Aaron Camp - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Aaron Camp

Journal of Neuroscience Research, 2021

Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve vestibular function potentially v... more Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve vestibular function potentially via stochastic resonance, however, it remains unknown how central vestibular nuclei process these signals. In vivo work applying electrical stimuli to the vestibular apparatus of animals has shown changes in neuronal discharge at the level of the primary vestibular afferents and hair cells. This study aimed to determine the cellular impacts of stochastic, sinusoidal, and stochastic + sinusoidal stimuli on individual medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) neurons of male and female C57BL/6 mice. All stimuli increased the irregularity of MVN neuronal discharge, while differentially affecting neuronal gain. This suggests that the heterogeneous MVN neuronal population (marked by differential expression of ion channels), may influence the impact of electrical stimuli on neuronal discharge. Neuronal subtypes showed increased variability of neuronal firing, where Type A and B neurons experienced the largest gain changes in response to stochastic and sinusoidal stimuli. Type C neurons were the least affected regarding neuronal firing variability and gain changes. The membrane potential (MP) of neurons was altered by sinusoidal and stochastic + sinusoidal stimuli, with Type B and C neuronal MP significantly affected. These results indicate that GVS-like electrical stimuli impact MVN neuronal discharge differentially, likely as a result of heterogeneous ion channel expression.

Hearing Research, 2021

The Summating Potential (SP) was first recorded in the cochlea in the 1950s and represents an obj... more The Summating Potential (SP) was first recorded in the cochlea in the 1950s and represents an objective measure of cochlear hair cell function, in vivo. Despite being a regular tool in hearing research, a similar response has not yet been recorded from the vestibular system. This is mainly due to the lack of experimental techniques available to record electrical vestibular hair cell responses in isolation from the much larger cochlear potentials. Here we demonstrate the first recordings of the vestibular SP, evoked by Bone-Conducted Vibration (BCV) and Air-Conducted Sound (ACS) stimuli, in anaesthetized guinea pigs. Field potential measurements were taken from the basal surface of the utricular macula, and from the facial nerve canal following surgical or chemical ablation of the cochlea. SPs were evoked by stimuli with frequencies above ~200 Hz, and only with moderate to high intensity (~0.005-0.05 g) BCV and ACS (~120-140 dB SPL). Neural blockade abolished the Vestibular short-latency Evoked Potential (VsEP) and Vestibular Nerve Neurophonic (VNN) from the facial nerve canal recordings but did not abolish the vestibular SP nor the vestibular microphonic. Importantly, the vestibular SP was irreversibly abolished from the utricle and facial nerve canal recordings following local gentamicin application, highlighting its hair cell origin. This is the first study to record the Summating Potential from the mammalian vestibular system, in vivo, providing a novel research tool to assess vestibular hair cell function during experimental manipulations and animal models of disease.

Journal of Visualized Experiments, 2019

Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve balance measures in individuals w... more Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve balance measures in individuals with balance or vestibular impairments. This is proposed to be due to the stochastic resonance (SR) phenomenon, which is defined as application of a low-level/subthreshold stimulus to a non-linear system to increase detection of weaker signals. However, it is still unknown how SR exhibits its positive effects on human balance. This is one of the first demonstrations of the effects of sinusoidal and stochastic noise on individual neurons. Using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology, sinusoidal and stochastic noise can be applied directly to individual neurons in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) of C57BL/6 mice. Here we demonstrate how to determine the threshold of MVN neurons in order to ensure the sinusoidal and stochastic stimuli are subthreshold and from this, determine the effects that each type of noise has on MVN neuronal gain. We show that subthreshold sinusoidal and stochastic noise can modulate the sensitivity of individual neurons in the MVN without affecting basal firing rates.

