Anita Bowles - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Anita Bowles
This study examined effects of speech rate on the training and transfer of foreign language word ... more This study examined effects of speech rate on the training and transfer of foreign language word identification. Speeds of initial training and test speech were varied, allowing for analysis of the relative effects of training difficulty and training specificity on a practical task—learning to map words to orthography in a new language. Participants were trained to identify words in Spanish sentences at one of 3 speech rates and tested at all 3 rates with new and old sentences. During training and testing, participants who learned at the fastest rate were less accurate at word segmentation than those who learned at medium and slow rates. There were no significant differences in segmentation accuracy between participants who trained at slow and medium speeds. Results do not support the difficulty of training principle but do support specificity of training for target words and grammatical structures although not for speech rate.
We explore the nature of forgetting in a corpus of 125,000 students learning Spanish using the Ro... more We explore the nature of forgetting in a corpus of 125,000 students learning Spanish using the Rosetta Stone â foreign-language instruction software across 48 lessons. Students are tested on a lesson after its initial study and are then retested after a variable time lag. We observe forgetting consistent with power function decay at a rate that varies across lessons but not across students. We find that lessons which are better learned initially are forgotten more slowly, a correlation which likely reflects a latent cause such as the quality or difficulty of the lesson. We obtain improved predictive accuracy of the forgetting model by augmenting it with features that encode characteristics of a stu-dent's initial study of the lesson and the activities the student engaged in between the initial and delayed tests. The augmented model can predict 23.9% of the variance in an individual's score on the delayed test. We analyze which features best explain individual performance.
2013 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing, 2013
Currently, connectomes (e.g., functional or structural brain graphs) can be estimated in humans a... more Currently, connectomes (e.g., functional or structural brain graphs) can be estimated in humans at ≈ 1 mm 3 scale using a combination of diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging and structural magnetic resonance imaging scans. This manuscript summarizes a novel, scalable implementation of open-source algorithms to rapidly estimate magnetic resonance connectomes, using both anatomical regions of interest (ROIs) and voxel-size vertices. To assess the reliability of our pipeline, we develop a novel nonparametric non-Euclidean reliability metric. Here we provide an overview of the methods used, demonstrate our implementation, and discuss available user extensions. We conclude with results showing the efficacy and reliability of the pipeline over previous state-of-the-art.
Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challen... more Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challenge for second/foreign language (L2) learners whose native languages do not use pitch in this manner. The present study examined components of an aptitude for mastering L2 lexical tone. Native English speakers with no previous tone language experience completed a Mandarin word learning task, as well as tests of pitch ability, musicality,
L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability. Pitch ability measures improved predictions of learning performance beyond musicality, L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability and also predicted transfer of learning to new talkers. In sum, although certain nontonal measures help predict successful tone learning, the central components of tonal aptitude are pitch-specific perceptual measures.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (vol. 138, iss. 6, pp. 3703–3716), 2015
Studies of lexical tone learning generally focus on monosyllabic contexts, while reports of phone... more Studies of lexical tone learning generally focus on monosyllabic contexts, while reports of phonetic learning benefits associated with input variability are based largely on experienced learners. This study trained inexperienced learners on Mandarin tonal contrasts in order to test two hypotheses regarding the influence of context and variability on tone learning. The first hypothesis was that increased phonetic variability of tones in disyllabic contexts makes initial tone learning more challenging in disyllabic than monosyllabic words. The second hypothesis was that the learnability of a given tone varies across contexts due to differences in tonal variability. Results of a word learning experiment supported both hypotheses: tones were acquired less successfully in disyllables than in monosyllables, and the relative difficulty of disyllables was closely related to contextual tonal variability. These results indicate limited relevance of monosyllable-based data on Mandarin learning for the disyllabic majority of the Mandarin lexicon. Furthermore, in the short term variability can diminish learning; its effects are not necessarily beneficial, but dependent on acquisition stage and other learner characteristics. These findings thus highlight the importance of considering contextual variability and the interaction between variability and type of learner in the design, interpretation, and application of research on phonetic learning.
