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Books by Alissa Whitmore

Un-Roman Sex explores how gender and sex were perceived and represented outside the Mediterranean... more Un-Roman Sex explores how gender and sex were perceived and represented outside the Mediterranean core of the Roman Empire.

The volume critically explores the gender constructs and sexual behaviours in the provinces and frontiers in light of recent studies of Roman erotic experience and flux gender identities. At its core, it challenges the unproblematised extension of the traditional Romano-Hellenistic model to the provinces and frontiers. Did sexual relations and gender identities undergo processes of "provincialisation" or "barbarisation" similar to other well-known aspects of cultural negotiation and syncretism in provincial and border regions, for example in art and religion? The 11 chapters that make up the volume explore these issues from a variety of angles, providing a balanced and rounded view through use of literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence. Accordingly, the contributions represent new and emerging ideas on the subject of sex, gender, and sexuality in the Roman provinces.

As such, Un-Roman Sex will be of interest to higher-level undergraduates and graduates/academics studying the Roman empire, gender, and sexuality in the ancient world and at the Roman frontiers.

Oxbow, 2016

Small finds – the stuff of everyday life – offer archaeologists a fascinating glimpse into the ma... more Small finds – the stuff of everyday life – offer archaeologists a fascinating glimpse into the material lives of the ancient Romans. These objects hold great promise for unravelling the ins and outs of daily life, especially for the social groups, activities, and regions for which few written sources exist. Focusing on amulets, brooches, socks, hobnails, figurines, needles, and other “mundane” artefacts, these 12 papers use small finds to reconstruct social lives and practices in the Roman Northwest provinces. Taking social life broadly, the various contributions offer insights into the everyday use of objects to express social identities, Roman religious practices in the provinces, and life in military communities. By integrating small finds from the Northwest provinces with material, iconographic, and textual evidence from the whole Roman empire, contributors seek to demystify Roman magic and Mithraic religion, discover the latest trends in ancient fashion (socks with sandals!), explore Roman interactions with Neolithic monuments, and explain unusual finds in unexpected places. Throughout, the authors strive to maintain a critical awareness of archaeological contexts and site formation processes to offer interpretations of past peoples and behaviours that most likely reflect the lived reality of the Romans. While the range of topics in this volume gives it wide appeal, scholars working with small finds, religion, dress, and life in the Northwest provinces will find it especially of interest. Small Finds and Ancient Social Practices grew out of a session at the 2014 Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference.

http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/small-finds-and-ancient-social-practices-in-the-northwest-provinces-of-the-roman-empire.html

Book Chapters by Alissa Whitmore

Un-Roman Sex: Gender, Sexuality, and Lovemaking in the Roman Provinces and Frontiers, Tatiana Ivleva and Rob Collins (eds.), pp. 310-345. Routledge., 2020

An understudied subset of phallic small finds are pendants made of Egyptian faience and visually ... more An understudied subset of phallic small finds are pendants made of Egyptian faience and visually similar materials which depict the male pelvis with visibly flaccid genitalia. This paper brings together 43 flaccid phallus pendants from 22 archaeological sites, primarily dating from the 1st c BC – 3rd c AD. While these pendants are often associated with the Mediterranean, they are frequently recovered archaeologically in the Near East, around the Black Sea, and even in Central Asia, sometimes in the burials of adults and women. Though flaccid male genitalia pendants may lack the apotropaic erections found on other phallic amulets and imagery, these objects may have protected wearers through their perceived ties with Phoenician and Egyptian cultures and their use in conjunction with other apotropaic amulets on necklaces and pendant strings (crepundia).

Thermae in Context - The Roman Bath in Town and in Life, edited by Heike Pösche, pp. 57-77. Archaeologia Mosellana 10. Luxembourg: Centrale National de Recherche Archéologique., 2018

This chapter examines social life in 13 Roman public and military bathhouses, primarily from the ... more This chapter examines social life in 13 Roman public and military bathhouses, primarily from the UK and Italy, by analyzing their artefact assemblages alongside evidence from ancient texts and art. The impact of site formation and taphonomic processes on bathhouse artefacts and their interpretation, as well as the difficulty in examining gender segregation in baths using small finds, is also discussed.