Frontiers in neural circuits, 2015

It has long been known that the vast majority of all information en route to the cerebral cortex ... more It has long been known that the vast majority of all information en route to the cerebral cortex must first pass through the thalamus. The long held view that the thalamus serves as a simple hi fidelity relay station for sensory information to the cortex, however, has over recent years been dispelled. Indeed, multiple projections from the vestibular nuclei to thalamic nuclei (including the ventrobasal nuclei, and the geniculate bodies)- regions typically associated with other modalities- have been described. Further, some thalamic neurons have been shown to respond to stimuli presented from across sensory modalities. For example, neurons in the rat anterodorsal and laterodorsal nuclei of the thalamus respond to visual, vestibular, proprioceptive and somatosensory stimuli and integrate this information to compute heading within the environment. Together, these findings imply that the thalamus serves crucial integrative functions, at least in regard to vestibular processing, beyond th...

The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology, 2009

Calretinin is a member of the calcium-binding protein EF-hand family first identified in the reti... more Calretinin is a member of the calcium-binding protein EF-hand family first identified in the retina. As with the other 200-plus calcium-binding proteins, calretinin serves a range of cellular functions including intracellular calcium buffering, messenger targeting, and is involved in processes such as cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Calcium-binding proteins including calretinin are expressed differentially in neuronal subpopulations throughout the vertebrate and invertebrate nervous system and their expression has been used to selectively target specific cell types and isolate neuronal networks. More recent experiments have revealed that calretinin plays a crucial role in the modulation of intrinsic neuronal excitability and the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP). Furthermore, selective knockout of calretinin in mice produces disturbances of motor coordination and suggests a putative role for calretinin in the maintenance of calcium dynamics underlying motor adaptation.

BioMolecular Concepts, 2011

The output of a single neuron depends on both synaptic connectivity and intrinsic membrane proper... more The output of a single neuron depends on both synaptic connectivity and intrinsic membrane properties. Changes in both synaptic and intrinsic membrane properties have been observed during homeostatic processes (e.g., vestibular compensation) as well as in several central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Although changes in synaptic properties have been extensively studied, particularly with regard to learning and memory, the contribution of intrinsic membrane properties to either physiological or pathological processes is much less clear. Recent research, however, has shown that alterations in the number, location or properties of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels can underlie both normal and abnormal physiology, and that these changes arise via a diverse suite of molecular substrates. The literature reviewed here shows that changes in intrinsic neuronal excitability (presumably in concert with synaptic plasticity) can fundamentally modify the output of neurons, and that these m...

Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 2010

The role of vitamin D in the immune system is complex. Vitamin D is produced in the skin followin... more The role of vitamin D in the immune system is complex. Vitamin D is produced in the skin following exposure to ultraviolet radiation. There is compelling evidence that vitamin D compounds protect against ultraviolet radiation-induced DNA damage and immune suppression, suggesting it may be beneficial as a skin cancer preventive agent. However, vitamin D has many modulatory effects on the immune system and it has in fact been suggested that the immune suppression generally attributed to the UVB portion of sunlight is mediated through vitamin D. Here we describe the role of vitamin D compounds as "defence" molecules against UVR-induced damage, and investigate both sides of the "fence" regarding the effects of vitamin D compounds and the immune system.

Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2005

Most information on the properties of mammalian vestibular primary afferents has been obtained in... more Most information on the properties of mammalian vestibular primary afferents has been obtained in deeply anesthetized animals, in vivo. Generally, non-human primates and larger rodents have been the species of choice. Investigations using smaller rodents, such as the laboratory mouse, have been limited despite the increasing availability of naturally occurring or engineered mutants that result in balance disorders. Furthermore, in vitro preparations of the intact peripheral vestibular apparatus are only available for non-mammalian vertebrates. To take advantage of the genetic/molecular advances available in mice and the utility of in vitro preparations that permit manipulations of the extracellular milieu, we developed an isolated mouse inner ear preparation with the attached eighth cranial nerve for electrophysiological recording. Intra-axonal recordings of background activity in vestibular primary afferents were obtained in a modified Ringer's solution (0.25 mM Ca2+; 3.25 mM Mg2+) at 22 degrees C. We also recorded afferent activity in the presence of neuroactive drugs known to affect various stages of the transduction cascade. These results, together with responses to sinusoidal mechanical deformation of the membranous ducts, showed that transduction mechanisms remain viable. Where possible, we also obtained results in vivo for comparison. In future, the in vitro mouse preparation will allow investigation of the effects of genetic manipulations and pharmacological agents on the intact peripheral vestibular apparatus.