Language Learning (vol. 66, iss. 4, pp. 774–808), 2016
Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challen... more Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challenge for second/foreign language (L2) learners whose native languages do not use pitch in this manner. The present study examined components of an aptitude for mastering L2 lexical tone. Native English speakers with no previous tone language experience completed a Mandarin word learning task, as well as tests of pitch ability, musicality, L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability. Pitch ability measures improved predictions of learning performance beyond musicality, L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability and also predicted transfer of learning to new talkers. In sum, although certain nontonal measures help predict successful tone learning, the central components of tonal aptitude are pitch-specific perceptual measures.
Despite years of research on vocabulary learning and teaching, relatively little is known about s... more Despite years of research on vocabulary learning and teaching, relatively little is known about strategies for effective mastery of vocabulary in less commonly taught languages. The current study focuses on English native speakers studying Modern Standard Arabic to identify effective ways to present and learn new vocabulary using tasks varying in the degree of lexical context provided and the amount of cognitive effort needed to complete them.
In the task-switching paradigm, the latency switch-cost score—the difference in mean reaction tim... more In the task-switching paradigm, the latency switch-cost score—the difference in mean reaction time between switch and nonswitch trials—is the traditional measure of task-switching ability. However, this score does not reflect accuracy, where switch costs may also emerge. In two experiments that varied in response deadlines (unlimited vs. limited time), we evaluated the measurement properties of two traditional switch-cost scoring methods (the latency switch-cost score and the accuracy switch-cost score) and three alternatives (a rate residual score, a bin score, and an inverse efficiency score). Scores from the rate residual, bin score, and inverse efficiency methods had comparable reliability for latency switch-cost scores without response deadlines but were more reliable than latency switch-cost scores when higher error rates were induced with a response deadline. All three alternative scoring methods appropriately accounted for differences in accuracy switch costs when higher error rates were induced, whereas pure latency switch-cost scores did not. Critically, only the rate residual and bin score methods were more valid indicators of task-switching ability; they demonstrated stronger relationships with performance on an independent measure of executive functioning (the antisaccade analogue task), and they allowed the detection of larger effect sizes when examining within-task congruency effects. All of the three alternative scoring methods provide researchers with a better measure of task-switching ability than do traditional scoring methods, because they each simultaneously account for latency and accuracy costs. Overall, the three alternative scoring methods were all superior to the traditional latency switch-cost scoring method, but the strongest methods were the rate residual and bin score methods.
This review summarizes evidence for the effectiveness of technology use in foreign language (FL) ... more This review summarizes evidence for the effectiveness of technology use in foreign language (FL) learning and teaching, with a focus on empirical studies that compare the use of newer technologies with more traditional methods or materials. The review of over 350 studies (including classroom-based technologies, individual study tools, network-based social computing, and mobile and portable devices) revealed that, in spite of an abundance of publications available on the topic of technology use in FL learning and teaching, evidence of efficacy is limited. However, strong support for the claim that technology made a measurable impact in FL learning came from studies on computer-assisted pronunciation training, in particular, automatic speech recognition (ASR). These studies demonstrated that ASR can facilitate the improvement of pronunciation and can provide feedback effectively. Additional studies provided strong support for the use of chat in FL learning. These studies showed that, with chat, both the amount of learners’ language production and its complexity significantly increased. The literature revealed moderate support for claims that technology enhanced learners’ output and interaction, affect and motivation, feedback, and metalinguistic knowledge.
1 Of course, it should be noted that while aptitude may be a necessary factor in the attainment o... more 1 Of course, it should be noted that while aptitude may be a necessary factor in the attainment of near-native ability, it is not sufficient. Ample opportunity, exposure to input, and self-regulation are examples of other necessary factors. 2 We distinguish among nativelike, near native, and high levels. Adult starters cannot attain full nativelike ability, but some are capable of very high levels of success. 3 Second Language Testing, Inc. has developed a computer-delivered MLAT, but the items are not changed from the original, paper and pencil version.