Material Approaches to Roman Magic: Occult Objects and Supernatural Substances, ed. Adam Parker & Stuart Mckie, p. 17-31. Oxbow, 2018

This paper examines Roman phallic pendants as magical objects that people wore or used to achiev... more This paper examines Roman phallic pendants as magical objects that people wore or used to achieve an individual benefit, and endeavors to reach a fuller understanding of who used them, how the magic worked, and which functions and abilities these objects had. Since only a few ancient texts indirectly reference phallic amulets, I incorporate interpretations of wider phallic iconography, information from burial contexts, and offer a detailed comparison between ancient Roman and modern Thai phallic pendants. In looking at Thai amulets, I focus on the same questions as in the Roman world – who uses these objects, for which purposes, and how do they work – and since Thai examples are still used today, it is possible to offer nuanced answers. I use this understanding of Thai amulets to generate questions about Roman pendant use, which are then evaluated for plausibility using evidence from ancient texts, burials, and iconography. This line of inquiry reveals that phallic pendants, which are relatively rare in both cultures, share a primary function of protecting children, but Roman and Thai amulets are magically empowered and used in different ways, which relate to the differing dangers against which these objects protect. The Thai comparison also allows for a more critical appraisal of the possible fertility aspects of Roman phallic amulets and their occasional association with adult men and women.

What Shall I Say of Clothes? Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to the Study of Dress in Antiquity, ed. M. Cifarelli & L. Gawlinski, p. 47-66. Archaeological Institute of America, 2017

Fascina, or phallic pendants, represent a diverse and intriguing corner of Roman small-finds stud... more Fascina, or phallic pendants, represent a diverse and intriguing corner of Roman small-finds studies. These objects depict the human penis—often with testes and pubic hair, and sometimes in combination with other good-luck symbols—and ancient texts suggest they were used by children and men as apotropaic devices against the evil eye. This article brings together ancient texts, mortuary assemblages, artifact analysis, and experimental archaeology to examine who used these pendants, how they were worn, and the implications for object function. Phallic pendants are most frequently interred with children, and associated metal and leather finds suggest that some were suspended from the body. Among these pendants are representations of both flaccid and erect penises, with some of the latter having erections that would have projected three-dimensionally from the wearer. Experiments with one of these ithyphallic pendants demonstrate that these phalli can be highly mobile while staying erect, characteristics that likely increased the protective capabilities of these pendants.

Hoss, S. & Whitmore, A. (eds), 2016: Small Finds and Ancient Social Practices in the Northwest Provinces of the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1-6.

Paperback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-256-3 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-257-0 (epub) A CIP re... more Paperback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-256-3 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-257-0 (epub) A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing.

Small Finds and Ancient Social Practices in the Northwest Provinces, ed. S. Hoss & A. Whitmore, p. 128-145. Oxbow, 2016

The recovery of needles, spindle whorls, loom weights and other cloth working instruments from Ro... more The recovery of needles, spindle whorls, loom weights and other cloth working instruments from Roman public and military bathhouses raises the question of whether sewing, spinning and weaving – activities otherwise unattested in the baths – took place in these spaces. This paper evaluates the possibility of cloth working in Roman bathhouses by examining site formation processes, focusing on drains as the most probable context for artefacts related to the normal use of the baths. A review of the alternative functions and possible owners of textile implements discovered in bathhouse drains suggests that while these activities were uncommon, sewing and spinning occurred in a few baths and these needles, spindle whorls and related objects likely offer physical evidence for the activities of lower class bathers and bathhouse attendants.

Conference Presentations by Alissa Whitmore

Roman phallic pendants are strongly associated with apotropaic protection in ancient texts, speci... more Roman phallic pendants are strongly associated with apotropaic protection in ancient texts, specifically for vulnerable children (Varro, De Ling. 7.79; Johns 1982). The diverse archaeological contexts of these artifacts, which include virtually all time periods of Roman occupation, and their association with male soldiers and Romano-British military forts (Crummy 1983; Philpott 1991; Plouviez 2005), seems to suggest, however, that these objects were not just for children. Given other Roman uses of phalli as comedic, aggressive, or fertility symbols, I argue that phallic pendants had similarly diverse functions for ancient Romans, which could be separate from, or entwined with, apotropaism.