Journal of Neurophysiology, 2006

Fast inhibitory synaptic transmission in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) is mediated by GABAA... more Fast inhibitory synaptic transmission in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) is mediated by GABAA receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs). To assess their relative contribution to inhibition in the MVN, we recorded miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in physiologically characterized type A and type B MVN neurons. Transverse brain stem slices were prepared from mice (3–8 wk old), and whole cell patch-clamp recordings were obtained from visualized MVN neurons (CsCl internal; Vm = –70 mV; 23°C). In 81 MVN neurons, 69% received exclusively GABAAergic inputs, 6% exclusively glycinergic inputs, and 25% received both types of mIPSCs. The mean amplitude of GABAAR-mediated mIPSCs was smaller than those mediated by GlyRs (22.6 ± 1.8 vs. 35.3 ± 5.3 pA). The rise time and decay time constants of GABAAR- versus GlyR-mediated mIPSCs were slower (1.3 ± 0.1 vs. 0.9 ± 0.1 ms and 10.5 ± 0.3 vs. 4.7 ± 0.3 ms, respectively). Comparison of type A ( n = 20) and type B ( n = 32) ...

Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology

Systematic Reviews

Background Vestibular compensation is a homeostatic process that occurs in the central nervous sy... more Background Vestibular compensation is a homeostatic process that occurs in the central nervous system in response to peripheral vestibular dysfunction. Experimental studies in rodent models have suggested that unilateral peripheral vestibular lesions are correlated with an increase in the intrinsic excitability of central vestibular neurons. This process may be dependent on the intrinsic properties of the neurons themselves. We aimed to conduct a systematic review of the literature to survey the evidence for changes in intrinsic plasticity observed during the acute phase of vestibular compensation. Methods We systematically reviewed the literature regarding the electrophysiological effect of experimentally induced unilateral vestibular deafferentation (UVD) on the intrinsic membrane properties of medial vestibular nucleus neurons in animal models. We developed tools to assess the methodological quality (precision, validity and bias) of studies that met pre-determined inclusion and e...

PLOS ONE

Despite considerable research, it remains controversial as to whether viral-infections are associ... more Despite considerable research, it remains controversial as to whether viral-infections are associated with Meniere's Disease (MD), a clinically heterogeneous set of chronic inner-ear disorders strongly associated with endolymphatic hydrops. Here, we investigated whether viral-infections are associated with MD through a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational clinical studies using molecular-diagnostics. Eligible for inclusion were case-PLOS ONE |

PLOS ONE

The images for Figs 3 and 4 are incorrectly switched. The image that appears as Fig 3 should be F... more The images for Figs 3 and 4 are incorrectly switched. The image that appears as Fig 3 should be Fig 4, and the image that appears as Fig 4 should be Fig 3. The figure captions appear in the correct order.

Frontiers in Neurology

Vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) provide a simple and cost-effective means to assess... more Vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) provide a simple and cost-effective means to assess the patency of vestibular reflexes. VEMP testing constitutes a core screening method in a clinical battery that probes vestibular function. The confidence one has in interpreting the results arising from VEMP testing is linked to a fundamental understanding of the underlying functional anatomy and physiology. In this review, we will summarize the key role that studies across a range of animal models have fulfilled in contributing to this understanding, covering key findings regarding the mechanisms of excitation in the sensory periphery, the processing of sensory information in central networks, and the distribution of reflexive output to the motor periphery. Although VEMPs are often touted for their simplicity, work in animals models have emphasized how vestibular reflexes operate within a broader behavioral and functional context, and as such vestibular reflexes are influenced by multisensory integration, governed by task demands, and follow principles of muscle recruitment. We will conclude with considerations of future questions, and the ways in which studies in current and emerging animal models can contribute to further use and refinement of this test for both basic and clinical research purposes.