Metaphor and Symbol, 2002
Comprehension difficulty was rated for metaphors of the form Noun 1 -is-a-Noun 2 ; in addition, p... more Comprehension difficulty was rated for metaphors of the form Noun 1 -is-a-Noun 2 ; in addition, participants completed frames of the form Noun 1 -is-________ with their literal interpretation of the metaphor. Metaphor comprehension was simulated with a computational model based on Latent Semantic Analysis. The model matched participants' interpretations for both easy and difficult metaphors. When interpreting easy metaphors, both the participants and the model generated highly consistent responses. When interpreting difficult metaphors, both the participants and the model generated disparate responses. Key Words metaphor latent semantic analysis predication comprehension metaphor comprehension Metaphor Difficulty 3 Metaphor comprehension:
Journal of Memory and Language, 2003
In three experiments, participants learned either the temporal sequence or the spatial arrangemen... more In three experiments, participants learned either the temporal sequence or the spatial arrangement of a list of 18 words, presented 1 at a time, each in a different location within a vertical array. The words were either ungrouped or grouped into 2 sets of 9, with each set divided into 3 subsets. In Experiment 1, grouping aided the learning of spatial arrangement but not temporal sequence. In Experiment 2, learning was made more difficult for half of the participants by increasing the rate of word presentation, but grouping did not affect the learning of temporal order information in either difficulty condition. In Experiment 3, phonological processing was blocked by articulatory suppression for half of the participants, but grouping still did not affect learning temporal order. It is concluded that participants take advantage of grouping to learn spatial but not temporal information, thereby challenging unitary accounts of learning order information.
Journal of The Acoustical Society of America, 2008
Journal of The Acoustical Society of America, 2008
This study investigated native and non-native speaker tone production in Northern and Southern Vi... more This study investigated native and non-native speaker tone production in Northern and Southern Vietnamese. Data analysis capitalized on normalization techniques for pitch and duration in order to allow direct comparison of individual speakers. The results revealed new insight into the relative starting positions of Northern Vietnamese tones. An analysis of non-native speaker tone errors indicated particular difficulty with low fallingrising tones, as well as difficulty with tone starting positions and changes in voice quality. We elicited all speech data using a dynamic carrier sentence task in which participants produced a series of three-word utterances in response to target words that appeared individually on a computer screen in one of four colors. In this way, participants actively described a changing event, while critical components of the utterance remained constant.
We investigated native speaker perception of adult learner pronunciations of Northern Vietnamese ... more We investigated native speaker perception of adult learner pronunciations of Northern Vietnamese tone contours to examine how listeners prioritize acoustic cues when they expect non-native speech. The non-native contours consisted of two adult learner renditions of the low falling-rising tone with sweeping final rises similar to and . One fell only as low as , whereas the other began lower than , as opposed to falling to a lower midpoint as in native speaker speech. We created two additional non-native renditions by crossing these contours with mid-tone creakiness.
Four experiments examined the roles of attentional capacity and type of instructions on the learn... more Four experiments examined the roles of attentional capacity and type of instructions on the learning of two types of information: artificial grammar structures and rules governing the formation of natural language sentences.
Language and Cognitive Processes, 2008
Syntactic and semantic information are computed online in a manner such that electrophysiological... more Syntactic and semantic information are computed online in a manner such that electrophysiological methods can detect distinct processes within a few hundred milliseconds of a word. The amplitude of the N400 response has been shown to reflect semantic integration of a word in the context of a preceding word, sentence, and discourse. We show, in a combined behavioural and ERP study, that the N400 amplitude to the same word, in nearly identical sentential contexts, is modulated as a function of subtly different morphosyntactic environments that condition either a generic (grass is green) or nongeneric (the grass is green) reading. The results suggest that N400 amplitude reflects not only the existence of a semantic computation but can reflect processes relevant to the type of semantic relation being computed. Specifically, it is sensitive to whether a word is interpreted as characterising a kind/type or an instance of a kind/token of a type.