This paper examines how the function and meaning of these pendants likely varied with the social identities of wearers (adult/child, civilian/solider, male/female). Given the presence of additional phallic imagery – armor mounts – in military contexts (Crummy 1983; Bishop 1988; Johns and Wise 2003), I pay special attention to the use of these pendants by adult Roman men, for whom the wearing of a phallus would include additional meanings of sexuality, virility, power, and force that would likely have been absent for child wearers. Typological studies and use wear data shed light on how the pendants were worn and appeared on the body, revealing that only some phallic pendants would appear erect, which may have implications for their presumed apotropaic functions. These pendants also offer a window onto Roman gender ideology, as men, children, and women used and wore depictions of only one sex’s genitalia (with few exceptions) for magical protection, fertility, and power.

In addition to a close study of Roman phallic pendants and their archaeological contexts, my research incorporates anthropological theory and cross-cultural examples from other cultures with phallic objects (i.e. Phoenician, Greek, Thai, Moche) to reflect upon the possible uses, meanings, and significance that these pendants had for different members of Roman society.

Roman phallic pendants (fascina) are frequently classified as apotropaic amulets which offer prot... more Roman phallic pendants (fascina) are frequently classified as apotropaic amulets which offer protection or good luck (Johns 1982). While Roman authors associate these amulets with children (cf. Varro, De Ling. 7.79), these pendants have been recovered in archaeological contexts ranging from Pompeian public baths, Romano-British military forts, and geographically widespread burials of men and children (Philpott 1991; Johns and Wise 2003; Plouviez 2005). The proveniences of these finds, and other Roman uses of phalli as comedic, aggressive, or fertility symbols, suggest that phallic pendants may have had numerous functions for ancient Romans, which at times were separate from, or entwined with, apotropaism.

This paper has two main goals. First, I examine how the function and meaning of these pendants varied with the social identities of wearers (adult/child, civilian/solider, male/female). Secondly, I use these pendants as a window onto Roman gender ideology; specifically, how did men, women, and children differentially navigate a society in which only one sex’s genitalia (with a few exceptions) had magical, protective powers (cf. Monserrat 2000).

My approach brings together several datasets and theoretical approaches. I analyze Roman texts for the social contexts (wearer, situation, author’s purpose) of pendants and other phallic objects (vessels, breads, etc.). Next, I catalogue the archaeological contexts in which phallic pendants were recovered, with an emphasis on associated sites, buildings, and individuals. Lastly, I use anthropological and psychological theory (cf. Carroll 1984) to compare Roman use of phallic pendants and imagery with similar examples in other past and present cultures, surveying both Mediterranean (Greek, Italian-Etruscan, modern Italian) and global (Moche, Japanese) practices. Together, these sources illustrate the varied meanings of phallic imagery and the social impacts of living amongst a “cult of the phallus” (cf. Keuls 1993).

116th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America January 8-11, 2015 New Orleans, ... more 116th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America
January 8-11, 2015 New Orleans, Louisiana

Colloquium Session: Social Life in Public Baths in the Ancient Mediterranean and Beyond
Organizer: Alissa Whitmore (University of Iowa, alissa.whitmore@gmail.com)

While scholarship on Roman public baths has been popular for some time, sustained dialogue between specialists of different regions has often been limited. Scholars of urban public baths typically have only passing familiarity with military bathhouses, and researchers focusing on Romano-British baths often have limited acquaintance with those in the eastern provinces. Given the vastness of the Empire, no scholar can attain expertise in all facets of ancient bathing, but the lack of integration in bathing scholarship can prevent researchers from becoming familiar with other cultures, approaches, and datasets. Furthermore, this isolation limits our knowledge of similarities, differences, and temporal changes in public bathing culture in and around the Mediterranean.