European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology

Journal of Neuroscience Research, 2021

Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve vestibular function potentially v... more Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve vestibular function potentially via stochastic resonance, however, it remains unknown how central vestibular nuclei process these signals. In vivo work applying electrical stimuli to the vestibular apparatus of animals has shown changes in neuronal discharge at the level of the primary vestibular afferents and hair cells. This study aimed to determine the cellular impacts of stochastic, sinusoidal, and stochastic + sinusoidal stimuli on individual medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) neurons of male and female C57BL/6 mice. All stimuli increased the irregularity of MVN neuronal discharge, while differentially affecting neuronal gain. This suggests that the heterogeneous MVN neuronal population (marked by differential expression of ion channels), may influence the impact of electrical stimuli on neuronal discharge. Neuronal subtypes showed increased variability of neuronal firing, where Type A and B neurons experienced the largest gain changes in response to stochastic and sinusoidal stimuli. Type C neurons were the least affected regarding neuronal firing variability and gain changes. The membrane potential (MP) of neurons was altered by sinusoidal and stochastic + sinusoidal stimuli, with Type B and C neuronal MP significantly affected. These results indicate that GVS-like electrical stimuli impact MVN neuronal discharge differentially, likely as a result of heterogeneous ion channel expression.

Hearing Research, 2021

The Summating Potential (SP) was first recorded in the cochlea in the 1950s and represents an obj... more The Summating Potential (SP) was first recorded in the cochlea in the 1950s and represents an objective measure of cochlear hair cell function, in vivo. Despite being a regular tool in hearing research, a similar response has not yet been recorded from the vestibular system. This is mainly due to the lack of experimental techniques available to record electrical vestibular hair cell responses in isolation from the much larger cochlear potentials. Here we demonstrate the first recordings of the vestibular SP, evoked by Bone-Conducted Vibration (BCV) and Air-Conducted Sound (ACS) stimuli, in anaesthetized guinea pigs. Field potential measurements were taken from the basal surface of the utricular macula, and from the facial nerve canal following surgical or chemical ablation of the cochlea. SPs were evoked by stimuli with frequencies above ~200 Hz, and only with moderate to high intensity (~0.005-0.05 g) BCV and ACS (~120-140 dB SPL). Neural blockade abolished the Vestibular short-latency Evoked Potential (VsEP) and Vestibular Nerve Neurophonic (VNN) from the facial nerve canal recordings but did not abolish the vestibular SP nor the vestibular microphonic. Importantly, the vestibular SP was irreversibly abolished from the utricle and facial nerve canal recordings following local gentamicin application, highlighting its hair cell origin. This is the first study to record the Summating Potential from the mammalian vestibular system, in vivo, providing a novel research tool to assess vestibular hair cell function during experimental manipulations and animal models of disease.

Journal of Visualized Experiments, 2019

Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve balance measures in individuals w... more Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been shown to improve balance measures in individuals with balance or vestibular impairments. This is proposed to be due to the stochastic resonance (SR) phenomenon, which is defined as application of a low-level/subthreshold stimulus to a non-linear system to increase detection of weaker signals. However, it is still unknown how SR exhibits its positive effects on human balance. This is one of the first demonstrations of the effects of sinusoidal and stochastic noise on individual neurons. Using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology, sinusoidal and stochastic noise can be applied directly to individual neurons in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) of C57BL/6 mice. Here we demonstrate how to determine the threshold of MVN neurons in order to ensure the sinusoidal and stochastic stimuli are subthreshold and from this, determine the effects that each type of noise has on MVN neuronal gain. We show that subthreshold sinusoidal and stochastic noise can modulate the sensitivity of individual neurons in the MVN without affecting basal firing rates.