This study examined effects of speech rate on the training and transfer of foreign language word ... more This study examined effects of speech rate on the training and transfer of foreign language word identification. Speeds of initial training and test speech were varied, allowing for analysis of the relative effects of training difficulty and training specificity on a practical task—learning to map words to orthography in a new language. Participants were trained to identify words in Spanish sentences at one of 3 speech rates and tested at all 3 rates with new and old sentences. During training and testing, participants who learned at the fastest rate were less accurate at word segmentation than those who learned at medium and slow rates. There were no significant differences in segmentation accuracy between participants who trained at slow and medium speeds. Results do not support the difficulty of training principle but do support specificity of training for target words and grammatical structures although not for speech rate.
We explore the nature of forgetting in a corpus of 125,000 students learning Spanish using the Ro... more We explore the nature of forgetting in a corpus of 125,000 students learning Spanish using the Rosetta Stone â foreign-language instruction software across 48 lessons. Students are tested on a lesson after its initial study and are then retested after a variable time lag. We observe forgetting consistent with power function decay at a rate that varies across lessons but not across students. We find that lessons which are better learned initially are forgotten more slowly, a correlation which likely reflects a latent cause such as the quality or difficulty of the lesson. We obtain improved predictive accuracy of the forgetting model by augmenting it with features that encode characteristics of a stu-dent's initial study of the lesson and the activities the student engaged in between the initial and delayed tests. The augmented model can predict 23.9% of the variance in an individual's score on the delayed test. We analyze which features best explain individual performance.
2013 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing, 2013
Currently, connectomes (e.g., functional or structural brain graphs) can be estimated in humans a... more Currently, connectomes (e.g., functional or structural brain graphs) can be estimated in humans at ≈ 1 mm 3 scale using a combination of diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging and structural magnetic resonance imaging scans. This manuscript summarizes a novel, scalable implementation of open-source algorithms to rapidly estimate magnetic resonance connectomes, using both anatomical regions of interest (ROIs) and voxel-size vertices. To assess the reliability of our pipeline, we develop a novel nonparametric non-Euclidean reliability metric. Here we provide an overview of the methods used, demonstrate our implementation, and discuss available user extensions. We conclude with results showing the efficacy and reliability of the pipeline over previous state-of-the-art.
Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challen... more Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challenge for second/foreign language (L2) learners whose native languages do not use pitch in this manner. The present study examined components of an aptitude for mastering L2 lexical tone. Native English speakers with no previous tone language experience completed a Mandarin word learning task, as well as tests of pitch ability, musicality,
L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability. Pitch ability measures improved predictions of learning performance beyond musicality, L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability and also predicted transfer of learning to new talkers. In sum, although certain nontonal measures help predict successful tone learning, the central components of tonal aptitude are pitch-specific perceptual measures.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (vol. 138, iss. 6, pp. 3703–3716), 2015
Studies of lexical tone learning generally focus on monosyllabic contexts, while reports of phone... more Studies of lexical tone learning generally focus on monosyllabic contexts, while reports of phonetic learning benefits associated with input variability are based largely on experienced learners. This study trained inexperienced learners on Mandarin tonal contrasts in order to test two hypotheses regarding the influence of context and variability on tone learning. The first hypothesis was that increased phonetic variability of tones in disyllabic contexts makes initial tone learning more challenging in disyllabic than monosyllabic words. The second hypothesis was that the learnability of a given tone varies across contexts due to differences in tonal variability. Results of a word learning experiment supported both hypotheses: tones were acquired less successfully in disyllables than in monosyllables, and the relative difficulty of disyllables was closely related to contextual tonal variability. These results indicate limited relevance of monosyllable-based data on Mandarin learning for the disyllabic majority of the Mandarin lexicon. Furthermore, in the short term variability can diminish learning; its effects are not necessarily beneficial, but dependent on acquisition stage and other learner characteristics. These findings thus highlight the importance of considering contextual variability and the interaction between variability and type of learner in the design, interpretation, and application of research on phonetic learning.