To acknowledge and address this issue, this colloquium offers an inclusive and diachronic study of social life in ancient public baths. Session papers, integrating a variety of approaches and datasets, focus on bathing culture in different time periods, regions, and societies. Adrienne Hagen (Violence and Vulnerability) incorporates ancient literature, inscriptions, and iconography to reveal the higher risk of violence that women, children, and slaves faced in Roman baths. Maryl Gensheimer (Decoration and Discourses) analyzes free standing and architectural sculpture to evaluate the different experiences of elite and subaltern bathers in the Baths of Caracalla. Alissa Whitmore (Bathing on the Edge) uses small finds and architectural layouts to investigate the activities and social identities of bathers in Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military baths. Robert Darby (Drawn to the Baths) evaluates graffiti and inscriptions found in the Near Eastern 'Ayn Gharandal fort and military baths to illuminate the significance of bathing for ancient soldiers. Stefanie Hoss (The Influence of Christianity) integrates ancient texts and architectural spaces to examine the impact of religion on changing bathhouse layouts in Late Antiquity. Fikret Yegül concludes the session with a discussion of these topics and papers.

With its range of approaches, regions, and time periods, this colloquium represents a step toward a more integrated study of ancient bathing. Each paper situates public baths in their larger cultural contexts, revealing similarities and differences between bathing cultures and underlining the interplay of baths, social organization, power, and belief systems. Several papers, as well as the diachronic (1st – 7th c. C.E.) nature of the colloquium, provide insights into temporal and cultural changes in ancient bathing culture. Others offer a more comprehensive understanding of the social experiences of lower class bathers and life in military baths. Together, these papers illustrate diverse approaches which can shed light on ancient social life and the utility of a more unified study of public bathing.

Presenters and Papers
Adrienne Hagen (University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA) – Violence and Vulnerability in the Roman Baths
Maryl B. Gensheimer (University of Maryland, USA) – Decoration and Discourses on Social Status within the Baths of Caracalla
Alissa M. Whitmore (University of Iowa, USA) – Bathing on the Edge: Roman Military and Vicus Baths in the Northwest Provinces
Robert Darby (University of Tennessee, USA) – Drawn to the Baths: Daily Life and Desert Leisure in the Cohors II Galatarum.
Stefanie Hoss (University of Cologne, Germany) – The Influence of Christianity on the Culture of Bathing and Bathhouse Design.
Discussant: Fikret Yegül (University of California, Santa Barbara, USA)

While a variety of ancient sources describe social life in public baths in and around Rome, far l... more While a variety of ancient sources describe social life in public baths in and around Rome, far less is known of the inner workings of provincial military bathhouses. These baths, built by and presumably for the Roman army, are ubiquitous within military forts and the vicus communities surrounding them. Given the close ties between forts and vici, and recent scholarship suggesting an increased presence of civilians within military forts, we must ask who bathed in these military baths. Were leisure activities, so prominent in Italic baths (Sen. Ep. 56), available for soldiers? What, if any, differences exist in bathhouse social life between legionary baths, located within forts, and the vicus or auxiliary baths located outside fortress walls? While Rome and cities in Italy had ethnic diversity as well, is it possible to detect any variations in bathing culture which could be attributed to the larger proportion of local peoples, from the army or vicus, who were bathing in these provincial military baths?

To address these questions, this paper focuses upon the material culture and architectural layouts of Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military and vicus baths. Most of our information on the social environment of military baths comes from the abundant artifact assemblage recovered from the Caerleon Legionary fortress baths. I place the Caerleon finds in context with material culture recovered from nine other baths in Britannia and Raetia, dating from the 1st – 4th c. C.E., in order to obtain a wider picture of military bathing culture. In addition to locating similarities between assemblages, which suggest that a given bathing population or activity was not an isolated occurrence, I also highlight differences which appear between legionary and vicus baths and between Romano-British and Gallo-Roman baths. Following the approach of DeLaine (1999) and Revell (2007), I also analyze the architectural layouts of military baths, seeking to isolate spaces that would have promoted socialization and examining variations in the use of space between legionary and vicus military baths.

While studies of small finds have provided confirmation and elaboration of the bustling social en... more While studies of small finds have provided confirmation and elaboration of the bustling social environments of Roman public baths, these growing artefact assemblages also suggest that the baths held an important economic function as retail spaces for everyday Romans.