Frontiers in neural circuits, 2015

It has long been known that the vast majority of all information en route to the cerebral cortex ... more It has long been known that the vast majority of all information en route to the cerebral cortex must first pass through the thalamus. The long held view that the thalamus serves as a simple hi fidelity relay station for sensory information to the cortex, however, has over recent years been dispelled. Indeed, multiple projections from the vestibular nuclei to thalamic nuclei (including the ventrobasal nuclei, and the geniculate bodies)- regions typically associated with other modalities- have been described. Further, some thalamic neurons have been shown to respond to stimuli presented from across sensory modalities. For example, neurons in the rat anterodorsal and laterodorsal nuclei of the thalamus respond to visual, vestibular, proprioceptive and somatosensory stimuli and integrate this information to compute heading within the environment. Together, these findings imply that the thalamus serves crucial integrative functions, at least in regard to vestibular processing, beyond th...

The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology, 2009

Calretinin is a member of the calcium-binding protein EF-hand family first identified in the reti... more Calretinin is a member of the calcium-binding protein EF-hand family first identified in the retina. As with the other 200-plus calcium-binding proteins, calretinin serves a range of cellular functions including intracellular calcium buffering, messenger targeting, and is involved in processes such as cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Calcium-binding proteins including calretinin are expressed differentially in neuronal subpopulations throughout the vertebrate and invertebrate nervous system and their expression has been used to selectively target specific cell types and isolate neuronal networks. More recent experiments have revealed that calretinin plays a crucial role in the modulation of intrinsic neuronal excitability and the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP). Furthermore, selective knockout of calretinin in mice produces disturbances of motor coordination and suggests a putative role for calretinin in the maintenance of calcium dynamics underlying motor adaptation.

BioMolecular Concepts, 2011

The output of a single neuron depends on both synaptic connectivity and intrinsic membrane proper... more The output of a single neuron depends on both synaptic connectivity and intrinsic membrane properties. Changes in both synaptic and intrinsic membrane properties have been observed during homeostatic processes (e.g., vestibular compensation) as well as in several central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Although changes in synaptic properties have been extensively studied, particularly with regard to learning and memory, the contribution of intrinsic membrane properties to either physiological or pathological processes is much less clear. Recent research, however, has shown that alterations in the number, location or properties of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels can underlie both normal and abnormal physiology, and that these changes arise via a diverse suite of molecular substrates. The literature reviewed here shows that changes in intrinsic neuronal excitability (presumably in concert with synaptic plasticity) can fundamentally modify the output of neurons, and that these m...

Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 2010

The role of vitamin D in the immune system is complex. Vitamin D is produced in the skin followin... more The role of vitamin D in the immune system is complex. Vitamin D is produced in the skin following exposure to ultraviolet radiation. There is compelling evidence that vitamin D compounds protect against ultraviolet radiation-induced DNA damage and immune suppression, suggesting it may be beneficial as a skin cancer preventive agent. However, vitamin D has many modulatory effects on the immune system and it has in fact been suggested that the immune suppression generally attributed to the UVB portion of sunlight is mediated through vitamin D. Here we describe the role of vitamin D compounds as "defence" molecules against UVR-induced damage, and investigate both sides of the "fence" regarding the effects of vitamin D compounds and the immune system.

Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2005

Most information on the properties of mammalian vestibular primary afferents has been obtained in... more Most information on the properties of mammalian vestibular primary afferents has been obtained in deeply anesthetized animals, in vivo. Generally, non-human primates and larger rodents have been the species of choice. Investigations using smaller rodents, such as the laboratory mouse, have been limited despite the increasing availability of naturally occurring or engineered mutants that result in balance disorders. Furthermore, in vitro preparations of the intact peripheral vestibular apparatus are only available for non-mammalian vertebrates. To take advantage of the genetic/molecular advances available in mice and the utility of in vitro preparations that permit manipulations of the extracellular milieu, we developed an isolated mouse inner ear preparation with the attached eighth cranial nerve for electrophysiological recording. Intra-axonal recordings of background activity in vestibular primary afferents were obtained in a modified Ringer's solution (0.25 mM Ca2+; 3.25 mM Mg2+) at 22 degrees C. We also recorded afferent activity in the presence of neuroactive drugs known to affect various stages of the transduction cascade. These results, together with responses to sinusoidal mechanical deformation of the membranous ducts, showed that transduction mechanisms remain viable. Where possible, we also obtained results in vivo for comparison. In future, the in vitro mouse preparation will allow investigation of the effects of genetic manipulations and pharmacological agents on the intact peripheral vestibular apparatus.