Language Learning (vol. 66, iss. 4, pp. 774–808), 2016
Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challen... more Tone languages such as Mandarin use voice pitch to signal lexical contrasts, presenting a challenge for second/foreign language (L2) learners whose native languages do not use pitch in this manner. The present study examined components of an aptitude for mastering L2 lexical tone. Native English speakers with no previous tone language experience completed a Mandarin word learning task, as well as tests of pitch ability, musicality, L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability. Pitch ability measures improved predictions of learning performance beyond musicality, L2 aptitude, and general cognitive ability and also predicted transfer of learning to new talkers. In sum, although certain nontonal measures help predict successful tone learning, the central components of tonal aptitude are pitch-specific perceptual measures.
Despite years of research on vocabulary learning and teaching, relatively little is known about s... more Despite years of research on vocabulary learning and teaching, relatively little is known about strategies for effective mastery of vocabulary in less commonly taught languages. The current study focuses on English native speakers studying Modern Standard Arabic to identify effective ways to present and learn new vocabulary using tasks varying in the degree of lexical context provided and the amount of cognitive effort needed to complete them.
In the task-switching paradigm, the latency switch-cost score—the difference in mean reaction tim... more In the task-switching paradigm, the latency switch-cost score—the difference in mean reaction time between switch and nonswitch trials—is the traditional measure of task-switching ability. However, this score does not reflect accuracy, where switch costs may also emerge. In two experiments that varied in response deadlines (unlimited vs. limited time), we evaluated the measurement properties of two traditional switch-cost scoring methods (the latency switch-cost score and the accuracy switch-cost score) and three alternatives (a rate residual score, a bin score, and an inverse efficiency score). Scores from the rate residual, bin score, and inverse efficiency methods had comparable reliability for latency switch-cost scores without response deadlines but were more reliable than latency switch-cost scores when higher error rates were induced with a response deadline. All three alternative scoring methods appropriately accounted for differences in accuracy switch costs when higher error rates were induced, whereas pure latency switch-cost scores did not. Critically, only the rate residual and bin score methods were more valid indicators of task-switching ability; they demonstrated stronger relationships with performance on an independent measure of executive functioning (the antisaccade analogue task), and they allowed the detection of larger effect sizes when examining within-task congruency effects. All of the three alternative scoring methods provide researchers with a better measure of task-switching ability than do traditional scoring methods, because they each simultaneously account for latency and accuracy costs. Overall, the three alternative scoring methods were all superior to the traditional latency switch-cost scoring method, but the strongest methods were the rate residual and bin score methods.
This review summarizes evidence for the effectiveness of technology use in foreign language (FL) ... more This review summarizes evidence for the effectiveness of technology use in foreign language (FL) learning and teaching, with a focus on empirical studies that compare the use of newer technologies with more traditional methods or materials. The review of over 350 studies (including classroom-based technologies, individual study tools, network-based social computing, and mobile and portable devices) revealed that, in spite of an abundance of publications available on the topic of technology use in FL learning and teaching, evidence of efficacy is limited. However, strong support for the claim that technology made a measurable impact in FL learning came from studies on computer-assisted pronunciation training, in particular, automatic speech recognition (ASR). These studies demonstrated that ASR can facilitate the improvement of pronunciation and can provide feedback effectively. Additional studies provided strong support for the use of chat in FL learning. These studies showed that, with chat, both the amount of learners’ language production and its complexity significantly increased. The literature revealed moderate support for claims that technology enhanced learners’ output and interaction, affect and motivation, feedback, and metalinguistic knowledge.
1 Of course, it should be noted that while aptitude may be a necessary factor in the attainment o... more 1 Of course, it should be noted that while aptitude may be a necessary factor in the attainment of near-native ability, it is not sufficient. Ample opportunity, exposure to input, and self-regulation are examples of other necessary factors. 2 We distinguish among nativelike, near native, and high levels. Adult starters cannot attain full nativelike ability, but some are capable of very high levels of success. 3 Second Language Testing, Inc. has developed a computer-delivered MLAT, but the items are not changed from the original, paper and pencil version.
Metaphor and Symbol, 2002
Comprehension difficulty was rated for metaphors of the form Noun 1 -is-a-Noun 2 ; in addition, p... more Comprehension difficulty was rated for metaphors of the form Noun 1 -is-a-Noun 2 ; in addition, participants completed frames of the form Noun 1 -is-________ with their literal interpretation of the metaphor. Metaphor comprehension was simulated with a computational model based on Latent Semantic Analysis. The model matched participants' interpretations for both easy and difficult metaphors. When interpreting easy metaphors, both the participants and the model generated highly consistent responses. When interpreting difficult metaphors, both the participants and the model generated disparate responses. Key Words metaphor latent semantic analysis predication comprehension metaphor comprehension Metaphor Difficulty 3 Metaphor comprehension:
Journal of Memory and Language, 2003
In three experiments, participants learned either the temporal sequence or the spatial arrangemen... more In three experiments, participants learned either the temporal sequence or the spatial arrangement of a list of 18 words, presented 1 at a time, each in a different location within a vertical array. The words were either ungrouped or grouped into 2 sets of 9, with each set divided into 3 subsets. In Experiment 1, grouping aided the learning of spatial arrangement but not temporal sequence. In Experiment 2, learning was made more difficult for half of the participants by increasing the rate of word presentation, but grouping did not affect the learning of temporal order information in either difficulty condition. In Experiment 3, phonological processing was blocked by articulatory suppression for half of the participants, but grouping still did not affect learning temporal order. It is concluded that participants take advantage of grouping to learn spatial but not temporal information, thereby challenging unitary accounts of learning order information.
Journal of The Acoustical Society of America, 2008
Journal of The Acoustical Society of America, 2008
This study investigated native and non-native speaker tone production in Northern and Southern Vi... more This study investigated native and non-native speaker tone production in Northern and Southern Vietnamese. Data analysis capitalized on normalization techniques for pitch and duration in order to allow direct comparison of individual speakers. The results revealed new insight into the relative starting positions of Northern Vietnamese tones. An analysis of non-native speaker tone errors indicated particular difficulty with low fallingrising tones, as well as difficulty with tone starting positions and changes in voice quality. We elicited all speech data using a dynamic carrier sentence task in which participants produced a series of three-word utterances in response to target words that appeared individually on a computer screen in one of four colors. In this way, participants actively described a changing event, while critical components of the utterance remained constant.
We investigated native speaker perception of adult learner pronunciations of Northern Vietnamese ... more We investigated native speaker perception of adult learner pronunciations of Northern Vietnamese tone contours to examine how listeners prioritize acoustic cues when they expect non-native speech. The non-native contours consisted of two adult learner renditions of the low falling-rising tone with sweeping final rises similar to and . One fell only as low as , whereas the other began lower than , as opposed to falling to a lower midpoint as in native speaker speech. We created two additional non-native renditions by crossing these contours with mid-tone creakiness.
Four experiments examined the roles of attentional capacity and type of instructions on the learn... more Four experiments examined the roles of attentional capacity and type of instructions on the learning of two types of information: artificial grammar structures and rules governing the formation of natural language sentences.
Language and Cognitive Processes, 2008
Syntactic and semantic information are computed online in a manner such that electrophysiological... more Syntactic and semantic information are computed online in a manner such that electrophysiological methods can detect distinct processes within a few hundred milliseconds of a word. The amplitude of the N400 response has been shown to reflect semantic integration of a word in the context of a preceding word, sentence, and discourse. We show, in a combined behavioural and ERP study, that the N400 amplitude to the same word, in nearly identical sentential contexts, is modulated as a function of subtly different morphosyntactic environments that condition either a generic (grass is green) or nongeneric (the grass is green) reading. The results suggest that N400 amplitude reflects not only the existence of a semantic computation but can reflect processes relevant to the type of semantic relation being computed. Specifically, it is sensitive to whether a word is interpreted as characterising a kind/type or an instance of a kind/token of a type.