In this paper, I analyse textual and archaeological evidence for commerce in public baths in Italy and the Northwest provinces. Texts, graffiti, broken vessels, and animal bones provide evidence for the various wares of bathhouse vendors, and other artefacts, including needles, scalpels, and crucibles, suggest that a wide range of services were available in the baths. Small finds from the shops of Pompeii’s Stabian baths provide a case study for examining the relationship between public baths and nearby shops and the degree to which the proximity of baths affects a shop’s merchandise and target clientele. This integration of commercial activities into public baths highlights the truly multi-functional nature of Roman spaces.

The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies' biennial conference will be taking place at the U... more The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies' biennial conference will be taking place at the University of Reading. There will be a reception and keynote welcoming lecture on the Thursday evening, followed by two-and-a-half days of parallel sessions, ending on the Sunday afternoon with an optional excursion to Silchester Roman Town. This year the conference is joined by TRAC, the Study Group for Roman Pottery and the Roman Small Finds Study Group.

Ancient authors and bathhouse graffiti and art paint a vivid picture of life in Roman public bath... more Ancient authors and bathhouse graffiti and art paint a vivid picture of life in Roman public baths, but these sources, limited by the interests and bias of their creators, provide an incomplete understanding of this important social space. Artifacts found within bathing spaces offer evidence for additional activities which are absent from other sources, but this dataset is also restricted by ancient behaviors, archaeological preservation, and taphonomic processes. As a result, it is necessary to incorporate and compare all these sources to acquire the most accurate and complete understanding of ancient activities and behaviors in Roman public baths.

I begin this paper by analyzing ancient texts, graffiti, and art for activities and related material culture which these sources locate in public baths. Next I turn to the archaeological record, focusing on artifacts from 14 baths from Italy, the UK, Portugal, Switzerland, and Germany, ranging in date from the second century B.C.E. to the fourth century C.E. In an effort to isolate objects which were most likely used while the baths were open, I concentrate on small finds from rapidly abandoned baths, such as those in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and those found in bathhouse drains.

By identifying the most commonly recovered artifacts, it is possible to obtain a “typical” bathhouse finds assemblage, which reveals the activities, including eating and drinking, adornment, and bathing and grooming, most often represented in the archaeological record of baths. Other less common, but in no way isolated, finds and activities also appear, such as cloth-working, warding away evil spirits, and medical procedures. Just as there are some behaviors only demonstrated by small finds, it is obvious that some artifacts and activities expected from ancient sources rarely appear in the archaeological record. While some of these absences can be attributed to taphonomic processes and the caprices of the archaeological record, others may provide further evidence for ancient behaviors, such as recycling of broken materials, regular cleaning of the baths, and transport of metal bathing instruments from home. It is only by joining these rich, but flawed, datasets that we can uncover a more thorough understanding not only of Roman bathing culture, but also the ancient behaviors and archaeological processes affecting the objects discovered in Roman public baths.

While ancient texts provide information on Roman bathing practices, as well as some non-bathing a... more While ancient texts provide information on Roman bathing practices, as well as some non-bathing activities which took place in the baths, these sources are often silent on activities and social groups deemed too “common” to merit discussion. My research examines artifact assemblages found in Roman public baths and their drainage systems, and these lost or discarded possessions of bathers can shed significant light on everyday activities in the baths. Cloth-working utensils, including needles, awls, spindle whorls, loom weights, and weaving plates, have been found among artifact assemblages from nearly a dozen Roman public and military baths in Italy, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. While some of these objects come from unstratified or possibly intrusive contexts, other artifacts are from proveniences that can be securely dated to the bath’s period of use, suggesting that cloth-working was among the typical activities which took place in some public baths. The presence of these objects not only illustrates an activity which is absent from ancient texts, but also has implications for our understanding of the social groups, predominately women and the lower classes, that performed this work in the baths.

Small finds are often discovered within construction and demolition layers in Roman Baths, but it... more Small finds are often discovered within construction and demolition layers in Roman Baths, but it is difficult to determine whether these finds originated from the baths – and thus reflect bathers and their activities – or if they were introduced from domestic or industrial contexts as materials in leveling layers. Complicating this problem, archaeologists do not have a clear understanding of what a bath assemblage actually looks like, since small finds from baths are rarely fully, or even partially, published.

This paper attempts to provide a picture of a typical bath assemblage. I begin with the activities and objects which ancient texts locate in the baths. Next I turn to the archaeological record, focusing on 13 Roman baths from Italy, the UK, Portugal, Switzerland, and Germany, whose artifacts were found in contexts, such as drains, which suggest that these objects were actually used in the baths. I highlight the common artifacts which are found in nearly every bath, as well as rare small finds, which are isolated to only a few baths. Some small finds expected from ancient sources rarely appear in the archaeological record, and I provide some potential reasons for the absence of these objects.

While interpreting construction and demolition layers will always be a challenge, knowledge of typical Roman bath assemblages and the types of objects commonly used in the baths will help archaeologists to determine which artifacts plausibly belong to and reflect use of the baths and which objects are likely extraneous.

While ancient texts reveal much about Roman bathers and their activities, the information that th... more While ancient texts reveal much about Roman bathers and their activities, the information that these sources can provide is limited by the Roman authors themselves, for whom the public baths and their social environment were simply part of everyday life and unworthy of detailed discussion. Artifacts found in the drains of Roman baths can shed much light on the bathing process, bathers, and other activities which occurred in the baths. My research analyzes published and unpublished artifact assemblages from the drains of 1st c B.C.E. – 4th c C.E. public and military baths in the UK, Switzerland, Portugal, and Italy, as another way to examine Roman bathing culture.

These objects represent the lost or intentionally discarded possessions of bathers. Some finds provide further evidence for activities already well attested in the baths: animal bones and ceramic and glass vessels attest to eating and drinking in the baths, while phallic amulets could have served as protection from the dangers of the baths. Jewelry found in the drains not only attests to the presence of women in public and military baths, but also the common practice of wearing jewelry and adornment into pools, perhaps as a marker of social status. In other cases, artifacts can provide evidence for activities in the baths which are rarely or never discussed in ancient sources, such as gambling and cloth working, an activity likely performed by lower class individuals and women.

Such an analysis is useful not only in that it can reveal the everyday activities of lesser known social groups in the baths, but also because small finds from drains can begin to allow an examination of whether the same activities occurred in public and military baths, and whether variations in bathing culture existed in different geographic areas of the Roman Empire.

Ancient Roman textual sources present an ambiguous case for the bathing habits of Roman men and w... more Ancient Roman textual sources present an ambiguous case for the bathing habits of Roman men and women, with instances of segregated and mixed gender bathing both attested. My research seeks to use archaeological data to shed light on the gendered nature of the Roman public baths, chiefly depending upon the distribution of personal objects left or lost by the Romans who used these spaces. After a discussion of how these objects have been gendered using grave goods and objects associated with the Vesuvius victims from Pompeii and Herculaneum, I present the results of a re-analysis of one Roman public bath, the Baths of Mirobriga (Portugal), whose layout suggests two separate bathing facilities, perhaps for men and women. My analysis of the distribution of gendered artifacts not only allows for a discussion of the spaces used by men and women in this specific bath, but also presents a method for evaluating the connection between gender and public baths with separate bathing suites. The results of this research can also aid in the interpretation of the gendered nature of other Roman public baths, such as those in Pompeii and Herculaneum, whose artifact distributions are unclear due to early excavations.

Sexuality has increasingly become just another facet of ancient Roman society which can be commod... more Sexuality has increasingly become just another facet of ancient Roman society which can be commodified for tourist and popular consumption. This paper approaches the public consumption of Roman sexuality by examining “erotic” souvenirs sold in Pompeii and Rome. These souvenirs are often reproductions of selectively chosen, decontextualized archaeological artifacts, statues, and wall paintings, which collectively present a hyper-sexual version of Roman sexuality. I will explore the tourist reactions to and consumption of these souvenirs, and how these souvenirs and presentations of sexuality affect overall public perceptions of Roman culture. In addition to affecting popular understandings of ancient Roman society, these souvenirs also affect how some Western tourists view modern Italians and provide a forum for discussions of differing ancient and modern cultural and sexual mores.