Journal of Neurophysiology, 2006

Fast inhibitory synaptic transmission in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) is mediated by GABAA... more Fast inhibitory synaptic transmission in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) is mediated by GABAA receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs). To assess their relative contribution to inhibition in the MVN, we recorded miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in physiologically characterized type A and type B MVN neurons. Transverse brain stem slices were prepared from mice (3–8 wk old), and whole cell patch-clamp recordings were obtained from visualized MVN neurons (CsCl internal; Vm = –70 mV; 23°C). In 81 MVN neurons, 69% received exclusively GABAAergic inputs, 6% exclusively glycinergic inputs, and 25% received both types of mIPSCs. The mean amplitude of GABAAR-mediated mIPSCs was smaller than those mediated by GlyRs (22.6 ± 1.8 vs. 35.3 ± 5.3 pA). The rise time and decay time constants of GABAAR- versus GlyR-mediated mIPSCs were slower (1.3 ± 0.1 vs. 0.9 ± 0.1 ms and 10.5 ± 0.3 vs. 4.7 ± 0.3 ms, respectively). Comparison of type A ( n = 20) and type B ( n = 32) ...

Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology

Systematic Reviews

Background Vestibular compensation is a homeostatic process that occurs in the central nervous sy... more Background Vestibular compensation is a homeostatic process that occurs in the central nervous system in response to peripheral vestibular dysfunction. Experimental studies in rodent models have suggested that unilateral peripheral vestibular lesions are correlated with an increase in the intrinsic excitability of central vestibular neurons. This process may be dependent on the intrinsic properties of the neurons themselves. We aimed to conduct a systematic review of the literature to survey the evidence for changes in intrinsic plasticity observed during the acute phase of vestibular compensation. Methods We systematically reviewed the literature regarding the electrophysiological effect of experimentally induced unilateral vestibular deafferentation (UVD) on the intrinsic membrane properties of medial vestibular nucleus neurons in animal models. We developed tools to assess the methodological quality (precision, validity and bias) of studies that met pre-determined inclusion and e...

PLOS ONE

Despite considerable research, it remains controversial as to whether viral-infections are associ... more Despite considerable research, it remains controversial as to whether viral-infections are associated with Meniere's Disease (MD), a clinically heterogeneous set of chronic inner-ear disorders strongly associated with endolymphatic hydrops. Here, we investigated whether viral-infections are associated with MD through a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational clinical studies using molecular-diagnostics. Eligible for inclusion were case-PLOS ONE |

PLOS ONE

The images for Figs 3 and 4 are incorrectly switched. The image that appears as Fig 3 should be F... more The images for Figs 3 and 4 are incorrectly switched. The image that appears as Fig 3 should be Fig 4, and the image that appears as Fig 4 should be Fig 3. The figure captions appear in the correct order.

Frontiers in Neurology

Vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) provide a simple and cost-effective means to assess... more Vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials (VEMPs) provide a simple and cost-effective means to assess the patency of vestibular reflexes. VEMP testing constitutes a core screening method in a clinical battery that probes vestibular function. The confidence one has in interpreting the results arising from VEMP testing is linked to a fundamental understanding of the underlying functional anatomy and physiology. In this review, we will summarize the key role that studies across a range of animal models have fulfilled in contributing to this understanding, covering key findings regarding the mechanisms of excitation in the sensory periphery, the processing of sensory information in central networks, and the distribution of reflexive output to the motor periphery. Although VEMPs are often touted for their simplicity, work in animals models have emphasized how vestibular reflexes operate within a broader behavioral and functional context, and as such vestibular reflexes are influenced by multisensory integration, governed by task demands, and follow principles of muscle recruitment. We will conclude with considerations of future questions, and the ways in which studies in current and emerging animal models can contribute to further use and refinement of this test for both basic and clinical research purposes.

European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology