenges of the twenty-first century there is a great deal of discussion of counterinsurgency, hybrid conflict, and irregular warfare. In military history none of these concepts are new. Much of the recent scholarship and writing on these forms of warfare has focused on today’s operations ashore, particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan.However, there are significant implications for naval warfare as well...
Maritime interests in the twenty-first century are not immune to the growing number of irregular ... more Maritime interests in the twenty-first century are not immune to the growing number of irregular challenges and hybrid threats that have come to dominate land warfare. In order to better understand these challenges a study of naval history can help provide a vital foundation. In the early 1830s the United States Navy dispatched the frigate USS Potomac to Sumatra to investigate a pirate attack on the spice trader Friendship. Potomac’s crew of sailors and Marines conducted a landing at the village Quallah Batoo and fought a pitched battle. As the navies of the world approach naval irregular warfare in the new century, studying past examples like Potomac’s mission can help illuminate the principles of successful naval irregular warfare.
The history of naval irregular warfare spans the American naval experience. In the War of 1812, ... more The history of naval irregular warfare spans the American naval experience. In the War of 1812, both the Americans and British participated in non-traditional operations in the brown and green waters of the world. Twenty-three hundred miles from home, a small crew of American privateers fought off nearly 400 British sailors and marines—and may have helped save New Orleans in the process.
During the War of 1812, operations that present-day naval analysts would call ‘maritime irregular... more During the War of 1812, operations that present-day naval analysts would call ‘maritime irregular warfare’ were an important part of the conflict on the Great Lakes. Cutting-Out Expeditions by both the USN and RN at Black Rock offer just two examples of an under studied element of the war.
For more than two decades William S. Sims was at the forefront of naval affairs. From the revolut... more For more than two decades William S. Sims was at the forefront of naval affairs. From the revolution in naval gunnery to his development of torpedo boat and destroyer operations, he was a central figure in preparing the U.S. Navy for World War I. During the war, he served as the senior naval commander in Europe and was instrumental in the establishment of the convoy system. Following the war his leadership as president of the Naval War College established the foundation of the creative and innovative Navy that developed the operating concepts for submarines and aircraft carriers leading up to World War II.
Despite his dramatic impact on the U.S. Navy, Sims’ books and articles are often overlooked. His lessons are especially important for a today’s military, facing budget cuts and missions in transition. This book is a collection of Adm. William Sims’ written work, and it investigates his relevance in addressing the questions facing today’s military personnel and policymakers.
Alfred Thayer Mahan’s The Influence of Seapower upon History is well known to students of naval h... more Alfred Thayer Mahan’s The Influence of Seapower upon History is well known to students of naval history and strategy, but his other writings are often dismissed as irrelevant to today’s problems. This collection of five of Mahan’s essays, along with Benjamin Armstrong’s informative introductions, illustrates why Mahan’s work remains relevant to the 21st century and how it can help develop our strategic thinking.
People misunderstand Mahan, Armstrong contends, because they have read only what others say about him, not what Mahan actually wrote. Armstrong’s analysis is derived directly from Mahan’s own writings and covers a wide selection of subjects. From the challenges of bureaucratic organization and the pitfalls of staff duty, to the development of global strategy and fleet composition, to illustrations of effective combat leadership, Armstrong demonstrates that Mahan’s ideas about the importance of seapower continue to provide today’s readers with a solid foundation to address the military and political challenges of a rapidly globalizing world.